THE STUDEXT'S MAXUAL 

OF 

ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, 



BASED UPOX THE DICTIONARY OF GREEK AXD ROMAS GEOGRArHY. 



By WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D., 

Classical Examiner in the Universin- of London, Editor of the Classical and Latin Dictionaries. 




WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 




LONDON : 
JOHN MURE AY, ALBEMAELE STEEl 
WALTON AND MABEELY, UPPER GOWEE STREET, 

AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. 

1861. 



The rinht of Translation is irarrvpiL 



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LONDON; PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, 
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P E E F A C E. 



The following work is based upon tlie ' Dictionary of 
Greek and Eoman Geography,' and has Ibeen drawn up by 
the Eev. W. L. Bevan, M.A., Vicar of Hay, Brecknock- 
shire, under the direction and superintendence of Dr. 
William Sraith. The original work contains a great mass 
of information derived from the researches of modern 
travellers and scholars, which have not yet been made 
available for the purposes of instruction in our colleges and 
schools. It has therefore been thought that a Manual, 
giving, in a systematic form and in a moderate compass, 
• important results embodied in the Dictionary 
vvouid I :"Ove an acceptable addition to our school and 

allege I terature. 

Tt wo dd, however, be doing injustice to Mr. Bevan's 
labours to represent them as only systematizing the larger 
work. Besides adapting it for a different class of readers, 
he has likewise made many valuable additions, of which the 
most important are : — 

1. A history of Geography in Antiquity, containing an 
account of the views of the Hebrews, as well as of the 
Greeks and Romans, and tracing the progress of the. science 
from the mythical accounts of the poets through the pro- 
gressive systems of Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Strabo, 
Ptolemy, and intermediate writers. This portion of the 

work is illustrated by maps of the world as known to the 

A^X. GEOG. 6 



vi 



PEEFACE. 



poets, historians, and geographers. It concludes with a 
chapter upon the Mathematical and Physical Geography of 
the Ancients. 

2. As full an account of Scriptural Geography as was 
consistent with the limits of the work. Xot only is con- 
siderable space devoted to Palestine and the adjacent 
countries, but information is given upon all other Scrip- 
tural subjects, such as the Travels of St. Paul, which can 
be illustrated by a knowledge of geography. In this part 
of the work important assistance has been derived from the 
recently published ' Dictionary of the Bible.' 

3. , Kumerous quotations from the Greek and Eoman 
poets, which either illustrate or are illustrated by the 
statements in the text. 

These are the principal additions made to the original 
work. In aiTanging the materials in a systematic form, 
great pains have been taken to make the book as interesting 
as the nature of the subject would allow. The tedium 
naturally produced by an enumeration of political boun- 
daries and topographical notices is relieved by historical 
and ethnographical discussions, while the numerous maps, 
plans, and other illustrations, give life and reality to the 
descriptions. The Eetreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks, 
the Expedition of Alexander the Great, and similar 
subjects, are discussed and explained. It has been an 
especial object to supply information on all points required 
by the upper classes in the public schools, and by students 
in the universities. 

As regards the arrangement of the mateiials, the plan 
adopted has been to descend by a series of gradations from 
the general to the particular description of each country, 
commencing with the boundaries, character, climate, and 
productions ; proceeding next to the physical features, such 



PEEFACE. 



vii 



as mountains and rivers ; tlien describing the inhabitants, 
political divisions, and principal towns ; and concluding 
with a brief notice of the less important places, of the 
roads, and of the political history. This arrangement, 
which has been uniformly followed, will enable a student 
to arrive at both the kind and the amount of information 
he may require. Should he wish to study the physical 
features alone, he will find them brought together as a 
separate branch of the subject : should he, on the othei- 
hand, desire topographical particulars, he will know at 
once where to turn for them, both by the order obseiwed 
in the treatment of the subject, and by the alteration in 
the t}^e. 

Lastly, the Editor desires to express his obligations to 
Mr. Bevan for the unwearied pains he has taken with his 
portion of the work, and to acknowledge that whatever 
merit it possesses is due rather to Mr. Bevan than to him- 
self. A Manual of Modern Geography on a similar plan is 
in course of preparation. 



Fehruanj, 18G1. 



WILLIAM SMITH. 




Column of 



Column of Antoninus. 




Surrentum. 



CONTENTS. 



BOOK I. 

HISTORY OF AXCIEXT GEOGRAPHY. 



Chap. Page 
I. The World as kxowx to the Hebrews 1 

II. The World as kxowx to the Greek Poets 15 

III. The AVorld as kxowx to the Greek Histortaxs .. .. 23 

IV. The World as kxowx to the GeoctRaphePcS .. .. .. 42 



V. Mathematical and Physical Geography of the Axcients 59 



BOOK II. 
A S I A. 

VI. The Coxtixext oe Asia , 67 

VII. xVsiA MixoR. — Mysia, Lydia 83 

VIII. Asia Mixor, continued. — Caria, Lycia, Paaii'HYLia, Cilicia 114 
IX.. Asia I\Iixor, continued. — Cappadocia, Lycaoxi'a axd Isau- 

RiA, PisiDiA, Phrygia, Galatia, Bithyxia, Faphla- 

GOXIA, POXTUS 140 

X. Syria— Phcexicia — Arabia 161 

XI. Palestixe 176 

XII. ^Mesopotamia, Babyloxia, Assyria, Armexia, (ice 207 

XIII. The Proyixces of the Persian Empire 232 



X 



CONTEXTS. 



B K I I I. 
AFRICA. 

Chap. ■ Page 
XIV. AFRICA 253 

XV. Egypt. — .Ethiopia 261 

XVI. ^Iarmapjca, Cyeexaica, Syrtica, Africa Propria, Xumi- 

DO, Mauretania, Libya Interior 289 



BOOK IV. 
EUROPE. 

XVII. Europe 313 

XVIII. Thracia axd Macedonia 324 

XIX. Northern Greece. — Thessaly and Epirus 348 

^ XX. Central Greece. — Acarnania, JGtolia, Western Locris, 

Doris, Phocis, Eastern Locris, Bceotia 375 

XXI. Central Greece, continued. — Attica, Megaris . . . . 4r»5 

XXII. Peloponnesus: Corinthia, Achaia, Elis, Messenia .. 431 

XXIII. Peloponnesus, continued. — Laconia, Argolis, Arcadia . . 453 

XXIV. Italy. — Venetia, Istria, Gallia Cisalpina, LiGmi a .. 483 

XXV. Italy, continued. — Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, Sabini, 

;Marsi, Vestini, Marrucini, Peligni, Samnium . . . . 504 

XXVI. Italy, continued. — Latium 529 

XXVII. Italy, continued. — Campania, Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, 

THE Bruttii 562 

XX VIII. Sicily, Sardinia, Cop^sica, and the adjacent Islands 589 

XXIX. HisPANiA 609 

XXX. Gallia 627 

XXXI. Britannic.e Insul.e — Germania 647 

XXXIT. The Dancbian Provinces, Illyricoi, Mcesia, Dacia, and 

S ARM AT I A 667 



Ferentinum. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



p]pliesus restored 
Europa 



FliONTI&PIECE 

Title Page 



Columns of Trajan and Antoninus , . . 

Surrentum 

Ferentinum 

Coin of Comana . . 

Acropolis of Athens restored 

Mount Ararat 

Map of the Distribution of the Human 
Race, according to the 10th Chapter 
of Genesis 

Map to illustrate the Capitals of Baby- 
lonia and Assyria 

Map of the AVorld, according to Homer 

Map of the AVorld, according to Heca- 
tfeus 

Map of the World, according to Hero- 
dotus 

Map of the Chersonesus Trachea, accord- 
ing to Herodotus 

Map of the World, according to Erato- 
sthenes 

Map of the AVorld, according to Strabo 

Map of the World, according to Pto- 
lemy 5 

Temple of the Winds 

The Mesopotamian Plaui 

Sketch Map of the iVIountain Ranges, 
Plateaus, and Plains of Asia, as known 
to the Ancients 

Harbour of Alexandria Troas 

Site of Abydos, from the West . . . . 

Coin of Cyzicus 



Page 
viii 



xni 
xiv 
1 



13 
15 

23 

30 

41 

, 47 
50 

6, 57 
59 
67 



73 
83 
90 
95 



Page 

Chart of the Country about Troy. ... 97 

Coin of Lampsacus 100 

Coins of Mitylene and Tenedos . . , . 102 

Ruins of Sardis 103 

Site of Ephesus 107 

Coin of Clazomense 108 

Coin of Ephesus 109 

Coin of Smj-rna 110 

Coin of Chios 112 

Coin of Samos 113 

Ruins of Miletus 114 

Coin of Miletus 118 

Chart of the Coast about Miletus. . . . ib. 
Plan of Cnidus, and Chart of the adjoin- 
ing Coast 120 

Coin of Cnidus ih. 

Coin of Cos 123 

Coin of Rhodes 1 24 

Rock-cut Lycian Tomb 126 

Coin of Phaselis 129 

Ionic Lycian Tomb ib. 

Chan of the Amanides Pylaj . . . . 133 
Coins of Celenderis and Tarsus . . . . 135 
Copper Coin of Cj^prus under the Em- 
peror Claudius 139 

Mount Argteus, Cappadocia 140 

Hierapolis in Phrygia .. 146 

Azani 149 

Gate of NiCcPa 154 

Libanus. or Lebanon iGl 

Ruins of Palmyra 164 



xii 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOXS. 



Page 



Damascus 166 

Mount Hor 175 

Jenisalem 176 

Diagram, exhibiting the elevation of 
Jerusalem and the ^lountains of 
Moab, and the depression of the Dead 

Sea, in relation to the sea-level . . 179 

Jericho 184 

Jemsalem, from the South 189 

Plan of Jerusalem 191 

Csesarea 193 

Sea of Galilee 195 

Eabbath-Ammon (Philadelphia) . . 199 

Gadara 200 

Bozrah (Bostra) 2u3 

Ptoman Remains in the South W&U of 

Haram at Jerasalem 206 

Temple of Birs-Nimnid at Borsippa , . 207 

View of Babil from the West . . . . 210 

Plan of the Ruins of Babylon . . . . 212 
View of the Kasr, or ancient Palace of 

Nebuchadnezzar 214 

Portions of Ancient Babylon distin- 
guishable in the present Ruins . . 215 

IMound of Ximroud 216 

Vaulted Drain beneath the Palace at 

Nimroud 218 

Subterranean Excavations at Koayunjik 219 

The Town and Rock of Wan . . . . 222 

Map of the Route of the Ten Thousand 226 

The Caucasus 22s 

Pass of the Caucasus 231 

Persepolis 232 

Tomb of Cyrus at Murghdb, the ancient 

Pasargads 234 

Mound of Susa 235 

Ruins of Snsa 236 | 

Tomb of Darius 237 ■ 

Plan of tcbarana 239 

Mons Bagistanus, Rock of Behistun . . 240 

Sculptures on Rock of Behistun . . . . ih. 

March of AI'?xander " 247 

The Xile during the Inundation, with 

the two Colossi of Thebes 253 

The Little Oa<is 25S 

Memphis 261 

Pavilion of Rameses 111. at Thebes . . 275 
The Memnonium at Thebes during the 

Inundation 279 

The Ruins and Vicinity of Philse. . . . 283 

Ruins of Cyrene 2s9 

Ruins of Ptolemais, the port of Barca 292 

Coins of Cyrene and Barca 293 

Coin of Leptis 297 

Map of the Site of Carthage , . . . 300 

Coin of Carthage . . . 302 

Europa 313 

Mount Athos 324 

Map of Constantinople 329 

Coin of Abdera ib. 

Coins of .Enus and Cardia 330 

Coin of Byzantium 331 

Coin of Jmbros 334 

Coin of Thasos 335 

Philippi 336 

Coin of Macedonia ^ . . . . 340 

Amphipolis 342 

Coin of Philippi 343 



Plan of the Neighbourhood of Amphipolis ib. 



l^age 



Coins of Amphipolis and Thessalonica 344 

Coin of Acanthus 345 

Mounts Olympus and Cssa 34S 

Sketch Map of Greece, showing the di- 
rection of the Mountain Ranges . . 350 
Map of Thermopylae and the surround- 
ing Country 358 

Coin of Thessalia 362 

Coin of Larissa 363 

Coin of Pharsalus 364 

Coin of Epirus 369 

Plan of Actium 37 1 

Coin of Corcyra 374 

Delphi, from the West ib. 

Mount Parnassus and the Hill above 

Delphi 375 

Coin of Acamania 376 

Mouth of the Achelous ib. 

Coin of Argos Amj^hilochicum . , . . 377 

Coins of Anactorium and G^niadfe . . 378 

CoinofAlyzia 379 

Coin of Leucas 380 

Coin of Zacynthus 381 

Cohi of JEtolia 385 

]\rap of Delphi 389 

]\[outh of the Corycian Cave 390 

Interior of the Covycian Cave . . . . 391 

Coin of the Locri Opuntii 395 

Coin of Orchomenus 400 

Plan of Orchomenus ib. 

Coin of Thebes 401 

Coins of Thespije and Tanagra . . . . 402 

The Parthenon in its present state . , 405 

Plan of Athens 409 

Athens and its Port- towns 410 

Plan of the Acropolis 412 

The Propylipa restored 413 

Coin of Athens 417 

Com of 32gina 421 

Coin of Eirbcea 422 

Coin of Chal'Js in Euboea 423 

Coins of Ere iria and Carj'stus .. .. 424 

Coins of Cyihnos, Siphnos, and Paros . . 426 

Coins of Naxos and Delos 427 

of Minoa, Xistea, and Megara . . 429 

Corinth 431 

Plan of Corinth 434 

Fountain of Peirene at Corinth .. .. ib. 

Coin of Corinth 435 

Roman Coin of Corinth ib. 

Site of Sicyon 437 

Coin of Sicyon 438 

Map of the Neighbourhood of Phlius . . 438 

Coin of Elis 445 

Plain of Olympia 446 

Map of the Bay of Pylus 451 

Coin of Messenia . . . . ■. . . . 452 

Gate of the Lions at Mycente . . . . 453 

Sparta and its Environs 457 

Plain of Argos 462 

Plan of Argos 464 

Coin of Argos ib. 

Plan of the Ruins of Mycente . . . . 466 

Gallery at Tiryns . . ' ib. 

Ruins of a Pyramid in the Argeia . . 468 

Coin of Tegea 7 . . . . 474 

Coin of Pheneus 477 

Coin of Cydonia 480 

Coins of Gortyna and Cnossus . . . . 4S1 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOXS. 



Xlll 



Page 



Coin of Lyctus 4«2 

Personification of the River 'I'il ^er . , 483 

View in ihe Xeiglibourliood of Xeii . . 504 

Coin of Populonium 511 

Coin of Ancona belonging to the Greek 

colony 517 

Coin of Adria 518 

Coins of .Esernia and Beneventum . . 526 

Bene ven turn 528 

Alban Hills and Remains of Roman 

Aqueduct 529 

Plan of the City of Romulus 535 

]Map of Rome, showing the Servian 

Walls and the Seven Hills . . . . 536 

Temple of Jtipiter Capitolinus restored 537 

Plan of the Forum dtiring the RepubMe 53^ 

Puteal Libonis or Scribonianiim . . . , 5:i0 

Temple of Vesta. (From a Coin.) . . 54u 

Arch of Septimius Severus . . - . . . ih. 

Temple of Trajan 541 

Arch of Titns restored 542 

Arch of Cons tan tine . . ih. 

Temples of Hercules and Pudicitia 

Patricia 544 

Tomb of Ctecilia Metella 545 

Colossetmi 546 

Pantheon of AgTippa 548 

Mole of Htidrian restored 550 

Insula Tiberina, with the Pons Fabricius 

and Pons Cestius 551 

Plan of Ostia 552 

Tivoli, the ancient Tibur 555 

Gateway of Signia 558 

Ruins of Capua 562 

Coin of Cuma? 566 

Coin of Xeapolis 567 

Temple of Venus at Pompeii .. .. 56^ 

Street of the Tombs at Pompeii , , . . ih. 

Coin of Teanum Sidicinum 569 

Coins of Capua and Xola .. .. ... 570 

Plain of CannfE 573 

CoinofVenusia 575 



Page 



Brundusium 577 

Plan of Brundusium 57y 

Coins of INIetapontum and Heraclea . . 5al 

Coin of Thurii 582 

Plan of Palatum 583 

Coin of the Bruttii 584 

Coin of Croton 585 

Coin of Caulouia 586 

Cuiu of Rhegium * 587 

Plan of Cannae 588 

Xuraghe in Sardinia 589 

Coins of Messana and Xaxos 594 

Coin of Leoniini 595 

Map of Syracu-e . . . . 597 

Coin of Syracuse 593 

Coin of Agrigentum 599 

Coin of PanoiTQUs . . 601 

Coin of Him era .. .. 602 

Coin of Enna 603 

Coin of Melita 606 

Remains of the Great Theatre, Sagun- 

tum, Spain 6 "^9 

Coin of Valentia in Spain 620 

Coin? of Ilerda and Osca 622 

Temple at Xemausus, now called the 

JIaiyou Carree 627 

Sketch I\Iap of the physical features of 

Gallia and the political divisions iii 

Cffisar's time 628 

Aqueduct of Xemausus, now called the 

I'o-nf du Gard 635 

The Passes of the Alps, to illustrate 

Hannibal's Route 638 

r\IaD showing the position of Caesar's 

Murns_ 642 

Cuin of >\emausus 646 

Remains uf Roman Wall 647 

The Court-yLird of Diocletian's Palace 

at Salona" 667 

Coin of Panticapa^um 6-:^3 

Arch at Vulaterrte . . .. 634 




Coin of Comana in Pontus. 



AXC. GEOG. 



ANCIENT 




Blount Ararat. 



BOOK I. 

HISTOEY OF AXCIEXT GEOGEAPHY. 

CHAPTEE 1. 

THE WORLD AS KXOWX TO THE HEBREWS. 

§ 1. Original abode of man ; rivers of Eden. § 2. Ante-diluvian era, 
§ 3. Ararat ; Armenia. § 4. Shinar. § 5. Tripartite division of the 
human race. § 6. Limits of the world as knowQ to the Hebrews. 
§ 7. Egypt. § 8. Ethiopia. § 9. Arabia. § 10. Syria. § 11. 
Phoenicia. § 12. Mesopotamia. § 13. Babylonia and Assyria. 
§ 14. Geographical ideas of the Hebrews. § 15. Biblical nomen- 
clature. 

§ 1. The Bible contains the earliest geographical notices, com- 
mencing with the description of the original abode of man and 
carrying ns tlirongh a period long anterior to. the rise of classical 
literature. The primaeval abode of the human race was situated on 

AXC. GEOCt. e 



2 THE AYOELD AS KXOWX TO THE HEBEEWS. Book I. 



one of the plateaus of Western Asia, but its precise position cannot 
"be fixed. The " garden of Eden " in which the first man dwelt, is 
described (Gen. ii. 10-14) as having been situated in some central 
and lofty district, whence four rivers issued in various directions, 
viz. the Pison, Gihon, Hiddekel, and Euphrates. With regard to 
the two latter rivers, there can be no doubt that they are identical 
with the Tigris and Euphrates ; with regard to the two former a 
great variety of opinion exists. 

Rivers of Eden. — Many ancient writers, as Josephus, identified the 
Pison with the Ganges, and the Gihon with the Nile. Others, guided 
by the position of the two kno^vn rivers, identify the two unknown ones 
with the Phasis and Araxes, which also have their sources in the high- 
lands of Armenia. Others, again, have transferred the site to the 
sources of the Oxus and Jaxai-tes, and place it in Bactria; others, 
again, in the valley of Cashmere. Such speculations may be multiplied 
ad mfinitum, and have sometimes assumed the wildest character. 

§ 2. So long as the position of Eden remains undecided, so long 
will it be futile to attempt any settlement of the other questions of 
ante-diluvian geography. The human race appears to have been 
divided into two great branches — the Cainites and Sethites — each 
having their distinct abodes and characteristics. The Cainites went 
eastward (Gen. iv. 16) from Eden, and settled in the land of Xod 
( = " exile"), which has been identified variously with Susiana, 
Arabia, Parthia, Tartary, and India ; their first capital was Enoch, 
of equally uncertain position. The Sethites, we may infer, went 
Avestward, descending to the districts with which the Hebrews were 
afterwards best acquainted. The Cainites were agriculturists ; the 
Sethites adopted the pastoral life. To the former are attributed the 
establishment of towns, and the discovery of various useful and 
ornamental arts ; the latter, we may assume, retained their habits of 
primitive simplicity with the tenacity wiiich, even to the present day, 
characterises the pastoral nations of the Eastern w^orld. 

§ 3. AVith the subsidence of the deluge we enter upon a new era 
in geography : the names of well-known localities appear in history. 
The ark rested upon the mountains of Ararat" (Gen. viii. 4), 
meaning the mountains of Armenia, for Ararat in Biblical geo- 
graphy (2 K. xix. 37 ; Jer. li. 27) is not the name of a mountain, 
but of a district — the central region, to wiiich the name of Araratia 
is assigned by the native geographer Moses of Chorene. This being 
the case, we are not called upon to decide a point which the sacred 
writer himself leaves undecided, namely, the particular mountain on 
w^hich the ark rested. 

Mount Ararat. — In a matter of such deep interest as the narrative of 
the Deluge, we cannot be sui-prised that attempts should have been 
made to fix on the precise spot among "the mountains of Ararat" 
where the ark rested, and Noah stepped forth on the regenerated world. 



I. 



MOUNT AEAEAT, 



3 



Nicolaus of Damascus assigned a mountain named Baris, beyond the 
district of Minyas (the Minni of Scripture^, as the scene of that event. 
Berosus, who lived at Babylon, fixed on the lofty ridge of the Car- 
duchian or Kurdish range, which, overlooks the plain of Mesopotamia in 
the neighbourhood of the TigTis : his opinion was followed by a larcre por- 
tion of the eastern world, so much so that in several ancient versions 
the name ^^Kardu" is substituted for Ararat, while the Koran gives 
the modern name Al-Judi," The belief that the remains of the ark 
exist amid the lofty summits of that range is still cherished by the 
inhabitants of the surrounding district. Josephus, who notices these 
opinions {Ant. i. 3, § 6), further informs us, that the Armenians had 
fixed on the spot where Xoah descended from the ark, and had given 
it a name which he translates Apobateruim, i.e. '^landing-place:" he 
is supposed to refer to the place now called Xackchivan, which bears a 
similar meaning, in the valley of the Araxes. Xothing would be more 
natural than that the scene of the event should in due course of time 
be transferred to the loftiest of the mountains of Armenia, and that 
the name of Ararat should be specially affixed to that one : accordingly 
all the associations connected with the ark now centre in the magnifi- 
cent mountain which the native Armenians name Alacis, and the Turks 
Aghri-Tdgh. This is the culminating point of the central range of 
Armenia, the Ahus of the ancients. It rises majestically out of the 
valley of the Araxes to an elevation of 17,260 feet above the level of 
the sea, and about 14,350 above the valley, and terminates in a double 
conical peak, the lower or Lesser Ararat being abouL 400 feet below 
the other. The mountain is very steep, as implied in the Turkish 
name, and the summit is covered with eternal snow. Until recently it 
was believed to be inaccessible, but the* summit was gained by Parrot 
in 1 829, and the ascent has been effected since his time. A terrible 
earthquake occurred in the year 1840, which shattered the northern 
side of the mountain and carried vast masses of rock into the valley, 
doing immense damage. 

It is important to observe how admirably Armenia is adapted by 
its geographical position to be the central spot whence the streams of 
population should pour forth on all sides of the world. The plateau 
of Armenia is the most elevated region of AYestern Asia, some of the 
plains standing at an elevation of 7000 feet above the level of the 
sea. It is equidistant from the Caspian and Euxine seas in the 
X., and from the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf in the S. 
Around those seas the earliest settlements of civilised man were 
made, and they became the high roads of commerce and colonization. 
Armenia had communication with them by means of the rivers which 
rise in its central district, the Euphrates opening the path to Syria 
and the Mediterranean in one direction, as well as to the Persian 
Gulf in the other ; the Tigris leading down to Assyria and Susiana ; 
the Araxes and Cyrus descending to the Caspian, the latter also 
furnishing ready access to the Euxine by the commercial route 
which connected its valley with that of the Phasis. Westward the 
plateau of Armenia merges into that of Asia Minor, and eastward it 
is connected wuth the large plateau of Iran, the ancient Persis. If 

B 2 



4 THE WOELD AS KNOWN TO THE HEBEEWS. Book I. 



Ave add to these considerations, that in all directions the contrasts of 
climate, soil, and natural productions, were such as to invite emigra- 
tion, we shall see how fitly the scene of the first dispersion of the 
hum.an race is assigned to Armenia. 

§ 4. The earliest settlements of any importance in the ancient 
world were in ''the plain of Shinar" (Gen. xi. 2), the later Chal- 
dsea, about the lower course of the Euphrates, and the shores of the 
Persian Gulf. In connexion with these settlements the Biblical 
narrative transports us back to a time when " the whole earth was 
of one language and of one speech " (Gen. xi. 1), and assigns to that 
region the development of those distinctive features of race and 
language which are embodied in the tripartite division of Xoah's 
descendants, Shemites, Hamites, and Japhetites. 

§ 5. The earliest and indeed the only systematic statement that 
we possess as to the distribution of these three great divisions over 
the face of the earth is contained in the 10th chapter of Genesis. 
That statement assumes the form of a genealogy : but a large 
admixture of geographical information is contained in it, the inten- 
tion of the writer being to specify not only the nations, but the 
localities wherein they lived, and thus to present to his readers a 
map of the world as it existed in his time. Some of the names are 
purely geographical designations : Aram, for instance, means "high 
lands;" Canaan, "low lands;" Eber, the land "across" the river 
Euphrates ; Sidon, " fishing station ;" Madai, " central land ;" Miz- 
raim, in the dual number, the "two Egypts ;" Ophir, "rich" land. 
Indeed it is not improbable that the three great divisions of the 
human race had originally a geographical meaning : Japheth, the 
"widely extended" region of the north; Ham, the "black" soil of 
Egypt; and Shem, the "mountainous" country. 

The Mosaic world. — The world appears to have been divided into 
three zones, northern, central, and southern, which were occupied 
respectively by the descendants of Japheth, Shem, and Ham. The 
names of the nations may be in most cases identified A\ith the classical 
names either of races or places. 

(1.) The Japhetites — Javan, Tomans, in Greece and Asia Minor; 
Elishah, j^oUans, in the same countries; Dodanim, Dardoni, in Illy- 
ricum and Troy; Tiras in Thrace; Eiphath, Rhipm Mantes, more to 
the north ; Kittim, Citium, in Cyprus ; Ashkenaz, near the Axinns, 
or Euxinus Pontus, in Phrygia; Gomer, Clmmerii, in Cappadocia and in 
the Crimea ; Tarshish, Tarsus (?), in Cilicia, but at a later age undoubt- 
edly Tartessvs in Spain; Tubal, Tihareni, in Pontus; Meshech, Moschi, 
in Colchis; Magog, Gogareae, in northern Armenia, the Biblical name 
for the Scythians; Togarmah, in Araienia: and Madai in Media. 

(2.) The Shemites — Elam, Ebpndis, in Susiana; Asshur, in Assyria; 
Arphaxad, Arrap)achitis, in northern Assyria; Lud, Lj/dia ; Aram, in 
Syria and Mesopotamia ; the descendants of Joktan, in Arabia. 

(3.) The Flamites — Cush, an appellation for the dark races, like the 
Greek Mtldopia; Mizraim in Egypt; Phut in Libya; Xaphtiihim and 



Chap. 1. 



THE MOSAIC AYORLD. 



5 



Lehabim on the coast of the MediteiTanean, west of Egypt; Caphturim 
in Crete; Casluhim from the Xile to the border of Palestme; Pathru- 
sim in the Thebak; Seba in Meroe; Sabtah on the western coast of 
Bab-el-]^Landeb ; Havilah still more to the south; Sabtechah in the 
Somanii country; the various tribes of the Canaanites in Palestine and 
Phoenicia; Ximrod in Babylonia; Raamali and Dedan, on the south- 
western coast of the Persian Gulf. 




Map of the Distribution of tlie Human Race, according to the ICth chapter of Genesis. 



§ 6. The limits of the known world in the Mosaic age may be 
fixed at the following points : in the X. the Eiixine Sea ; in the S. 
the Indian Ocean, and Ethiopia ; in the E. the range of Zagrus, 
which bounds the Mesopotaniian plain ; and in the AV. the IJbyan 



6 



THE WOELD AS KXOWX TO THE HEBEEWS. Book I. 



Desert and .EgcTan Sea. The knowledge of the Hebrews did not 
extend mnch beyond these limits at any period of the Old Testa- 
ment history ; even within those limits, some districts, as Asia 
Minor, were wholly unknown ; while others, as Armenia and Assyria, 
w^ere Imt partly known. The only countries with which the He- 
brews had intimate acquaintance were those immediately adjacent 
to them — Egypt, and (in connexion with Egypt) Ethiopia, the 
northern part of Arabia, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, 
and Babylonia. 

.§ 7. Ee'}-pt was the land v^ith. which the Hebrews were best 
acquainted : it was at the earliest period of the Bible history the seat 
of a powerful empire, high civilization, and extended commerce. 
Active communication w\as maintained between Canaan and Egypt 
in the time of the Patriarchs, as evidenced by Abraham's visit (Gen. 
xii. 10), the journey of the Ishmaelites (Gen. xxxvii. 25), and the 
trade in com (Gen. xlii. 1). The lengthened residence of the an- 
cestors of the Hebrews in Egypt before the Exodus, the alliance which 
subsisted between the two countries in the time of Solomon, and 
the asjdum which was afforded to a vast niunber of the Jews at the 
time of the Babylonish captivity — all combined to establish an inti- 
mate relation with it, and account for the numerous references to it 
in the Bible. 

(1.) Karnes. — The Scriptural name ''Ham" seems to be identical 
with the indigenous name of Egypt, as it appears in hieroglyphics, 

Khemmi/' and refers to the black colour of the soil: the name was 
retained in that of tlie town Chemiiiis. The special name in Scriptural 
geography Ava> "Mizraim," a noun in the dual number siguifyiiig the 
f" ' the Upper and Lower) Jlisr, the name by which Egypt is still 
designated I'V the Arabs: it means ^'red mud." Occasionally the name 
occurs in tli'- singular niuiiber. *'Mazor," in which case it is more 
stricrly ara ropriate to L'jwer Egypt Is. xix. : 2 K. xix. *24, besieged 
places,"" A. V. . ••Mizraim " is occasi' inally used in the same restricted 
sense (Is. xi. 11; Jer. xliv. lb). We must also notice the poetical 
name, '^Eahab" ^Ps. Ixxxvii. 4, Ixxxix. 10; Is. li. 9), an image of the 
strength (comp. Is. xxx. 7 or violence of the nation. 

(2.) Dia'sions : f/c, -A' ' .— On this subject our informatio]i at an 
early period is scanty. The name ^'Mizraim" implies that the same 
twofold divisiou, which existed in later historical times, existed in the 
earli'^st period, being based on the natural features of the country. 
These divisions were named by the Hebrews " Pathros " and *• Mazor," 
the former representing the Thebaid, or Upper Egypt, which the 
Hebrews regarded as the "land of birth," i.e. the mother country of the 
Egyptians Ez. xxix. 14 ' : it was the abode of the Pathrusim Gen. x. 14\ 
The Xile is occasionally named Shihor" (Is. xxiii. 3; Jer. ii. 1<S\; but 
more commonly Yeor" (Gen. xli. 1; Ex. i. 22), after the Coptic iaro, 
river ; " the Hebrews also apjrtlied to it sometimes the term yo/n, 
" sea" (Is. xix. 5: Ez. xxxii. 2; Xah. hi. 8). 

(3.) Trnis and Insfricts noticed in the Bible.—The district of Goshen 
or Rameses (Gen. xlvii. 11), in which the Israelites were located, was 



Chap. I. 



EGYPT AXD ETHIOPIA. 



7 



situated between the Delta and the Arabian Desert, on the eastern side 
of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile: the valley now called ^^odi■t' 
Tameylah appears to be the exact locality : Rameses ma}^ be the name of 
the nryine in which Goshen was situated. The towns noticed are— JMigdol 
(Ex. xiv. 2), Jlagdolum, on the border of the desert, the most northerly, 
as Svene was the most southerly of the towns of Egypt fEz. xxix. 10,^ 
margin): Sin, Pelusium, well described as the "strength of Egypt" 
(Ez. XXX. 15), not only from its natural position and fortifications, but 
as commanding the entrance into Egypt from the north ; it was situated 
at the mouth of the Pelusiac branch of the Xile: Tahapanes fJer. ii. 
16), Tahpanhes fJer. xliv. 1), or Tehaphnehes (Ez. xxx. 18), Daphne, 
in the same neighbourhood, possessing a royal palace (Jer. xliii. 9), and 
evidently a place of importance (Ez. xxx. 18) : Zoan (Xum. xiii. 22;, 
T'liis. on the Tanitic branch of the Nile, surrounded by a fine allu- 
vial plain, "the field of Zoan" (Ps. Ixxviii. 12), the residence of the 
21st and 23rd dynasties, and regarded in the time of the Prophets as 
the capital of Lower Egypt (Ez. xxx. 14): Pi-beseth {Ilz. xxx. 17), 
Bnb'.?tis, higher up the course of the river: Pithom, Fafumus, and 
Raamses, HeroopoUs (Ex. i. 11), on the eastern side of the Pelusiac arm, 
which were built by the Israelites as treasure-cities, probably for 
Rameses 11. : On (Gen. xli. 45), or Aven (Ez. xxx. 17), " Ei-n--re " in 
hieroglyphics, meaning " abode of the sun," and hence rendered Beth- 
shemesh (Jer. xliii. 13) by the Hebrews, and Jleliopolis hj the Greeks; 
the magnificent Temple of the Sun, of which Poti-pherah was priest 
(Gen. xli. 45), was approached by an avenue of sphinxes, terminated 
by two fine obelisks, the "images" or rather columns to which Jeremiah 
refers (xliii. 13): Moph (Hos. ix. 6), or Xoph (Jer. ii. 16), Memphis, 
the city of "princes" (Is. xix. 13), as being the capital of Lower 
Egypt; it was situated on the left bank of the Xile, near the head of 
the Delta ; the " idols and images," with which it was once lavishly 
adorned, have now utterly disappeared (Ez. xxx. 13): Hanes (Is, xxx. 
4), probably another form of the name Tahpanhes: iSTo (Ez. xxx. 14; 
Jer. xlvi. 25), or J^o Ammon ("populous," iSah. iii. 8), T/iehce, the 
capital of Upper Egypt, " situate among the rivers " (iSTah. iii. 8), being 
probably surrounded by artificial canals communicatiDg with the Xile : 
lastly, Syene (Ez. xxix. 10, xxx. 6), on the borders of Ethiopia. Of 
the above-mentioned towns, Migdol, Tahpanhes, JS'oph, and Xo were the 
chief abodes of the Jewish exiles (Jer. xliv. 1). 

§ 8. To the south of Egypt, the kingdom of Ciish, or Ethiopia, was 
one of high antiquity, possessing two capitals, Meroe (near Dan- 
kcdali) in the south, and Xapata (Gehel Birkel) in the north, which 
owed its importance to its proxinnty to the border of Egypt. 
Active intercourse between Egypt and Ethiopia was maintained 
fi'om the earliest ages. A large portion of the caravan-trade, from 
Libya on the one side, and the Red Sea on the other, converged to 
the banks of the Nile in this district, and was thence conveyed to 
Egypt. The two nations were frequently united under one sovereign : 
Herodotus (ii. 100) records that eighteen Ethiopian kings ruled Egypt 
before the time of Sesortasen ; and we have undoubted evidence 
that in the latter part of the 8th century B.C. an Ethiopian dynasty 
held sway over Egypt. Two of the kings of this dynasty are well 



8 



THE WORLD AS KXOWX TO THE HEBREWS. Book I. 



known to us from Scripture : So, or Sebiclius, the ally of Hoshea 
king of Israel (2 K. xvii. 4), and Tirbakah, or Taracbus, wbo cre- 
ated a diversion in favour of Judasa when Sennacherib was besieging 
Jerusalem (2 K. xix. 9) : the latter appears not to have hebl undi- 
vided sway, Sethos being contemporaneously the ruler of Lower 
l\gypt. 

The Notices of Cush in the Bible.— These are numerous, but it is 
difficult to apply them all to the Ethiopia of classical geography. In 
the Prophets, indeed, the African Ethiopia is distinctly defined as to 
the south of Syene (Ez. xxix. 10), the district intended being that 
which surrounded the northern capital of Xapata, while the more 
southern territory of Meroe is described as " beyond the rivers of 
Ethiopia" ^Is. xviii. 1). The African Ethiopia is undoubtedly referred 
to in 2 K. xix. 9; Ps. Ixviii. 31; Is. xx. 4; Ez. xxx. 4-, 6. In other 
passages, however, the term is extended to all the dark races of the 
south (Jer. xiii. 23); and in some the Asiatic or Arabian Cush seems 
more particularly intended (Gen. ii. 13; Job xxviii. 19 ; Hab. iii. 7). 

§ 0. Arabia bounded Palestine on two of its sides, viz. the south 
and east. Its inhabitants were in some instances connected with the 
Hebrews by the ties of a common descent, and in others by the 
commercial relations which from an early period existed between 
the two countries. The character both of the country and of the 
inhabitants prevented the Hebrews from penetrating into the countr}^, 
and making themselves acquainted with the localities: still they 
m.ust have known much relating to its physical features, its natural 
productions, and its wandering tribes. 

(1.) Xame.— The name of "Arabia" does not occur until the time 
of Solomon, and even then refers only to a few wandering tribes in the 
northern districts. The special name applied by the Hebrews to the 
northern part of the country was Erctz-Kedem, i. e. Land of the 
East" (Gen. xxv. 6 ; Matt. ii. 1\ while the remainder of the country 
was broadly described as ^' the South" (^Slatt. xii. 42). The district 
immediately S. of Palestine was named Edom or Tdmncca. 

(2.) Places and To^nis. — The notices in the Bible are chiefly confined 
to the commercial districts of Arabia. Active trade was carried on 
between Tyre and the tribes on the shores of the Persian Gulf, Dedan 
and Raamah, as well as with Sheba and L^zal in the S. (Ez. xxvii. 15, 
19, 20, 22); the ^'travelling companies of Dedanim" (Is. xxi. 18) were 
evidently the carriers who monopolized the caravan trade of Central 
Arabia: their trade consisted in ivory and ebony, which were Indian 
productions, and embroidered stuffs, which they probably manufac- 
tured themselves. The notices of Sheba are numerous : its productions 
were spices, frankincense, ^^the sweet cane from a far country'' Jer. 
vi. 20), gold and precious stones (1 K. x. 2; Ps. Ixxii. 15; Is. Ix. 6; 
Ez. xxvii. 22). The queen who visited Solomon was undoubtedly from 
this country : ''the companies of Sheba" (Job vi. 19) traded north- 
wards as far as Petra. IJzal is probably noticed in Ez. xxvii. 19, as 
trading with Tyre from its port Javan in "bright iron {i.e. steel), 
cassia, and calamus;" the same Javan is noticed in Joel iii. 6 as import- 



Chap. I. 



AEABIA- SYPJA. 



9 



ing slaves from the X. Opliir is mentioned in connexion with, the 
commerce of Solomon : if it was on the coast of Arabia, as seems to 
be implied in Gen. x. -9, it was probably in the neighbourhood of the 
modern AJdi. The positions of Mesha and Sephar, which are given as 
the limits of Arabia Gen. x. are uncertain; the former may be 

identical with M'azi, near the entrance of the Red Sea, and the latter 
with S-ipirj/r. the modern La^'', -:r, on the southern coast. The Midian- 
ites were active traders in the N". of Arabia: they were the merchant- 
men who took Joseph into Egypt 'Gen. xxxvii. '2^ : their '-'camels and 
di'omedaries " Is. Ix. 0^: were the means by which the northern trade 
was carried on: their wealth is noticed in Judg. viii. 26. Other tribes 
adopted the pastoral nomadic life which still prevails througliout the 
greater part of Arabia : the flocks of Kedar a.nd the rams of Xebaioth" 
(Is. Ix. 7 wandered over the deserts to the E. of Palestine, and supplied 
the markets of Tyre : the dark tents of the former people were so 
familiar to the Jew.^ Ts. cxx. 5 : Cant. i. 5 , that the name seems to 
have been adopted for the whole of Arabia (Is. xxi. 17 , or perhaps 
rather for the nomadic tribes the Bedouins) as distinct from the 
dwellers in villages, whose districts were named Hazor Jer. xlix. 28}. 
The Xebaioth seem to have roamed as far as the Euphrates, fjr they 
are noticed in the Assyrian inscriptions of Sennacherib, under the name 
Xo?-j:d\i, as having been defeated by him. At a later period they became 
active traders, and seem to have transferred their residence to the 
neighboiudiood of Petra Strac*, xvi. p. 7 79: Diod. Sic. ii. 4S . The 
Hagarites '1 Chron. v. hj , or Hagarenes Ps, Ixxxiii. 6 , the A ;vci> of the 
geographers, were a roaming tribe of Ishmaelites occupying a portion of 
Xorthern Arabia to the E. of Palestine: they are noticed in the Assy- 
rian inscriptions, under the name H <j-'> rojo', as having been defeated 
by Sennacherib. Tne tovrn- that deserve nc'tice a]^e few. Elath, ^loru:', 
stood at the head of the ^Elanitic Gulf: David secured it -(2 Sam. viii. 
14-^., and Solomon thence fitted out his fieet for Ophir (1 K. ix. 26; : it 
was subsequently lost to the kingdom of Judah in the reign of Joram 
(2 K. viu. 2'j . regained by Uzziah ' 2 K. xiv. 22 , and again lost thi^ough 
its conquest by Eezin (2 K. xvi. 6j. Ezion-Geber, on tlie other side of 
the channel, vras the port whence the fleet actually sailed. Petra is 
undoubtedly noticed under the name of Selah, each of these names 
meaning '"'rock:" it was taken by Amaziah 2 K. xiv. 7;, and after- 
wards by the ]\Ioabites Is. xvi. 1 : its position and its natural strength 
rendered it an important acquisition for military purposes; equally 
great was its commercial importance, as the central spot whither the 
routes from Babylon, the Persian Gulf, Southern Arabia, Egypt, and 
Tyre converged. Bozrah v\'as another important town of the Edomites 
(Gen. xxxvi. 33), whose destruction was frequently predicted by the 
Prophets Is. xxxiv. 6, Ixih. 1; Am. i. 12 : it was situated to the X. 
of Petra, at B'l^iiroJi. The positions of the other ancient capitals of 
the kings of Edom, Dinhabah, Avith, Rehoboth, and Pau '^Gen. xxxvi. 
32, 35. 37, 39^, cannot be identified. 

§ 10. Syria was contigiioiis to Palestine on its northern and north- 
eastern border. The Hebrews were familiar with it from an early 
period : the patriarchs had pa-ssed through it on their journeys to 
and from the land of Mesopotamia, and Abraham had a native of 
Damascus as his steward. At a later period, in the early days of 
the monarchy, David extended his dominion over the whole of 

B 3 



10 THE WOELD AS KXO'VTX TO THE HEBEEWS. Book I 



Syria to the banks of the Euphrates : Solomon retained it for the 
greater part of his reign, and carried on an active trade along its 
suiithern frontier with Babylon and the East, Still later, the 
Syrians were constantly engaged in wars with the Hebrews, until 
they were themselves carried into captivity b}' the Assyrians. 

(1.) Name. — The Biblical name of this district was Aram," which 
extended to the highlands" on both sides of the Euphrates. The 
name Syria" appears to be an abbreviation of Assyria, introduced by 
Greek writers. 

{"2,) Districts and Tuicns. — Syria was divided into several districts, of 
which we may notice Ai^am-Maachah (1 Chron. xix. 6), between Pales- 
tine and Damascus; Aram of Damascus (2 Sam. viii. 5; Is. vii. 8, xvii. 
3), the district surrounding the to^Ti of that name ; and Zobah (1 Sam. 
xiv. 47 ; 2 Sam. viii. 3 i, an extensive district to the north of Damascus, 
reaching from Phoenicia to the Euphrates. Of the towns, Damascus 
and Hamath were the most important. The first was beautifully 
situated on the banks of the Abana (Barrada) and Pharpar (2 K. v. 
12), and is noticed as early as the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15, 
XV. 2). Hamath was situated on the Orontes^ and commanded the 
pass into Palestine between the ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon : 
^'the entering in of Hamath" (2 K. xiv. 25; 2 Chron. vii. 8) was the 
key of Palestine on the north; hence Hamath, ^ith Eiblah, wliich 
was in its territory, is frequently noticed in connexion with military 
operations (2 K. xiv. 28, xxiii. 33, xxv. 21), and its conquest was a 
subject of pride to the Assyrian monarch s (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13). 
The district of Hamath was regarded as the extreme northerly limit of 
the promised land (Xum. xxxiv. 8 ; Ez. xlvii. 17). In addition to 
these we may notice Tiphsah (1 K. iv. 24), Thopsacus, an important 
point, as commanding one of the fords of the Euphrates ; Helbon 
(Ez. xxvii. 18), near Damascus, famed for its wiue ; Tadmor, Palmyra, 
built, or, more probably, enlarged, by Solomon (1 K, ix. 18), as a com- 
mercial entrepot for the caravan-trade between Palestine and Babylon; 
and Berothai (2 Sam. viii. 8), or Chun (1 Chron. xviii. 8) — perhaps 
Birtha on the Euphrates. 

§ 11. Phoenicia was contiguous to Palestine on its northern 
frontier along the sea coast, and was familiar to the Hebrews partly 
from the enterprise of its merchants, and partl}^ from the alliance 
which existed between the two countries in the reigns of David 
and Solomon. AYars occasionally occurred at a subsequent period, 
and numerous prophecies were directed against the capital, Tyre. 

(1.) Xame. — Xo general name for tUis country appears in the Bible: 
it was regarded as a portion of the land of Canaan, as being a maritime 
district. 

(2.) Tovms and Districts. — The following places may be regarded as 
the abodes of the tribes noticed in the Mosaic table (Gen. x. 15-18), in 
their order from X. to S. : — Aradus, of the Arvadites, whose skill in 
seamanshi23 is mentioned by Ezekiei (xxvii. 8, 11); Sinna, a mountain 
fortress of no historical note, of the Sinites; Simyra, at the mouth 
of the Eleutherus, of the Zemarites ; Ajxa, of the Ai'kites ; and 
Sidon. which may, perhaps, be intended as the name of a district 



Chap. I. PHrEXICIA — MESOPOTAMIA. 



11 



rather than of the town, in the sense in which Homer uses Sidonia 
\[0d. xiii. i!S5 . Sidon is frequently noticed: it was in the earliest 
ages re^^arded as the bL)rder of the Canaanites " (Gen. x. 19); a 
little later Jacob speaks of it as -'"'the haven of the sea^ the haven of 
ships" 'Gen. xlix. hl^.. Alth'aigli nominally within the limits of the 
promised land, it was never conquered by the Israelites ^Judg. i. 31.. 
It was emphatically the ■'•great Sidon" 'Josh. xi. 8;, whcse mer- 
chants ■'• passed over the sea " ijs. xxiii. 2 . At a later period we have 
notice of Bii'jIus as the abode of the Giblites (Josh. xiii. 5 . the best 
shipbuilders in Phcenicia 'Ez. xxvii. 9 , and the stone-squarers " 
employed in the building of Solomon's temple '1 K. v. IS , Zarephath, 
or Sarepta 1 K. xvii. 9; Oba^l. comp. Luke iv. 26^^, was a small 
town about midway between Sidon and Tyre. Tyre is not noticed 
until the time of Joshua ;'xix. 29 though probably an older town than 
Sidon, and, subsequently, of much more importance in relation to 
Palestine: the prophets expatiate upon its ••perfect beauty" (Ez. 
xxvii. 8; comp. Hos. ix. 13 and fcs commercial grratness — ^-' the city 
whose mercliants are princes, whose traffickers are the honourable of 
the earth Is, xxiii. S : Ezekiel 'xxvii.) in particular gives a detailed 
accoimt of the countries with which it interchanged its wares. Achzib, 
the later iTcc/.;}:/ /)':/, was on the sea-coast Josh. xix. 29 : Acco Judg. i. 81^, 
afterwards called Ptolemais Acts xxi. 7 , a little to the of Carmel; 
and Dor, or Lura. to the S. of it (^Josh. xi. 2, xvii. 11). 

§ 12. Mesopotamia was situated eastward of Syria between the 
Euphrates and Tigris. The close conuexion between the Hebrews 
and the Aramaeans of this district is marked by several circum- 
stances : here Abraham sojourned on his passage to Canaan (Gen. 
xi. 31); here Isaac's wife, Rebecca, spent her early days (Gen, 
xxiv. 10) : here Jacob served Laban (Gen. xxviii. 5) ; and here the 
ancestors of the Israelitish tribes, with the exception of Benjamin, 
were born. 

(1.) Name. — The Biblical name of this country is " Aram-naharaim," 
i. e, Ai'am of the two rivers" Tigris and Euphrates Gen. xxiv. lO^;*. 
The term ■■' Aram." i. e. '-'highlands." would restrict the original appli- 
cation of the name to the mountainous district about the upper courses 
of tlie rivers. A portion of it was called •'• Padan-Aram," i.e. '-'the 
cultivated land of the highlands " (Gen. xxv. 20. xxviii 2 , being probably 
the district immediately adjacent to the Euphrates : and another portion 

Ai-am Beth-rehob 2 Sam. x. 6^. the position of which is uncertain. 

(2.) To'i-ns and. Places. — These are connected either with the history 
of Abraham or with the Assyrian wars. Haran Gen. xi. 31) was 
situated in the X .W., on the river Bellas : it was identical with the 
classical Charra; : it appears to have been a place of considerable trade 
in EzekieTs time Ez. xxvii. 23". Ur of the Chaldees " is by many 
supposed to be at £de.ss:>. in the same neighbourhood; by others it 
has been placed to the S.W, of Xineveh : it was probably a disincf, 
and not a town, and we can only say with certainty that it was to the 
E. of Haran (Gen. xi. 3 lb The district of Gozan (2 K. xix. 12', 
whither a colony of Israelites was transplanted (2 K. xvii. 6 ; _1 Chron. 
V. 26;. lay about the upper cotirse of the Habor (2 K. xvii. 6', the 
A^jorras or Ch"hdras of classical geography. Along the course of the 
Euphrates we have notice of Carchemish 'Jer. xlvi. 2 ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 



12 THE WOTiLD AS KXOWX TO THE HEBREWS. Book I. 



20), Circesbrm, at the jiiiiction of the Chaboms, the scene of the great 
battle between Xecho and Xebucbadnezzar ; Hena, lower down the 
river at Anatha ; and Sepharvami, Sippara, on the borders of Babylonia, 
the capture of which is noticed in the Assyrian inscriptions (2 K. xvii. 
24-, xix. 13). The positions of Rezeph and Thelassar ( 2 K. xix. 12) are 
uncertain : the former is supposed to be JRiS'ipha, on the W. of the 
Euphrates, S.W. of Tliapsacus, and the latter, Teleda, in the same 
direction. 

§ 13. Babylonia and Assyria were at different periods the seats of 
the most powerful empires of ^Yestern Asia. Their early import- 
ance is testified by the notice of their capitals in the Mosaic ethno- 
logical table (Gen. x. 10-12). In the time of Abraham a powerful 
confederacy issued from those regions, which extended its conquests 
for a w^hile almost to the shores of the Mediterranean (Gen. xiv.). 
At a still later period the Ass^Tian armies overran Palestine, carried 
the ten tribes captive, and threatened the destruction of Jerusalem 
itself. This, however, was reserved for the Babylonian dynasty, 
which succeeded to the supremacy of the west after the overthrow 
of Xineveh by Cyaxares. The remnant of the Jewish nation was 
carried into captivity, and passed a lengthened period in the terri- 
tories of the king of Babylon. 

(1.) Xnmes. — The southern district of Babylonia was known as 
'^Shinar," and sometimes as the ''land of tlie Cbald£eans Assyria 
was designated " Asshur," after the original occupant of that district. 

( 2.) C'ipitnh of Babylonia. — The Bible gives the names of four cities as 
having been originally founded by Nimrod in the plain of Shinar — Babel, 
Erech, Accad, and Calneh (Gen. x. 10): in addition to these, we have 
notice of Ellasar (Gen. xiv. 1). The sites of these towns have not been 
identified with certainty, (i.) It is doubtful whether the Babel of 
Ximrod's kingdom is the same as the Babylon of histor}^ which was 
of comparatively recent date. The name " Babel " is supposed to mean 
" gate of Belus," and we may perhaps identify it with a town which 
was dedicated to Belus, and probably bore the name of Belus, the site of 
which is marked by the mound of Niner, about 50 miles to the S.E. of 
Babylon, (ii.) Erech, the residence of the Archevites, may be identified 
with the modern Warka, situated near the left bank of the Euphrates, 
about 80 miles S.E. of Babylon : (iii.) Accad with the remains at 
Akker-knf, near Baghdad: ^iv.) Calneh with the classical Ctesiphon : 
(v.) Ellasar with Senkereh, about 15 miles S.E. of Warka. The fame of 
these cities, however, was wholly eclipsed by the rise of the later 
ca^pital on the banks of the Euphrates — the Babylon of history, to 
which the name of Babel was transferred — the ruins of which at Uillah 
still strike the beholder with astonishment. This city is described at 
length in a future chapter. 

(3.) Capitals of Assyria. — These are described in the following terms 
in the Bible : — " Out of that land went forth Asshur, and builded 
Xineveh. and the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Resen between Xineveh 
and Calah: the same is a great city" (Gen. x. 11, 12). The identifica- 
tion of these places is not yet satisfactorily settled. The mounds 
opposite Mosul, named Kouyunjik and Xehhi Yunus, no doubt represent 
Xineveh, or a portion of it: it has been further conjectured that, the 



Chap. 1, 



CAPITALS OF ASSYRIA. 



13 




Map to illustrate the Capitals of Babylonia and Assyria. 

city may have extended over the whole quadrangular space inclosed 
between the four points, Kouyunjik. Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kaixanles, 
in which case Jonah's description of it as "a city of three days' journey" 
would be strictly verified: this, however, is not decided. If Calah be 
identified v^Ath. Kcdah-Shergat^ as the name suggests, then Nimroud vfowldi. 
naturally represent the " great" city of Resen, which, according to the 
Bible, was between Calah and Nineveh. Rehoboth or Rehoboth Ir 
cannot be fixed at a,ny place: the name describes the broad, open 
streets" of an Oriental town. 

§ 14. With regard to the opinions of the Hebrews as to the form, 
the size, and divisions of the earth, our information is but scanty, 
being derived wholly from scattered notices, many of which occur 



14 THE WOELD AS KXOWX TO THE HEBREWS. Book I. 



in the poetical books of the Bible, and do not admit of being con- 
strued too rigidly. 

(1.) The earth was circular (Is. xl. 22), with Jerusalem as its centre 
(Lz. V. 5) or navel ' Judg. ix. 37 ; Ez. xxxviii. 12). and bounded on all 
sides by the ocean (Deut. xxx. 13: Job xxvi. 10 ; Ps. cxxxix. 9; Prov. 
viii- 27). The passages we have quoted cannot indeed be considered as 
conclusive ; for a place may be described as centrallj' situated, without any 
idea of a circle entering into our minds, and Jerusalem was undoubtedly 
so situated with regard to tlie great seats of power, Egypt and Me- 
sopotamia. Still the view, derived prima facie from the words in Ez. 
V. 5, harmonizes with what experience would lead us to expect, and it 
was retained on the strength of that passage by a large section of the 
Christian world even so late as the 14th century, as instanced in the 
map of the world still existing in Hereford cathedral. 

(2.) The earth was divided into four quarters, corresponding to the 
four points of the compass : the most usual method of describing these 
was by their position relatively to a person looking towards the east, 
in which case the terms before," '^behind," the right hand," and 

the left hand," would represent respectively E., W., S., and N. ^ Job 
xxiii. 8, 9). Occasionally they were described relatively to the sun's 
course, ^'the rising," 'Hhe setting," ^'tlie brilliant quarter" (Ez. t;!. 
24), and ''the dark quarter" (Ez. xxvi. 2u), representing the four 
points in the same order. The north appears to have been regarded 
as the highest, and so the heaviest, portion of the earth's surface (Job 
xxvi. 7). 

(3.) The Hebrews, as other primitive nations, gave an undue import- 
ance to the earth, in comparison with the other parts of the universe. 
It was the central body, to which sun, moon, and stars were strictly 
subordinate. The heaven was regarded as the roof of man's abode — 
the curtain of the tent stretched out for his protection (Ps. civ. 2 ; Is. 
xl. 22) : it was supposed to rest on the edges of the earth's circle, where 
it had its ''foundations" (2 Sam. xxii. 8) and its massive pillars (Job 
xxvi. 11). It was the " firmament " for the support of the reservoirs of 
the rain (Gen. i. 7 ; Ps. cxlviii. 4), which descended through its win- 
dows (Gen. vii. 11 ; Is. xxiv. 18) and doors (Ps. Ixxviii. 23). The sun, 
moon, and stars were fixed in this heaven, and had their respective 
ofi&ces assigned with an exclusive regard to the wants and convenience 
of the earth (Gen. i. 14-18; Ps. civ. 19-23). Beneath the earth was 
sheol, '^hell," which extended beneath the sea (Job xxvi. 5, 6), and 
was thus supposed to be conterminous with the upper world: it had in 
poetical language its gates (Is. xxxviii. 10) and bars (Job xvii. 16), and 
was the abode of departed spirits, '' the house appointed for the living " 
(Job xxx. 23). 

§ 15. Before quitting the subject of early Biblical geography, it 
would be well to remind the reader that the Hebrew^ names are re- 
tained as the designations of the tribes or the countries inhabited by 
them throughout the whole of the Old Testament. Our translators 
have unfortunately adopted the classical names instead, and thus we 
have "Mesopotamia" for A ram-Naharaim ; "Ethiopia" for Cush ; 
*'Chald£ea" for Chasdim ; "Grsecia" for Javan ; "Armenia" for 
Ararat; and " Assyria " for Asshur. 




Map of the World, according to Homer 



CHAPTEE II. 

THE WORLD AS KXCWX TO THE GREEK POETS. 

§ 1. Homer: the extent and source? of liis information. Progress of 
maritime discovery. §-2. General Yie^ys of tlie earth's form. § 3. Its 
divisions. § 4. Real geography— Greece, Asia Elinor, &c. § 5. 
Poetical geogTaphv. § 6. Hesiod. § 7. ^Eschylus. § 8. Pindar. 

§ 1. The earliest description of the world in classical literature is 
found in the Homeric poems. AYithont fixing the date of their 
composition, Ave may safely assnme that they represent the views 
of the Greeks from ahont the 10th to the 8th century b.c. Homer 
is supposed to have been a native of Smyrna : however this may 
he, there is ahundant evidence in the poems themseh'es that he had 
lived for some time in Greece ; his descriptions are those of an eye- 
witness : he must have been acquainted with all that lies southwards 



IG THE WOELD AS KNOWN TO THE GREEK POETS. Book I. 



of the Ambracian Gulf on the western coast, and of Olympus on the 
eastern, though more intimately with some parts than others. The 
western coast of Asia Minor was also known to him. Beyond these 
limits his information was evidently derived from vague reports, 
and it becomes an interesting question whence these reports were 
obtained. In order to ascertain this, we must cast a glance at the 
progress of early maritime discovery. The Greeks themselves were 
not a seafaring race in that age : a voyage from Greece to Troy was 
regarded as a hazardous undertaking ; to Africa or Egypt, a terrible 
affair {Od. iii. 318); to Phoenicia no less so {II. vi. 291). Even the 
seafaring Ph^eacians considered a voyage round the coast of Greece 
from Scheria to Euboea a long one {Od, vii. 321). The Greeks must 
therefore have heard of distant lands from other more enterprising 
nations — among which we may notice firstly the Phoenicians, and 
secondly the Carians and Cretans. 

(1.) The Phcenicians. — The Phoenicians carried on a most extended 
commerce long before the age of Homer: the coasts of Spain (Tarshish) 
and of Northern Africa were famihar to them ; in short, the Mediterra- 
nean was a Phoenician lake. From their colonies about the Bosporus 
they carried on trade with the Euxine, and in other directions (as we 
know from Scripture) with Syria, Armenia^ Southern Arabia, Africa, 
and India. They had settled on the islands of the iEga?an, and even on 
the mainland of Greece, and Homer speaks of them i^Od. xv. 415, 458 ; 
II. xxiii. 743) in terms which prove that the Phoenicians carried on an 
active trade in those parts ; Gorinth in particular had risen to wealth 
(//. ii. 570) through their presence. Their influence is strongh' marked 
in Homeric geography : there can be no doubt that the more distant 
points noticed, such as the Ocean, the Cimmerians, the Ocean mouth, 
Atlas, the land of ^aea, &c., were known to the Greeks only through the 
reports, designedly obscured and invested with terror, of tiie Phoenician 
traders. 

(2.) The Carians. — The Carians appear to have been the earliest race 
connected with the Greeks, who established themselves as a naval 
power in the u^gaean sea. They were the corsairs" of antiquity 
(Thuc. i. 8), and had stations on most of the islands as well as on the 
mainland of Asia Minor. They also possessed Cius on the Propontis, 
whence they trtided with the shores of the Euxine Sea. 

(3.) The Cretans. — The Cretans succeeded the Carians in their naval 
supremacy : to Minos was assigned the credit of having swept away 
piracy from the waters of the Mediterranean ( Thuc. i. 4), reducing the 
Carians to peaceable submission, and prosecuting naval expeditions as' 
far as Phoenicia in one direction (Herod, i. 2) and Sicily in the other 
(Herod, vii. 170). The period of Cretan supremacy is placed before the 
Trojan War, at which time it had declined {II. ii. 652). 

(4.) The Argonaidic Expedition. — The legend of this expedition was 
probably founded on the accounts, which some of these seafaring nations 
communicated, about the commercial wealth of the Euxine Sea and the 
dangers that attended its navigation. That the Greeks themselves 
undertook such an expedition we think highly improbable ; but we see 
no grounds for doubting that the Phoenicians carried on an active trade 



Chap. IJ. 



HOMERIC GEOGEAPHY. 



17 



from Pronectiis, and the Carians from Cius ; and that the commercial 
route, which was known to exist in later times bet^'een Central Asia 
and Europe, by the Oxus to the Caspian, and thence by the courses of 
the Cyrus and the Phasis to the Euxine, was established as early as the 
period we are now describing. The story of the Argonauts, as it comes 
before us. is evidently the fabrication of many generations. Homer 
{Od. xii. 69 flf.) merely notices the passage of the Argo between the 
whirling rocks on its return from ^J3ea. The golden fleece is first 
noticed by a writer of Solon's age (Strab. i. p. 46), and the earliest 
detailed account now extant is that of Pindar (^Fyth. iv.) Tiie position 
of ^Esea — tlie route w^hich the Argonauts pursued — and the extent of 
their voyage — were altered and enlarged from time to time to suit the 
geographical knowledge of the day. 

§ 2. Homer is styled by Strabo the ^' author of geographical experi- 
mental science,"^ in reference to the particular knowledge of places 
and institutions displayed in his poems. In as far as the actual 
experience of Homer or his countrymen is x^oncerned, he fully merits 
the praise bestowed upon him by Strabo ; but beyond this range 
his geography is involved in inextricable confusion. Homer had 
no idea of the spherical form of the earth : he conceived it to be 
the uppjer surface of a body of great thickness, w^hicli was as 
round as the shield of x^chilles (11. xviii. 607), and so flat that a 
god could look across it from Lycia to Scheria ( OcL v. 282). This 
circular surface was edged by a 'river named Oceanus, just as a 
shield is bordered by its rim. On either side of this body, he con- 
ceived a domed covering to rest, the firmament of heaven on the 
upper side, and on the lower surface Tartarus, the counterpart of 
heaven, and equi-distant from the earth. In the interior of the 
earth's body was situated Hades, the abode of the dead. The earth's 
surface was divided between the masses of land and w^ater, the 
latter occupying the largest space. Oceanus was regarded as the 
parent of all other bodies of water, the " sea," i. e. the Mediterranean, 
being connected with it at its western extremity, and the rivers by 
subterranean channels. The sea (BaXaacra, ttovtos, rreXayos, aXy) 
was supposed to extend indefinitely to the north, and perhaps to be 
connected with the Euxine in that direction : in the IST.W. lay the 
fabled island of Ogygia, " the navel of the sea," the centre of an im- 
limited expanse. 

§ 3. The land was regarded as a single undivided body — the 
names Europe, Asia, and Libya marking, not the continental 
divisions, but particular regions, Europe (which first appears in one 
of the hymns) the northern part of Greece, Asia the alluvial plain 
about the Cayster, and Libya a maritime tract west of Egypt. The 
usual division of the earth into quarters is not recognised by Homer, 
but instead of this w^e have it divided into halves, the eastern and 



'ApxiJYerrjs r^S yeuiypa(^LKri<i e/u.7retpta?, i. p. 2. 



18 THE WORLD AS KXOWX TO THE GEEEK POETS. Book I. 



western, the former being described as the sunny side of the 
earth (7rp6? rja> t fjeXiov re), and the latter as the dark side (wpos 
C6(pov). Sunrise and sunset were, therefore, the cardinal points 
in Homeric geography, and had their features of similarity and 
contrast. As the sun apparently approached the earth at those 
points, its power was held to be greater there than elsewhere, and 
accordingly the people who lived in the adjacent i-egions, whether 
in the E. or W., were named Ethiopians, " dark complexioned at 
each too there was a country called Esea, which seems to be an 
appellative for an extremely distant land. In the E. was the 
" Lake of the Sun," whence he arose, as a "giant refreshed," to take 
his daily course ; in the W. was the "glittering rock" Leucas, which 
formed the portal of his chamber. The W., as being the side of 
darkness, was naturally connected with the subject of death : thej'e, 
consequently. Homer placed Elysium, the abode of the blessed, and 
the entrance to Hades — the former on this side, the latter on the 
other side of the stream of Ocean. 

§ 4. In considering the special localities noticed by Homer, we 
have to distinguish the real or historical from the fanciful or 
mythical. It is difficult to draw an accurate line of demarcation, as 
there is a certain substratum of truth in many of the descriptions, 
which yet cannot be reconciled with fact. Generally speaking it 
will be found that all the notices of peoples and places in the E. 
and S. are reconcilable w^ith fact, while the greater part of the 
notices in the W. and N. fall within the range of fiction, so that 
if a straight line were drawn through Corey ra in the direction of 
N.E. and S.W., it would divide the Homeric world with tolerable 
accuracy into the regions of fact and fiction. In the former district 
would be included the southern coast of the Euxine, the ^^Eg^ean 
Sea, and the coasts of the Mediterranean eastward of Greece ; while 
in the latter we should have the confused notices of Sicily and Italy, 
and the fabulous voyages from the Mediterranean to the Euxine and 
the western coast of Greece. The notices of special localities are, 
as might be supposed, very unequally dispersed, Greece and the 
western coast of Asia Minor being tolerably well filled up, while the 
more distant countries are but indefinitely described. 

Details of the Homeric Geography. — Most of the important rivers and 
mountains of Greece have a place in Homer. Of the former, Achelous, 
'^the king of rivers," Cephisus, As5pu3, Alpheus, Spercheus, Enipeiis, 
Titaresius ; of the latter, Olympus, the abode of the gods, Ossa and 
Pelion, Parnassus, Taygetus, and Erymanthus. The lakes Boebeis and 
Cephisis, and the promontories Sunium and Malea are also noticed. 
Homer knew no general name for Greece : Hellas is witli him but a 
small district in the south of Thessaly, and the Hellenes the inhabit- 
ants of that district : Peloponnesus is first noticed in one of ihv. 
Hymns; in the earlier poems it is described by the term Middle Argos. 



Chap. II. 



HOAIEPJC GEOGRAPHY. 



19 



Of the names of provinces in northern Greece, afterwards familiar to 
us, only jEtolia, the Locri. Bceotia, and Phocis appear ; Acarnania is 
named Epirus ; the plain of Tliessaly, Pelasidc Arg.-is ; Epirus may, 
perchance, be referred to imder the nam^- A (■'■!. vii. 8). In 

Peloponnesus, Elis, Messenia, and Arcadia .ii.^'i. while Arcrolis 

appears under the name Ar_;-os, and Laconia as Laeedsemon. The 
names of the (jccujjants of these provinces are. in m-my instances, 
difterent from those of later times. Homer de-cribes the general mass 
of the nation under the three names, Danaans, Arrives, and Achseans. 
Among the special names we may notice the Curates in ^E:-lia,. the 
Cadmeans ab^ait Thebes, the 3Iinyans ab"jut Orciiomenus in i'- . -^ia, 
and northwards uf tlie PagasLean gulf ; the ^tliices in the XAV. of 
Thessaly, tlie Selli ab jut D'jdona, the Epeans in Elis, and the Caucones 
in Triphyiia. At th:- pen.jd the northern C'jast of the Peloponnesus 
was inhabited byloniaus, Argos and Laconia by Achai-ans, and Corinth 
by ^Eolians. Aclia?ans Avere also settled in southern Thessaly. The 
towns are generally de-cribed as we afterwards know them ; it should 
be noted, however, that there are two Dodonas, one in Thessaly //. 
ii. 75'-';. and the other in Epirus IL x^d. 234' ; Deb.'hi appears imder 
the name Pytho ; Corinth is also described as Eph}'re vi. 152): 
Pylus, Xestor's capital, is probably the ]!Tessenian town of that name, 
though those in Triphyiia and Elis contested the honour. 

In Arsia Minor we have on the western c -ast the rivers, ^Esepjus, 
Granicus, Simois, Scamander or Xanthus . Hermus. Cayster, Mteander, 
and several lesser streams ; and the mountains, Ida with the peak Gar- 
garus, Placus, Tmolus and its otiset S:}iylus. and Mycale ; on the northern 
coast only the rivers Sangarins and Partheuius : on the southern, the 
river Xanthus, and p-ercliance a i^eference to ]\Iount Chima^ra with 
its jets of iuiiammable gas in TL vi. 179 ; beyond this limit, the Aleian 
held in Cilicia is the only object. The inhabitants of the peninsula 
were arranged thus ; '"u the vrestern coast, the Dardaui in Troas ; the 
Mysians, Ceteans. and Cilicians, in Alysia ; the ML^'juians m Lydia ; 
and the Carians in Caria : on the northern coast, the AmazOncs about 
the Parthenius. the Halizones and Heneti in Paphlagimia, and the 
Caucones in Bithynia : on the southern, the Lycians in Lycia, and the 
Solymi more to the east : in the interior, the Phrygians, and the 
Paphlagonians. Of the places on the coast, Ilium vriU be hereafter 
described : Thebe, the residence of the Cilicians, was near Placus ; 
Larissa was a Pelasgic town in ^Eolis ; Miletus was in existence ; 
several towns are noticed in Paphlagonia I', ii. ^bo . but there is some 
doubt whether the passage is not interpolated. 

Proceeding to countries less known to Homer, we find the Syrians 
noticed under the name Ai^mi. connected with the Biblical Aram ; 
then, the Phoenicians and especially the Sidonians ; and the Erembi^ 
another form of the name Arabians, at the S.E. angle of the Mediter- 
ranean. In Africa, the Xile is described as ^Egyptus, with the isle 
Pharc'S at a dav's sail distance from its mouth, and the hundred-gated 
Thebes on its ijanks. West of Egypt was Libya, and still more to the 
westward the Li-tophagi, while in the extreme south, by the Ocean, 
were the Pigmies. B Jth of the two last mentioned peoples had a real 
existence : the Lotophagi are noticed by Herodotus (iv. 177) as living 
on the shore of the Lesser Syrtis, and both eating and extracting an 
intoxicating liquor from the lotus or jujube: the same writer ii. 32) 
also notices dwarf races in the interior of Africa : the lotus la still eaten 
in Tripoli, and a dwarfish race, the Dokos, are known to exist in the S.W. 



20 THE "WOELD AS K^'OAVX Tu THE GEEEK POETS. Book I. 



of Abyssinia. Atlas, in Homer, is not the mountain range of that 
name, but rather a deity, the personification of the power which 
sustamed the vault of heaven. 

Xorth of the ^gsean Sea, the mountains Athos and Xyseium, and 
the countries Pieria, Pteouia, Emathia in Macedonia, the Cicones on the 
coast of Thrace, the Mysi on the western coast of the Euxine, Thrace 
in the interior, and in the extreme north the Scythian tribes Hippe- 
molgi ("'mare-milkers") and Abii are mentioned. 

Many of the islands of the ^Ega^an and Ionian seas are mentioned : — 
Delos is occasionally named Ortygia ; Euboea appears as the residence 
of the Abantes ; the Calydnian isles (//. ii. 677) were a group oil' the 
coast of Caria ; Carpathus is named Crapathus ; Crete was occupied 
by a variety of tribes, Eteocretans, Cydonians, Dorians, Achacans, and 
Pelasgians, and possessed ninety (Oc7. xiv. 174), or according to //. ii. 
649, a hundred cities ; the inhabitants of Lemnos are named Sintians, 
a Thracian tribe of '^robbers " {crivofxai} ; Samothrace is given in its 
resolved form ^^the Thracian Samos:" Temesa, whither the Taphians 
traded for copper, was probably in Cyprus, but it has also been 
identified with Tempsa in Italy. In the Ionian Sea, the group off the 
coast of Acarnania is frequently referred to ; the occupants are named 
Cephallenians, the island afterwards called after them being named 
Samos or Same ; Lecucadia or Leucas is described as a promontory 
of the mainland ; Ithaca is fully and accurately described. The 
Echinades lie opposite the mouth of the Acheloiis ; Dulichium is 
generally supposed to have been the largest of the group, but it 
may have been situated on the mainland and hence is described as 

grassy" and ''abounding in wheat " (Ot/. xvi. 39(3): the Taphians 
occupied a small group of islands between Leucas and Acarnarnia. 
Lastly, Corcyra is perhaps referred to under the name Scheria, the 
residence of the seafaring Phseacians, though these may perhaps be re- 
garded as a poetical fiction. 

§ 5. The poetical geography of Homer is involved in inextricable 
difficulties ; it seems as though the poet had received certain scraps 
of intelligence from Phoenician navigators as to the westeni and 
northern districts of Europe, and had worked them up into a nar- 
rative without any regard to the true position of the localities. 
Thus we have the Cimmerians, Avho really lived in the Crimea, 
transported to the extreme west, and again the Planctce, which 
proba.bly represent the Symplegades at the mouth of the Thracian 
Bosporus, placed near Sicily ; the Argonauts are brought round 
from the western ^Ela^a to the eastern land of ^etes : Ulysses is 
carried northward an immense distance inside the Ocean mouth, 
and returns from Ogygia straight to the shores of Greece. It is 
difficult to form any theory which will reduce the narrative to any- 
thing like consistency with geogra^Dhical facts : it has been sug- 
gested that Homer had received reports of two ocean m.ouths, one 
in the E. (the Straits of Yeni'kale)^ and one in the W. (the Straits 
of Gibraltar), and that he transferred to each of them features that 
belonged to the other (Gladstone's Homeric Studies, iii. 263) : but 
even this theory fails to reduce the narrative to consistency. We 



Chap. II. 



GEOGRAPHY OF HESIOD. 



21 



fherefore restrict ourselves to a brief notice of the localities described 
in the wanderings of Ulysses Avith a notice of anything that serves 
to account for the narrative. 

Wanderings of Ulysses. — Leaving Troy, he passed by the Cicones in 
Thrace, Cape I\lalea, and the island of Cythera, to the land of the Loto- 
phagi in Africa. Henceforth Ave enter on the realm of fiction: he first 
reaches the island ^gusa. a reference to the yEgates, but erroneously 
placed to the S. instead of AY. of Sicily ; he then passes to the land of 
the Cycl5pe5. either on the southern coast of Sicily or in Italy ; it is 
termed the '^continent" (jj-n-eLpos , which, ho^vever; is occasionally 
applied to large 'islands : ^olia ( a reference to the ^Eolian group with 
Tolcanic St-roud'oli) was next visited, and then Lsestrygonia, a city in a 
land of perpetual day (in reference to the long summer days of 
northern climates), generally placed on the northern coast of Sicily : 
the island of ..Ea^a lay near the Ocean mouth, and thence he reaches the 
banks of Ocean stream, the land of the Cimmerians, and the entrance 
to Hades : ne returns to ^Etea, passes by the isle of Sirens, the Planctae 
^•wandering rocks," - to the Y\~. of Sicily, Scylla, and Charybdis, anu 
reaches Thrinacria, which must from its meaning '^^ triangular, " apply 
to Sicily ; thence he is carried far to the northward to Ogygia, the 

navel" of the sea, the residence of Calypso "^the hidden one,"' and 
returns in a south-easterly comse by Scheria to the shores of Greece. 

§ 6. In the poems of Hesiod (about B.C. 735) v^e find the same 
general vievrs as to the earth's form maintained with but slight devi- 
tion. The stream of Ocean still surrounds the earth's dusk, its 
sources being placed in the extreme west. The vault of heaven still 
rests on the edge of the earth, upborne by A.tlas, and as far removed 
from the earth in height as Tartarus in depth. Tartarus is repre- 
sented as co-extensive with the earth and heaven, and as having its 
entrance in the west : the e-arth was rooted in irs unfathomable 
depths. Hades is, generally speaking, placed on the surface of the 
eanh in the extreme west, although occasionally the idea of a sub- 
teiTanean Hades is still expressed. In experimental knowledge a 
considerable advance had been made in the knowledge of the western 
countries of Europe. Y'e have notice in Italy of the Tyrrhenians 
and of their king Latinus : of ^Etna and the tovrn of Ortygia (the 
later Syracuse) in Sicily, and of the Ligyans in Gaul. The gardens 
of the Hespeiides, vuth their golden apples, are located opposite 
Atlas, with evident reference to the groves of oranges and citrons in 
Spain. In the extreme west are the " islands of the blest," and in the 
place of Homer's Elysium the fabled isle of Erytheia. Hesiod 
knoAvs nothing of the Cimmerians, but notices, according to 
Herodotus (iv. 32), the Hyperboreans who spent a happy life in the 
extreme north-western regions. 

- In the later books of the Odyssey the names of Sicania (xxiv. 30 7 \ and of 
the Siceli, its inhabitants (xx, 3S3, xxiv, 211';, first appear. Both the Sicani 
and Siceli lived at one period on the mainland of Italy, but they had probably 
crossed into Sicily before these books were composed. 



22 THE WORLD AS KNOWX TO THE GEEEK POETS. Book I. 



Detcnls of ResiorVs Geogrciphy. — Hesiod further notices the rivers 
Eridanus, on whose banks were the amber-distilling trees, the Ister 
in the X., the Phasis in the E., and the Xile in the S., which Homer 
had named yEgyptus. The Ethiopians are correctly placed in the S. ; 
and the name of Scythians is applied to the Hippemolgi of Homer, one 
tribe of whom, named the Galactophagi, are described as a nomad race. 
In Greece itself the names of various localities first appear, among 
which we may notice Hellopia, the di:-trict about Dodona {Fr. v. 11 2 \ 
and Abantis, an ancient name of Eubcea : he also notices the alluvial 
deposit which connected the Echinades with the mainland of 
Acarnania (Strab. i. p. 59). 

§ 7. In the poems of ^schyliis we find some advance : the 
three continents are noticed, Europe being divided from Asia either 
by the Phasis, by which he probably means the later HypSnis, or 
by the Cimmerian Bosporus, and from Libya or Africa by the 
Straits of Hercules. The four quarters of the heavens are re- 
cognised, east, south, west, and north. The mythical element still 
appears in the notices of the fountains of the ocean ; of Delphi as 
the centre of the earth ; of the ocean encircling the world ; and of 
the Ethiopians, both in the extreme east and also in the extreme 
west, where he also placed a second Lake of the Sun. 

The Wanderinri^ of L-<. — These cannot be reconciled with real geo- 
graphy : it is clear indeed from the writings of ^E^schylus {S^ippl. 548 ; 
comp. From. 7<i5; that he was not careful to give even a consistent 
story. We will therefore only observe that the Chalybes were pro- 
bably the Cimmerians of the Crimci ; that the Hybristes may be 
either the Fon or the /C''" ; that the Amazons must be placed in 
Colchis ; and that the Salmydessian Rock refers to the rocks near the 
Thracian Bosporus. According to these notices, lo followed the line 
of the I^uxine along its eastern and southern coasts : she then crossed 
the Thracian Bosporus from Asia to Europe, and followed the Euxine 
back to the Cimmerian Bosporus. She crossed the Palus Maeotis into 
Asia, and arrived after some wanderings at the Gorgonsean plains of 
Cisthenes in Ethiopia. The Bosporus mentioned in this part of her 
course is the so-called Indian Bosporus, at the spot where Asia and 
Africa were supposed to be contiguous at their southern extremities. 
The Arimaspi of the north are transplanted to this district. From the 
Indian Bosporus lo reached the river ^Ethiops, probably the upper 
part of the Xile, and descended that river by the cataracts down to 
the Delta. A considerable advance was made in the knowledge of 
eastern countries, as might be expected from the historical events of 
the poet's time. We have notice in Asia of the Indians, Susa, Cissia, 
Babylon, Ecbatana, Bactria, Syria, and Tyre ; and in EgyjDt, of the 
cataracts, the Delta, and the towns Memphis and Canopus. 

§ 8. In the vriitings of- Pindar (b.c. 522-442) the same views still 
prevail ; he recognises the three continents, and seems to make the 
Phasis and the Xile the divisions. Cyrene in Africa, Gadeira in 
Spain, Cyme in Italy, and various Greek towns in Sicily, are first 
noticed in his poems. 




iVlap of the World, according to Hecatgeus. 



CHAPTEE. III. 

THE WORLD AS KXOWX TO THE GREEK HISTORIANS 

§ 1. Causes which led to advanced knowledge : commerce and coloniza- 
tion : voyages of discovery ; intellectual activity ; historical events. 
§ 2. Hecatgeus. § 3. Herodotus ; his life and travels. § 4. His 
character as a geographer. § 5. General views as to the earth's 
form, &c. § 6. Physical features. § 7. Political divisions and 
topopjraphy. § 8. Xenophon : the Anabasis. § 9. Ctesias. § 10. 
Alexander the Great. §11. Extent of his discoveries. §12. Arrian: 
histories of Alexander's life. 

§ 1. Geographical knowledge made immense progress during the 
ceiitm-ies that elapsed between Homer the first of the poets, and 
Herodotus the first of the historians. Xor was it confined simply to 
the increased extent of the earth's surface laid open to civilization : 
contemporaneously with this there sprung a spirit of scientific 



24 THE AYORLD OF THE GEEEK HISTOEIA>s^S. Book I. 



inquiry, which, not satisfied with the simple creed of an earlier age, 
sought out the physical nature of the earth, and of the phenomena 
connected with its economy. Among the various causes which led 
to these results, the following may be enumerated as most jjromi- 
nent : — (1.) The advance of commerce and colonization ; (2.) voy- 
ages of discovery ; (3.) the spirit of intellectual activity ; (4.) his- 
torical events. 

(1.) Ackancc of Commerce mid Colonization. — The spirit of commercial 
adventure was at an early period developed in the inhabitants of 
the isles and towns of the JEg^ean Sea. The -^ginetans, and at a 
later period the Rhodians distinguished themselves for their bold 
seamanship ; the latter are said to have planted colonies in Iberia and 
among the Opicans and Daunians of Italy. The foundation of Meta- 
pontum in Italy by the Pylians on their return from Troy, and of 
Cumse by Euboeans of Chalcis, cannot be regarded as well authen- 
ticated ; but there can be no doubt that from the eighth century the 
coasts of Magna Graccia in Italy and of Sicily were constantly visited 
by the Greeks, who planted the following colonies on them : Kaxos 
(7o5 B.C.) ; Syracuse, Hybla, and Thapsus (734) ; SybS-ris (72u) ; Croton 
(710); Tarentum (708); Locri Epizephyrii (683); Rhegium (r>68); 
Himera (648) ; and Selinns (about 628), The Phoceeans of Ionia 
explored the coavsts of Spain, Gaul, Western Italy, and the Adriatic: 
they were reputed to be tlie founders of Massilia, Marseilles (B.C. 600), 
and certainly settled at Alalia, in Corsica, about B.C. 564. The Samians 
under Cola^us (about 700 B.C.) had penetrated beyond the Straits of 
Gibraltar to Tartessus : they were followed by the Phocacans, who 
settled there, in the year 63o B.C. 

In another direction, the Milesians had thoroughly explored the 
Euxine, and are said to have changed its name from Axinus "inhospit- 
able" to the more propitious name of Euxinus "hospitable." They lined 
its coasts with flourisliing colonies during the eighth and two follow- 
ing centuries, B.C., other commercial towns following their example, 
but not to the same extent. Of these colonies we may notice, on the 
southern coast, Heraclea, Sin5pe, Amisus, Trapezum ; on the eastern, 
Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria ; in the Tauric Chersonese, Panti* 
capseum ; on the northern coast, Tanis and Olbia ; and on the western, 
Istria, Tomi, Callatis, Odessus, Apollonia, and Salmydessus. 

Lastly, by the foundation of Cyrene b}" the Theroeans (B.C. 630), 
and by the liberal policy of the Egyptian king Psammetichus, who 
gave to the Greeks JS'aucratis as a commercial station, the continent 
of Africa, hitherto a sealed book to European nations, was opened to 
them. 

It should be remembered that each colony was a fresh starting point 
for more extended discoveries, the limits of which cannot be fixed with 
any precision. Herodotus (iv. 24) informs us that the Greek merchants 
penetrated to the extreme north of Scythia, and even bej'ond this to 
the mountain range of Ural. Tartessus again was undoubtedly an 
entrepot for the prosecution of the northern trade in tin and other 
articles. From Naucratis the Greeks not only penetrated into Egypt, 
but learnt very much regarding the interior of Africa. 

(2.) Voyages of Discovery. — Foremost among these we must mention 
Necho's expedition for the circumnavigation of Africa, about 600 B.C. 
Herodotus, who records it (iv. 42), expresses his doubts as to the 



Chap. III. 



IXTELLECTUAL ACTIVITY. 



25 



account the Phoenician navigators gave, '^that the sun was on their 
right hand ;" this particular, however, forms the strongest argument 
in support of the real accomplishment of the undertaking, and it is the 
opinion of many distinguished geographers that the Cape of Good 
Hope was doubled more than 2u00 years before the time of Yasco de 
Gama's discovery. It is important to observe that the Phoenicians 
started from the Ped Sea and returned through the Straits of Gibraltar, 
thus gaining the advantage of the northern monsoon to carry them 
southwards to the tropic, thence a strong current setting to the south 
along the coast of Africa, and after doubling the Cape, the southern 
trade-wind to carry them home. 

Sataspes undertook an expedition with a similar object, by the com- 
mand of Xerxes, w^hich proved a failure ; the result is attributable to 
his having taken the opposite course, starting through the Straits of 
Gibraltar, in consequence of which he found himself baffled when he 
reached the coast of Guinea (Herod, iv. 43). The course at present 
taken by sailing ships is to cross over to the coast of South America, 
in order to avail themselves of the trade-wind. 

An expedition into the interior of Africa was undertaken by some 
Xasamonians, as related by Herodotus (ii. 32) ; they reached a large 
river flowing from west to east (probably the Niger), and a town 
occupied by negroes (perhaps Tiinhuctoo). 

Lastly, Scylax of Caryanda explored the Indus at the command of 
Darius Hystaspis ; he started from Caspatyrus, descended the river to 
the sea, and thence returned by the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea 
(Herod, iv. 44).i 

(3.) Intellectual Activity. — The spirit of commercial activity thus 
developed among the Greeks of Asia Minor, awakened a corresponding 
degree of intellectual excitement. The earliest school of physical 
science arose in that district under the guidance of the celebrated 
teachers Thales (b.c. 640-550), Anaximander (b.c. 610-547), and Anaxi- 
menes, who flourished about 530 B.C. The opinions entertained by 
these philosophers will be hereafter noticed. Of these, Anaximander 
conferred the most direct benefit on practical geogj-aphy, by the in- 
troduction of maps of the w^orld. 

The Ionian School was succeeded by the Eleatic, founded by Xeno- 
phanes of Colophon about the year 536 B.C., and the Atomic School of 
Leucippus about 500 B.C., and lastly by that founded by Pythagoras, 
w^ho flourished about 540-550 B.C. ; to the latter is assigned the credit of 
having discoA^ered the spherical form of the earth, a doctrine which did 
not gain general acceptance \mtil the time of Plato. Some of the 
philosophers contributed to the advance of practical geography : we 
may instance Democritus of Abdera, w^ho composed several works, 
'^Periplus of the Ocean," Periplus of the Earth," &c., containing the 
results of his own observations; and Heraclitus of Ephesus (b.c. 500), 
who undertook and described a journey to the Ocean. 

Another class of writers, the logograjDhers, gave to the world de- 
scriptions, partly historical, partly geographical, of the various countries 
laid open. Of the majority of these, only the titles and a few frag- 
ments remain ; yet these are interesting as shomng the increased range 
of knowledge and the lively interest felt by the public on this subject. 



^ The expedition of Hanno occurred about this same period, but the notice of it 
is postponed, as it does not appear to have been known to Herodotus. 

2 The following is a list of the names and dates of the authors, with the titles 
AXC. GEOa. C 



26 



THE WORLD OF THE GPwEEK HISTORIAXS. Book I 



The most important of these \vi'iters was Hecatseus, of whom, as the 
more immediate predecessor of Herodotus, we shall give a special 
notice. Of the others it may be observed that Hellanicus is supposed 
to have mentioned ''Rome," and Damastes certainly did so : the 
latter writer and Pherecydes exhibited a very advanced knowledge of 
the western districts of Europe. 

(4.) Historical events had their influence on the knowledge of geo- 
graphy. The growth of the Persian empire had excited curiosity as to 
the interior of Asia, and had opened fresh sources of information re- 
garding the distant regions of the east. The expedition of Darius 
against Scythia, which he penetrated perhaps as far as the Volga, and 
his conquest of upper India, drew attention to both of those quarters. 
The disputes with the Ionian Greeks, and the subsequent invasions of 
Greece, led to the valuable information preserved to us in the pages of 
Herodotus. Xor should we omit notice of the facilities offered for 
travelling throughout the vast extent of the Persian empire. Hero- 
dotus gives a detailed account (v. 52) of the royal road from Sardis to 
Susa^ which was fui-nished with, stations at regular intervals. 

§ 2. Hecata^iis of Miletus flourished about 500 B.C., and took an 
active part in the political events of the day, particularly in the 
Ionian revolt. Previously to this he had travelled extensively, 
visiting Egypt, Persia, the coast of the Euxiue, Thrace, Greece, 
Italy, Spain, and Africa ; and he embodied the results of his obser- 
vations in two works, the one geographical, the other historical. 
The former was named a " Survey of the World," and consisted 
of descriptions of the different districts of the then known world. 
His opinions are frequently referred to, indirectly, by Herodotus. 
Hecataaus supposed the habitable world to be an exact circle, sur- 
rounded by the Ocean, with which the Nile was connected at its 
source. He divided the land into two continents, the northern being 
Europe, and the southern Asia ; these were separated by the Straits 
of Gibraltar in the W., and the Tanais, or more probably the 
Araxes and Caucasus, in the E. Libya he considered as a part of 
Asia : he describes the western parts of Europe at greater length 
than even Herodotus himself, and added much to the previous 
knowledge of Thrace, the coasts of the Euxine and Casi3ian seas, 
and the inhabitants of Caucasus, Persia, and India.^ 



of their works: — 'Miletus and Ionia/ by Cadmus of Miletus (b.c. 520); 'De- 
scription of tlie World,' * Persia, Troas, &:c.,' by Dionysius of Miletus (b.c. 510) ; 
' Description of the World,' containing- special chapters on Asia, Europe, Africa, Arc, 
by Hecatteus of Miletus (b.c. 549-486); 'Ethiopia, Libya, and Persia,' and a 
'Periplusof the Lands outside the Pillars of Hercules,' by Charon of Lampsacus 
(B.C. 480); 'Lydia,' by Xanthus (b.c. 480); 'Sicily,' by Hippys of Eheg-ium 
(b.c. 495); 'Troas, Persia, Egypt, and the Greek States,' by Hellanicus of Myti- 
lene; a ' Periplus,' 'Catalogue of Nations and Cities-,' 'Greek Chronicles,' by 
Damastes of Sigeum, or of Citium in Cyprus ; ' Antiquities of Attica,' by Pherecydes 
of Leros (about 500 b.c). 

3 The Eragments which remain are remarkable for the number of names which 
appear in no other writer : some of these admit of identific-ation with other forms, 
e.g. Darsians (Derseeans, Herod, vii. 110} ; Dattileptians (Danthaletians, Strab. vii. 



Chap. III. 



HECAT^US — 



HEEODOTUS. 



27 



Details of the Geographij of Heco.ta^v.s. — Among the names of interest 
which first appear in his wri:in_^s we may notice, in Europe — Pyrene 
(Pyrenees); the Celts of G'aul. \\ix\\ their town Xai^bo ; Massilia ; the 
(Enotri and Ausonians of Icaly: Xohi. Lipygia. Syracuse, and various 
other towns of Sicily ; Cyrnus Coi'sica ; the lllyrians and Liburniaus, 
and the Melanchleeni of Scythia : in Asia — Pontus EHxinns : the Hyr- 
canian \ Caspian^ sea ; the Colchians, Moschians, Armenians, and 
Tibarenians; the Caspian gates: the Parthians and Chorasmians ; the 
Indians,. wi:h the river Indus and the town Caspapyrus ; the Persian 
Gulf : Canytis in Syria Gaza ; and Chna (^Canaan, i. e. Phoenicia^ 
with Gabala Gebal , ; in Africa — Xagdulus Migdol) and Chembis 
.Chemmis). towns of Eg}-pt ; the Psyllians. Mazyans, Zauecians (com- 
pare the Eoman Z'rj.jitri\j . and Carthage on the northern coast, and 
the river Lizas. ]:<erhap^ the Lixus of Hanno. on the western. It 
maybe noticed that he names certain i-. ::d- in the yik. ^: ' - 
Chios, Lesbos, Cyprus, and Sam :s ; this :.. -r: perhaps : ■.• .. i 
an indication that Greek colonies wcre rlanicu on them. V/_.-:_-r 
the name Amalchium Mare ^= •• frozen sea "'^ applied to the Xorrhern 
Ocean originated with Hecat&us, is doubtful : it may be due to Heca- 
tceus of Abdera. Lastly, lie improved tiic map of Anaximander, and it 
has been supposed that it was his which Arisragoras showed to Cleo- 
menes, as related by Herodotus (v. 49 j. 

§ 3. Herodotus was born at Halicarnassiis, e.c. 484, and probably 
died at Thurii in Italy At an early age he entered upon a course 
of travel, and in his great historical work he has recorded much 
that he saw. Great diherence of opinion exists as to the extent 
of his ti^avels ; we have positive evidence that he visited Egypt 
(ii. 29). Cyrene (ii. 181), Babylon (i. 181-3), Ardericca in Susiana 
(vi. llH), Colchis (ii. 104;, Scyrhia (iv. 81), Thrace (iv. 90), 
Dodona (ii. 52), Zacynthiis (iv. j ^ ^ " ' - Gra^cia (iv. 15, 
V. 45). Sonie of these Cuimrrie>, Greece, Asia 

Alinor, and the islands of the ^Egctan >ra_. knew intimately : oi 
others his narrative shoAvs only a partial knowledge. He seems to 
have visited only the coast of Scythia, between the Danube and 
Bniepr ; the same may be said of Phoimicia, Syria, and Thi'ace, 
while in Magna Ci-ra^cia he notices only sc'me few of the Greek towns. 
The dates of the chief events of his life may be fixed with some 
probability as follows : Egyptian travels, e.g. 460-455 ; visit to 
Thrace, about e.g. 452 ; removal from Halicarnassus to CTreece, 
B.C. 447 ; removal to Thurii, e.g. 443. 

§ 4. As a geographer Herodotus has both merits and defects. 
Among the former we may notice the fidelity with which he records 
what he had himself seen, and the candour with w^hich he relates 



318); Mazyes (Mazykes, Ptol. iv. 3; Maxyes, Herod, iv. 191); Caspapyi-us 
(Caspatyrus, Herod, iii. 102, ; Zlibyrge Illiberis ; Ccinvns (Cadytis, Herod, ii. 
159); Zyg-antes (Gyzantes, Herod, iv. 194); others are ^vholly unkno^vn. 

4 The date of the death of Herodotus has been a subject of much dispute. Some 
writers phice it inB.c. 430, and others not earlier than b.c. 40S. 

c 2 



28 THE ^^ORLD OF THE GEEEK HISTOEIAXS. Book I. 



the statements of others, even when he himself attached no credit 
to them. To this latter quality we owe some of the most interesting 
notices in the whole of his Avork : since most of the statements which 
he regarded as incredible, some of which indeed are incredible in 
the form in which they appear, are nevertheless found to have a 
large substratum of truth, which, by the light of modern research, 
can be separated from the fiction mixed up with them. Among 
his defects we may notice the very unscientific and unmethodical way 
in which he treats his subject, and the indistinctness of his state- 
ments whenever he attempts a general sketch either of a land or of 
a continent. The first of these defects may be partly excused on 
the ground that his work was rather historical than geographical : 
the second, though not admitting of the same plea, may nevertheless 
be explained as resulting in many instances from a laboured attempt 
to be distinct, without a sufficient regard to the facts with which he 
deals : hence he adopts a symmetrical arrangement in cases where his 
subject does not admit of it. We may instance his account of the 
continent of Asia with its two acted (iv. 37 fl'), which is apparently 
simple enough, but becomes more and m.ore complicated as he goes 
on ; for he seems not to have observed that the four nations selected 
as occupying the heart of the continent, did not live due north of one 
another, nor yet that, according to his theory, the whole of Africa 
became merely an appendage of one of the actai. Again, his idea 
of the relative positions of Egypt, Cilicia, Sinope, and the mouth of 
the Danube, as being in the same meridian (ii. 34), can only be 
regarded as an instance of false symmetry. Lastly, his description 
of Scythia as a four-sided figure (iv. 101), has been quite a vexata 
quctistio to his commentators. 

§ 5. With regard to his general views as to the form, boundaries, 
and divisions of the world, Herodotus had gained sufficient know- 
ledge to lead him to reject the theory of Hecat£eus, that the world 
(^. e. the habitable world, the land) was " an exact circle as if 
described by a pair of compasses" (iv. 36), the projections of Arabia 
and Libya disproving this to his mind. He had not, however, 
sufficient knowledge to enable him to propound any theory of his 
own ; the boundaries of Europe, and consequently of the northern, 
eastern, and western parts of the world were unknown (iii. 115, iv. 
45), and it was therefore ridiculous in his eyes to attempt a defini- 
tion of its form. As far as we can gather from his description, he 
supposed the world to be oval rather than circular, Greece holding 
a central position (iii. 106). He rejected the idea of the river" of 
Ocean as a poetical fancy (ii. 23), and doubted whether the world 
was surrounded by the Ocean at all (iv. 8, 36, 45) ; though he 
does not expressly reject, yet he shows his extreme distrust of the 
report of a northern sea, which had evidently been reached (iii. 115). 



ClIAP. III. 



GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 



29 



He knew that the western shores of Europe ami Africa wei e washed 
by the Athant^c ocean (i. 203), which Avas connected with the 
Mediterranean at the PilLars of Hercules (iv. 42) ; and he further 
knew that the Athantic was connected with the great southern 
Ocean that surrounded Libya and Asia, which he names the 
Erythraean Sea (i. 203, iv. 4<j). With regard to the (]ivi>dr.n of the 
world into continents, he adopts, Avithout approving of, the re- 
cognised divisions into Europe, Asia, and Libya : his own view vras 
that the earth formed but one continent in reality (ij.Lr] iovo-r] yfj, 
iv. 45), and he dishked the ordinary division, j artly because it Avas 
iinsymmetrical, Europe being as large as the other tAvo put together 
(iv. 42), and partly because there was no Avell -defined boundary 
between Asia and Libya, the Xile, Avhich AA-as usually regarded as 
the boundary, dividing in its loAver course, so that the Delta was 
neither in Asia or Africa (ii. 16). Herodotus evidently considered 
Africa below the dignity of a continent : it is only a portion of the 
great southern projection of Asia (iv. 41), separated from Asia by 
Egypt (ii. 17, iv. 41), in short a district and not a continent ; at 
the same time he occasionally falls into the usual phraseology, and 
uses Libya as inclusive of Egypt (iv. 42). Herodotus justly notes 
the aAA'kwardness of dividing a country like Egypt betAveen the two 
continents (ii. 17), and insists that the land of the Egyptians 
must be regarded as one : it is singular that he did not see the way 
of meeting the difficulty by coustituting the Red Sea the boundaiy. 
He regarded Europe as co-extensiA-e Avith Asia in the east (iv. 42), 
and therefore he included^ northern Asia in it : the boundary 
between the tAA-o thus ran east and Avest, and consisted of the 
Mediterranean Sea, the Euxine, the Phasis, the Caspian Sea, and the 
Araxes (Jaxartes), as Ave gather from detached notices (iv. 37, 40). 
His vieAv of the contour of Europe is defective in the AA'est, for he 
supposes the land to stretch out beyond the Pillars of Hercules to 
a great extent (ii. 33). His knowledge of this continent did not 
go beyond the Lanul'C, except in the neighbourhood of the Euxine 
Sea. Asia AA^as knoAvn only as far as the Lidus eastward : from the 
direction which he gives to the course of that river (iv. 44), it 
AA'ould naturally be inferred that he carried the Ocean round towards 
the north before reaching its mouth. The peninsula of Arabia is 
duly accounted for in his description, but Asia Minor is disfigured 
by the undue contraction of its eastern side, AAdiich is represented as 
one hundred miles too little (i. 72). Africa Avas knoAvn as far south 
as Abyssinia, from AAdiich point Herodotus probably supposed the 
sea at once to trend round to the AV. The form of the northern 
coast is modified by the notice of only one Syrtis (ii. 32). 

§ 6. The most important physical features in the world of 
Herodotus are the seas, rivers, and mountains, the last being but 



30 



THE WOELD OF THE GEEEK HISTOEIAXS. Book I. 



inadequately noticed as compared with the two former. The seas 
are the Mediterranean, Euxine, Caspian, and Eed Sea. The rivers 
are the Nile, Danube, Halys, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, Tyras, 
Borysthenes, Araxes, and several other Scythian rivers. The 
mountains are Caucasus, the Matienian mountains. Atlas, Ha?mus, 
and several of the ranges in Greece. Of these objects a more 
particular account is given in the following paragraphs. 




Geogy^aphii of Herodotus — Physical Feat^ues. (1.) Seas. — The Medi- 
terranean was the only sea to which Herodotus applies the term 
Qa.Xa<T(xa: he describes it as our" sea (tjSc t] Od\a<r(ra, i. 1, 185, iv. 



Chap. III. 



GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 



31 



41) , and the uorthern " sea in reference to Africa (ii. 11, 32, 158, iv. 

42) — a name which it still retains among the Arabs ; it was divided 
into the following subordinate seas, to which he applied the terms 
koAttos, ttSvtos^ and TzeKayos — the Adriatic (6 'Khpi-qs, i. 163) the Ionian 
Gulf, which is another term for the Adriatic (vi. 127, vii. 20), at all 
events for the eastern coast of the Adriatic ; the ^gsean, of which he 
notices the width (x^-^f^^ ireXdyeos, iv. 85) ; the Icarian (vi. 95), off the 
coast of Caria; the Sardinian ! i. 166) ; the Eg3'ptian (ii. 113); and the 
parts about the islands Carpathus (iii. 45), and Rhodes (i. 174). The 
Euxine is named " Pontus," as being the largest inland sea with which 
the Greeks of that day were acquainted : in reference to Asia it is the 

northern" sea (iv. 37), in reference to Scythia, the "southern" (iv. 
13). Herodotus exaggerates its size (iv. 85) ; its length, between the 
points which he incorrectly regards as extreme, being 630 miles, 
instead of 1280, and its breadth 270, instead of 380 : its greatest length 
in reality is through the middle of the sea, and the greatest width 
between the mouths of the Telefpil and Sakkariyeh. The Palus Mseotis 
[Sea of Azov) Herodotus describes as nearly as large as the Euxine (iv. 
86) ; in this he exaggerates ; it is highly probable, however,^ that it 
extended eastward along the course of the Jlanytch for a considerable 
distance, as he implies (iv. 116), and, from the present rate of its 
decrease, we may well suppose it to have been four or five times as large 
as it is now. Great changes have undoubtedly taken place in the levels 
of the land north of the Euxine, by which some of the rivers have 
altered their courses, and others have altogether disappeared : Hero- 
dotus' description of the Crimea as an o.cte (projecting tract of land) 
similar to Attica (iv. 99), would lead us to suppose that the Putrid Sea 
had come into existence since his time. The Bosporus, Propontis, 
and Hellespont, are described with tolerable accuracy (iv. 85). The 
Caspian is more accurately described by Herodotus than by many of 
his successors: he knew it to be a distinct sea (i. 203), whereas it was 
generally believed after his time to be connected with the northern 
Ocean: the proportions which he assigns to its length and width (750 
and 400 ; i. 203) are very nearly correct ; nor is there any reason to 
infer that he reversed the position of the lake as is occasionally repre- 
sented in Herodotean maps. The Sea of Aral is not noticed : it has been 
conjectured, by many eminent geographers, that the Caspian extended 
very much to the eastward so as to include Aral, and the appearance 
of the country favours this idea. Geologists, however, have come to 
the conclusion that the elevation, which separates these two seas, 
occurred at a period anterior to the creation of man, and even before 
the separation of the Caspian fi'om the Euxine by the elevation of 
Caucasus. The Caspian has, nevertheless, undergone great changes 
even in historical times; not improbably the G) elf of Kuli Derya, on 
its eastern coast, extended far over the alluvial flats to the eastward, 
receiving the Oxus {Jiihvn) by a course which may still be traced. 
The Red Sea is described as the Arabian Gulf (ii. 11) ; Herodotus 
probably supposed that the breadth which he had seen at the Gulf of 
Suez (about twenty-five miles) continued through its whole course ; 
for he gives it as half a day's journey in a row-boat, whereas it is in 
reality 175 miles. 

(2.) Rivers. — In Europe the Ister (D viube) was the largest river 
known to Herodotus : he placed its sources very much too far west- 
ward near Pyrene, a city of the Celts beyond the Pillars of Hercules 
(ii. 33), and supposed it thus to intersect Europe in its whole length 



32 THE AVORLD OF THE GREEK HISTORTAXS. Book I. 



Its tributaries are described at length (iv. 49), but cannot be wholly 
identified : on the right bank, the Alpis and Carpis must represent 
streams that rise on the Alps, either the Save and Brave, or the Salza 
and Inn ; the Angrus, which flows through the Triballiau plain, may 
be the Fbar ; it ^vas a tributary of the Brongus, Morava ; the Scius is 
probably the Isker ; the other six which he enumerates are unim- 
portant streams between the Is^:er and the sea ; Herodotus is mistaken 
in describing them as large : on the left bank of the Ister, the Maris is 
the Marosch, which falls not immediately into the Danube but into 
the T/ieiss ; the Tiarantus is the Schyl, the Ararus the Abda, the Xaparis 
the Ardisch, the Ordessus the Sereth, and the Por^ta the Pruth. The 
lower course of the Ister is awkwardly described : it is said to discharge 
itself into the Euxine in the same meridian as the Xile, opposite Sinope 
(ii. 3-1:), and near Istria (ii. 33): neither of these statements can be re- 
conciled with the facts : Istria was sixty miles from the present mouth 
of the river, ground of considerable elevation intervening ; and in what 
sense Herodotus sujiposed the Danube to be opposite Sinope is a mystery : 
we may perhaps attribute his remarks to his love of symmetiy. Of 
the other rivers of Europe he notices — in Scythia, the Tyras, Dniestr ; 
the Hypanis^ Bowi ; the Borysthenes, Dnicpr ; the Panticapes, which 
cannot be identified, flowing into the Borysthenes, and having its course 
in a more easterly direction; the Hypacyris, which is described as 
reaching the sea near Kalardchak, after having received a branch of the 
Borysthenes. named the Gerrhus; and the Tanais, Don (iv. 51-57) : 
beyond Scythia, the Hyrgis (iv. 57) or Syrgis (iv. 123), perhaps the 
Donetz, a tributar}^ of the Don ; the Oarus, perhaps the Volii", which, 
however, is described as flowing into the Palus Majotis (iv. 123) ; and 
the Lycus : lastly the Pha.^.is in Colchis (i. 2), which formed the 
boundary between Europe and Asia. The Eridanus is noticed as 
flowing (according to report) into the Northern Ocean : Herodotus 
discredited the report (iii. 115) ; but without doubt the shores of the 
Baltic were visited for the sake of procuring amber, and the name 
Eridanus may still survive in the TJiodanne which flows by Dantzic. 

or the rivers in Asia Herodotus notices the Halys as rising in the 
mountains of Armenia (i. 72) and flowing (in its lower course) in a 
northerly direction between Syria (/. e. Cappadocia) and Paphlagonia 
(i. 6) : the Thermodon and the Parthenius, about which the Syrians 
(Cappadocians) lived (ii. 104); the latter is probably not the Bartan, 
but some other river of the same name east of the Halys : the 
Euphrates, as dividing Cilicia and Armenia (v. 52), and flowing by 
Babylon (i. 185) ; the Tigris, as flowing into the Erythraean Sea (i. 
189), after having received two rivers having the same name (the two 
Zabs), and the Gyndes, probably the Diala (v. 52) : the story of the 
division of the latter into 360 channels (i. 189), may be founded upon 
the extensive hydraulic works for irrigation which were carried out on 
that river : the Choaspes, Kerkhah, on the banks of which Susa stood 
(1. 188 ; V. 49, 52) ; the river is now 1^ mile from the site of the 
city, but not improbably it formerly bifurcated and sent a branch 
by the town : the Aces, which is described as splitting into five 
channels (iii. 117), perhaps in reference to the waters of the Heri-rvd, 
which admits of being carried through the Elburtz range in the manner 
described ; the Indus, to which Herodotus assigns an easterly course 
(iv. 44), perhaps under the impression that the Oabnl was the main 
stream; and the Corys, in Arabia, represented as a large river (iii. 9), 
but probably identical with the small torrent of Core. The Araxes 



ClIAP. III. 



GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 



33 



cannot be identified with any single river : the name was probably an 
appellative for a river, and was applied, like our Avon, to several 
streams, w^hich Herodotus supposed to be identical : the Araxes which 
he describes as rising in the Matienian mountains (i. 202), is the river 
usually so called, flowing into the Cyrus ; the Araxes which separated 
the Massagetse from Cyrus's empire is either the Oxus or the Jaxartes 
(i. 201) ; the Araxes which the Scythians crossed into Cimmeria is 
probably the Volga (iv. 11). 

In Africa the Nile is described as of about the same length as the 
Danube (ii. 33) ; its sources were entirely unknown (ii. 28, 34), nor 
does Herodotus notice the division iuto the Blue and "White Nile, 
but the easterly course described in ii. 31, and the supposed course 
as described in caps. 32 and 33*, would apply (if at all) to the latter 
of the two branches. The periodical rise of the Nile is attributed 
to the unequal force of the sun's attraction (ii. 25). The cataracts 
{Katadupi) are noticed (ii. 17, 29): the windings of the river below the 
23rd par. of lat. are transferred to the district near Elephantine 
(ii. 29). The division of the main stream at the head of the Delta 
into three large and four smaller channels is noticed (ii. 17). The 
other rivers noticed in Africa are the Triton (iv. 178) described as a 
large river flow^ing into Lake Tritonis : no large river, however, exists 
in the district referred to : the lake probably includes the Shibk-el- 
lowdeah and the Lesser Syrtis, the Triton being one of the streams 
flowing into the lake: the Cinyps (iv. 175), near Leptis, was a mere 
torrent not easily identifled. The Niger is probably the river which 
the Nasamonians reached (ii. 32). 

(3.) Mountain Chains. — Herodotus is peculiarly defective in his 
notices of mountains. Caucasus is correctly described as the loftiest 
chain known in his day (i. 203): Atlas is described, not as a chain, but 
a peaked mountain, somewhere in south-eastern Algeria (iv, 184): the 
great range of Taurus is not noticed at all : the mountains of Armenia 
are generally noticed (i. 72) ; the Matienian mountains, which con- 
tained the sources both of the Araxes, Aras, and the Gyndes, Diala (i. 
189, 202). answ^er to the Abus range and the northern ]3art of Zagrus; 
the names alone of the European ranges were known to him, but were 
transferred to other objects, Pyrene (the Pyrenees) to a town ii. 33), 
Alpis and Carpis (the Alps and Carpathians) to rivers (iv. 49): t\ieUral 
range is referred to in the account of the ^gipodes, and as forming 
the boundary between the Issedonians and Argippaeans (iv. 23, 25), 
and the gold mines of the Altai are probably referred to in iv. 27. Of 
the ranges nearer Greece he notices H?emus [iy. 49), Rhodope (iv. 49), 
Panga^um (vii. 112), and Orbelus (v. 16) in Thrace. 

§ 7. The political and topographical notices are very nneqnall}' 
distributed over the map of the world as Herodotns w^onld have 
delineated it. In the west of Europe, we have not nearly so many 
notices as Hecatasus gives us. Scytbia, on the other hand, is very 
fully described ; so also is the sea-coast of Thrace, in connexion 
with the Persian expeditions : the notices of spots in Greece are, of 
course, very numerous. In Asia, the political divisions are fully 
and correctly given, according to the system of satrnpies established 
in the Persian empire : the topographical notices of the western 
coast of Asia Minor are numerous, as might be expected : in other 

c 3 



34: 



THE WOULD OF THE GREEK HISTORIANS. Book I 



quarters they are scanty. In Africa, Egypt is fully described ; so 
also is the sea-coast as far as Carthage westward, and the tribes 
occupying the interior at a short distance from the coast. We sub- 
join a brief review of each continent. 

Geography of Herodotus — FoJitical Divisions. (1). Europe. — 
Commencing from the W., we have notice of Iberia (Spain) (i. 163), 
with the towns Tartessus (iv.- 152) and Gadeira, Cadiz (iv. 8), and 
the island Erytlieia (iv. 8), either Trocadero or an island which 
has been absorV>ed into the mainland by the deposits of the 
Guadalquiver. Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, in the extreme W., 
were the Cynesians (ii. '^'^), or Cyuvfc^ (iv. ^^9), a people but seldom 
afterwards noticed. Next to these came the Celts, with the town 
Pyrene and the sources of the Danube (ii. 33, iv. 49). In Gaul we 
have notice of the Ligyans (Ligurians) as living above Massalia, Mar- 
seilles (v. 9), and of the Elisyci {\u. 1*>5V In Italy — a name which first 
appears in Herodotus (i. 24, iv. 15). a. s applicable, however, only to the 
southern district of Magna Grircia — we have notice of Tyrrhenia 
(i. 94, 103) on the western coast, the Ombrici (iv. 49), or Unibrians, 
lapygia (iv. 99) at the heel, O^notria to the S.W., and various well- 
known towns, of which we need oul}^ observe that Vela and Posidonia 
(i. 167) are the same as Elea and Prcstum. Of the islands off the 
coast of Italy, we hear of Sardo, Sard iju'a , which he correctly describes 
as the largest in the then known wt)rUl (^i. 170, v. 106, vi. 2) ; Cyrnus, 
Corsica, with the Phoca^an colony of Alalia (i. 165, vii. 165); PvUd 
Sicily (vii. 170 \, in which he notices the majority of the Greek 
colonies, Messana a])pcarin!:: luuler the name Zancle (vi. 22). The name 
''Hellas" appears as an ct lino logical title applying to any country 
where Hellenes were settled, and tlins including spots in Italy, Asia 
Minor, and Africa ^i. ii. ISJ, iii, xu. 156). The country of 
Greece receives no gcnci'al title; but the southern peninsula is described 
as Peloponnesus (viii. 73), and the land of Pelops (vii. 8). The notices 
of places and j^eoples are very numerous, but contain little that is 
peculiar; the omission of the name Epirus may be noticed. The name 
Macedonia applies in Herodotus only to the district south of tlie 
Haliacmon, the remainder being described according to the names of 
the separate tribes. In Illyria, the Enoti. ^\ llcfia)ls (i. 196), and the 
Eucheleans (v. 61, ix. 43) on the coast above Epidamnus, are noticed; 
the Triballian plain is probably Servia (iv. 49), and the Sigynnai 
(v. 9), north of the Danube, may be placed in Hungary and the ad- 
jacent countries; beyond this the country was deemed uninhabitable 
from the bees (probably the mosquitoes) about the river (v. 10). The 
Thracians are noticed as a very powerful race, divided into a great 
number of tribes, of which the Getoe (of Dacia) were the most power- 
ful (v. 3, iv. 93); there is little of special interest in his notices of 
the other tribes. The northern coast of the ^ga^an, together witJi 
the towns upon it, is described at length, and in a manner that 
does not call for observation; the eastern district is also noticed in de- 
scribing the Thracian expedition of Darius (iv. 89-93) ; the route that 
he followed is not clearly marked out; he struck into the interior to 
the western side of the Little Bidkan, passing by the sources of the 
Tetirus, Stmerdere. whose 38 fountains can still be numbered, a 
tributary of the Contadesdus, Karisldiran. and this of the Agrianes, 
Erkene, which joins the Hebrus; then he met with the Artiscus, gene- 



Ch^p. Jil. 



GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 



35 



rally identified with the Arda, hut more probably the Telcedereli more 
to the E. ; he crossed Ihe Balkan in the neighbourhood of Burghaz, 
and thence followed the defiles that skirt the sea coast. Scythia and the 
countries adjacent to it are described at considerable length in Book iv. 
(17-20, 99-117) ; his account of the shape of the country in cap. 101 has 
been variously understood, but may be most simply explained in the 
following manner: Herodotus regarded the coast' from the mouth of 
the Danube to that of the Tanais as a straight line, the inten^iption 
caused by the Or i'mea being overlooked; this line formed one side of 
his quadrilateral figure, which thus touched two seas, the Euxine and 
the Pal us Mseotis. The position of the other sides was regulated by 
this : the western boundary joined the sea at the mouth of the later, 
which thus touched Scythia obliquely (cap. 49) without forming the 
boundary throughout its course; the eastern boundary was in great 
measure formed by the Tanais ; and the northern was an imaginary 
line drawm from the upper course of the Tanais at the distance 
of 4000 stades from its mouth to the upper course of the Tyras, at a 
similar distance. The inhabitants of this district were partly Scyth- 
ized Greeks, but mainly Scythians ; the tribes on the northei-n and 
eastern frontiers were not Scythians, but still resembled the Scythians 
in many respects. The position of the various tribes referred to 
may be described thus: the Callipida) and the Alazones betw^een the 
Hypanis and Tyras, the former on the sea-coast, in the modern Klier- 
son; the Agathyrsi in Transylvania; the agricultural Scythians be- 
tween the Hypanis and the Panticapes, which was probably somewhat 
eastward of the Borysthenes, in Efcaterinoslav ; the Xeuri in Volhijnia 
and Lithuania; the Androphagi (" cannibals") inKoiirsk and Tehernigov ; 
the nomad Scythians, eastward of the Panticapes in the eastern parts 
of Elcaterinoslav and in Kharkov ; the Royal Scythians in Taurida and 
the steppes of the Don CossacJcs ; the Budini and Geloni in part of 
Tambov ; the Melanchlseni black-coats") betv/een the Tanais and the 
Desna in Orlov and Toida ; and the Sauromatse on the steppe between 
the Don and the Volga. The positions of the other tribes can only 
be conjectured; the Thyssagetse, W. of the Volga, about Simhirsk ; 
the lyrcse on the opposite bank of that river ; the Revolted Scythians 
on the left bank of the Kaama; the Argippsi on the western slopes 
of the Ural range, about the sources of the river just noticed; the 
Issedones on the opposite side of Ural; and the Arimaspi perhaps about 
the western ranges of the Altai. Within the limits of Herodotus' s 
Europe, we must also include the Massagetee, who occupied the steppes 
of the Kirghiz Tartars between the Volga and the Sirr, the latter being 
probably the Araxes intended by Herodotus (i. 201). The only places 
noticed in this wide district are — Olbia or Borysthenes (iv. 18), at the 
mouth of the Hypanis ; Prom. Hippolaus, on the opposite, i.e. the left 
bank of that river ; the Course of Achilles, the Cosa Tendra, and Cosa 
Djarilgatch ; Carcinitis, probably Kalantchak (55); and Cremni on the 
northern coast of the Majotis (20). The Crimea is described under the 
name Taurica, the eastern part being named the Rugged Cher- 
sonese" (99), which was separated from the rest of the country by 
the slaves' dyke (20). With regard to the northern districts of Europe 
Herodotus appears to have heard a rumour of the large lakes oi Ladoga 
and Onega, as he describes the Tanais as rising in a large lake (57). 
The more western districts he supposed to be utterly unknown, and 
therefore rejects the reports of the amber brought from the coasts of 
the Baltic and the tin from the Cassiterides (iii. 1 15). 



36 THE WOELD OF THE GEEEK HISTOEIAXS. Book I. 



(2). Asia. — Asia ]\Iinor was occupied, according to Herodotus, by 15 
races, arranged thus : four on the southern coast from E. to W., the 
Cilicians, Pamph3dian3, Lycians, and Caunians ; four on the \yestern 
coast from S. to N., the Carians, Lydians, Mysians, and Greeks; four 
on the shores of the Euxine, the Thracians, Mariandyniaus, Paphla- 
gonians, and Cappadocians; and three on the central plateau, the 
Phrygians, Chalybes, and Matieni. The divisions occupied by these 
tribes varied considerably from those of a later period; the Cilicians 
crossed the ranges of Taurus and Antitaurus, and occupied the upper 
valley of the Halys i. 72), extending eastward to the Euphrates and 
the border of Armenia (v. 52;. Pamphylia probably included the 
southern part of Pisidia, which is nowhere named by Herodotus, the 
northern portion falling to Phrygia. Lycia extended westward to the 
river Calbis ; it was divided into three districts, Lycia Proper along the 
coast, occupied by the Termilce and the Troes; Milyas, the eastern 
half of the inland plain, on tlie borders of Pisidia ; and Cabalia, SafaJa, 
the western half, to the Oalbis, which was occupied by the Cabaliaus 
and Lasonians, remnants of the old Maeonian people. The Caunians 
occupied the coast from the Calbis to the Ceramian bay, which was after- 
wards known as Persea. Caria included the western coast from the 
Ceramian bay to the mouth of the Meeander ; Lydia thence to the bay 
of Elaea, while to Mysia its usual limits were assigned ; the Greeks 
were dispersed over the western coast — the Dorians in the peninsula 
of Cnidus and along the northern shore of the Ceramian bay ; the 
lonians from the bay of lassus to the river Hermus, with the Phoca?an 
peninsula to the north of it ; and the ^olians from Smyrna to the 
bay of Adramyttium, tliough he occasionally implies that they extended 
above this point over the whole of Troas (i. 151, v. 122). On the 
northern coast, Thrace corresponds with the later Bithynia, as far as 
the river Sangarius; this district was occupied by two tribes which 
immigrated from Europe, tlie Thynians and the Bithyniaus, the former 
occupying the coast, the latter the interior. The Mariandyniaus held 
the coast between the river Sangarius and Prom. Posidium (C. Baha), 
and the Paphlagonians thence to the Halys, while the Cappadocians 
occupied the remainder of the coast to Armenia, and the northern 
portion of the table-land, including apart of Galatia. In the interior 
the Matieni occupied the table-land about the upper course of the 
Halys vthe later Cappadocia), while the Phrygians held the whole of the 
remainder, including Lycaonia, Phryiria, and parts of Galatia, Pisidia, 
and even Lydia, the Catacecaumene being considered as part of it. 
The Chalybes dwelt in the mountain ridges that run parallel to the 
Euxine in the neighbourhood of Siuope. The Hygennians (iii. 9(») are 
not noticed by any other writer ; perhaps the reading should be Hy- 
tennians, the people of Etenna in Pisidia. Proceeding eastward we 
come to Armenia, separated from Cilicia by the Euphrates ( v. 52), and 
extending over a considerable portion of Mesopotamia, which is nowhere 
noticed by Herodotus as a separate district. Contiguous to Armenia on 
the E. was a district named Pactyica (iii. 93\ distinct from the one 
noticed in iv. 4-4. Xorthward of Armenia lay Colchis, whose inhabit- 
ants, dark-complexioned and woolly-haired, were believed by Herodotus 
to be of Egyptian extraction -^ii. 104) ; the mythical ^Ea was placed 
in this coantry (i. 2, vii. 198j. South-west of Armenia, and conter- 
minous with Cilicia, was Syria, which commenced at Posidium, Bosyty 
about 12 miles S. of the Orontes (iii. 91), and extended along the 
coast of the Mediterranean sea to the borders of Egypt, with the excep- 



Chap. III. 



GEOGEAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 



37 



tion of a small interval between Cadytis, Gaza, and a place named 
lenysus, which belonged to the Arabians (iii. 5); the southern portion 
was termed Syria Palsestina and the northern Phoenicia (iii. 91). The 
towns Ascalon (i. 105), Azotus (ii. 157), Cadytis (ii. 159), and Agbataiia 
(iii. 62), are noticed in the former : Agbatana may perhaps have refer- 
ence to Batansea (Bashan), the first syllable representing the Arabic 
article el; Cadytis has been taken either for Jerusalem, the '^holy" 
city {Kedesh), or for Gaza; the notices favour the latter opinion; in 
Phoenicia, Tyre (ii. 44) and Sidon (ii. 116) are noticed. South of Syria 
was Arabia, which according to Herodotus touched the Mediterranean 
Sea between Cadytis and Jenysus, the exact position of which is un- 
known; it was on the coast near Egypt (iii. 5); the productions of tlie 
country are described at length (iii. 107-113); the term ^'Arabian" is 
used somewhat indefinitely by Herodotus ; Sennacherib is termed king 
of the Ai'abians," and his army the Arabian" host (ii. 141). Con- 
tiguous to Arabia on the E. was Assyria, of which Babylonia formed 
a portion (iii. 92), with the towns Babylon (i. 178), Is, the modern 
Hit (i. 179), Aidericca, probably Akkerkuf{i. 185), Opis, probably 
Kliafaii, near the confluence of the Diala and Tigris (i. 189), and 
Ampe, near the former mouth of the Tigris (vi. 20); the advance of 
the coast prevents any identification of its site. Eastward of Assyria 
came Cissia (iii. 91), the Sasiana of later geographers, with the town 
Susa (v. 52), and a second Ardericca (vi. 119), perhaps at Kir-ah, 35 
miles ^v'.E. of Susa. In Persia no places are noticed; but the habits of 
the people are described at length (i. 131-140), and the tribes, which 
were of three classes — (1) three dominant races, the Pasargadse, Mara- 
phians, and ^laspians; (2) three agricultural, Panthialceans, Deru- 
siaeans, and Germanians (probably from Carmania) ; and (3) four 
nomad, Daans (i.e. rural ; the Dehavites of Ezra iv. 9), the Mardians 
! i.e. heroes), the Dropicaus, and the Segartians (i. 125). Xorth of Persia 
were the Medes, divided into six tribes (i. 101), with the to^Ti Agba- 
tana, TaTuit i-Sole'iman, in Atropatene (i. 98) ; westward, in the ranges 
of Zagrus, the ]\ratienians ; and north of these, in the upper valleys of 
the Cyrus, the Saspirians (i. 104, 110, iv. 37), perhaps the same as the 
later Iberians, with the Alarodians, about Lake Lychnitis ; and the 
Caspians on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. The positions of 
many of the nations enumerated in the account of the satrapies can 
only be conjectured; their probable localities are as follows: the 
Daritae^^ and Pausicse to the. S. of the Caspian Sea; the Pantimathi,'^ 
Paricanii, and Hyrcanii, at its south-eastern angle; the Sagartii in the 
desert of la.ter Parthia; the Parthi more to the X., about aSTisEea; the 
Chorasmii, Adi, Bactri, and Sogdi in their later districts ; the ^gli 
among the Sogdi, near Alexandria Ultima ; the Sacee between the head 
waters of the Oxus and laxartes; the Dadicse and Apai-yt^e. * in the 
southern part of Bactria ; the Gandarii on the banks of the Cahiil ; the 
Sattagydee* (the TJiatagush of the Assyrian inscriptions), about the 
upper course of the Etymander ; the Sarangpe about Aria lacus, and 
the Thamansei* to the X. of the same, the Paricanii* in the northern 
part of Beelocliistan, and the ^Ethiopians on the sea-coast; the Myci"^ 
(the MaTca of the inscriptions) about the neck of the Persian Gulf ; and 
the Orthocorybantes"^ perhaps in Media. The India of Herodotus is 
confined to the uj^per valley of the Indus, the Punjab; he notices a 



* The names thus marked do not appear in any other winter. 



38 THE WOULD OF THE GEEEK HISTORIAXS. Book I. 



second district named Pactyica with the town Caspatyrus (iii. 102), 
which has been identified with Cahul and with Cashmere, neither of 
which however agree with the notice of its being on the Indus 
(iv. 44) ; the Padsei (iii. 99), who were regarded even in the age of 
Tibullus^ as living in the extreme east; and the Callatians (iii. 38 , or 
Calantians (iii. 97) ; the abodes of these tribes are uncertain. Eastward 
of India (i.e. to the north of the Himalayan range), stretched the vast 
sandy desert (iii. 98), which reaches to the contiues of China. 

(3.; Africa. — The description of Egypt as an acquired country, the 
gift of the iSTile" (ii. 5), is, geologically speaking, incorrect. The level 
of Egypt has undoubtedly been raised by the alluvial deposit of the 
^s'ile, but the land has not gained upon the sea within historical times; 
the line of the coast remains very nearly what it was in the age of Hero- 
dotus. Still more incorrect is his notion of the influence of the Xile on 
the depth of the Mediterranean (ii. 5); the depth described (11 fathoms) 
is not found until within about 12 miles of the coast. His measure- 
ments are, as usual, exaggerated; the length of the coast is 300 miles, and 
not 400 (ii. 6), and that of the Delta from the coast to the apex about 
100 instead of 173 miles (ii. 7). His description of the Nile valley is not 
altogether reconcilable with the facts ; its breadth above the Delta is 
about 13 miles, instead of 23 (ii. 8) ; nor does the valley widen in the 
place described mid-way between Heliopolis and Thebes. The distance 
between these two places is 421 instead of 552 miles, and between 
Thebes and Elephantine, 124 instead of 206 (ii. 9^). Herodotus divides 
Egypt into two portions, the Delta (ii. 15), and Upper Egypt, which, 
however, he refers to but once (iii. 10); he notices 1 8 nomes only out of 
the 36 usually enumerated (ii. 165 ff.) ; and he describes most of the great 
works of art, particularly the Pyramids ( ii. 124-134) ,tlie Labyrinth, and 
Lake Maoris (ii. 148), and the canal which connected the Nile with the 
Red Sea (ii. 158, iv. 39). The notices of the towns are very numerous, 
and belong to the general geography of Egypt. To the S. of Egypt 
lived the Ethiopians, divided into two tribes — the Xomads (probably the 

iSTobatce" are intended), and the other Ethiopians (ii. 29); the capital 
of the latter was Meroe ; the northern capital, Xapata, is not Jioticed. 
Beyond the Ethiopians were the Automuli in Ahyssinia ; on the coast 
of the Red Sea, the Ichthyophagi fish-eaters";, whom Herodotus de- 
scribes as being met with at Elephantine (iii. 19), and the Macrobii 
near Caj^e Guardafui, in the extreme S. (iii*. 17). West of the valley 
of the Xile, seven days' journey from Thebes, was the citv' Oasis, the 
capital of the Great Oasis, eZ KhargeJi, "the island of the blessed" 
(iii. 26), and more to the north the Oasis which oontaiued the temple 
of Ammon, the modern Si wall (ii. 32). The remainder of northern 
Africa is divided by Herodotus into three zones, the sea- coast, the 
wild-beast tract, and the sandy ridge (ii. 32, iv. 181); the first of these 
represents Barlary or the states of Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and 
Tripoli : the second, the hilly district, parts of which are still infested 
with ^vild beasts; and the third the Sahara, which he elsewhere more 
distinctly describes as an uninhabitable desert beyond the sandy ridge 
(iv. 185), The tribes occupying the sea-coast district were diyided into 
two classes, the nomads as far as the Lesser Syrtis, and the agriculturists 
to the wesc of that point (186) : their residences were as follows : — the 
Adyrmachidee from the borders of Egypt to Port Piynus, probably Poi-t 



^ " Impia nec ssevis celebrans convivia mensis 

Vltima vicinus Phoebo tenet arva PadfBus." — iv. 1, 144. 



Chap. III. 



GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 



39 



Bardeah (iv. 168); the Gilligammsc tlieuce to the isle Aphrodisias, N. 
of Gyrene (iv. 169); they are not elsewhere noticed; the Asbystse, S. 
of Gyrene (iv. 170); Gyrenaica itself, occupied by a Greek colony, 
with the towns Gyrene and Barca (iv. 160, 199), and Irasa, probably 
El Kuhheli, ue&r Derna, with its beautiful spring (iv. 158;; westward 
of the Gilligammce, the Auschisee, touching the sea coast at Eues- 
perides. Bengliazi, and the Cabalians (compare modern Cahyles), near 
Tauchira, Taukra (iv. 171) ; the Xasamonians to the S. of the above- 
mentioned tribes, touching the sea at the eastern bend of the Syrtis 
Major (iv. 172); then the Psylli and the Macse on the shores of the 
Syrtis (iv. 173, 175); the Gindanes, nowhere else noticed, on the coast 
(iv. 176) ; the Lotophagi in Tripoli {iv. 177); the Machlyans about the 
southern coast of the Lesser Syrtis dv. 178); the Auseans, nowhere else 
noticed, on the western coast of the Syrtis (iv. 180); and westward of 
the Syrtis, the Maxyans (191); the Zavecians (193), not mentioned else- 
where; and the Gyzantians (194), or Zygantians, off whose coast was the 
isle Gyraunis, Karkenna ; the names of the two latter tribes may be 
traced in those of the Roman provinces Byzacium and Zeugitania ; Car- 
thage fell within the territory of the Gyzantians ; the place and its inha- 
bitants are frequently referred to (i. 166. iii. 17, 19, iv. 195); but its 
position is not defined. Of the more easterly regions of Africa Hero- 
dotus knew but little; he rightly describes it as extending beyond the 
Pillars of Hercules (185), and alludes to the ^"'dumb commerce" carried 
on between the natives and the Carthaginians (196). 2. In the wild- 
beast district he notices only the Garamantians, S. of the Xasamonians 
(174) ; if the reading is correct, of which there are doubts,^ ttiey must 
be regarded as distinct from the people, afterwards noticed (183). 3. 
In the sandy zone he places the Oases ; that of the Ammonians, Siwali, 
which, however, lies 20 days' journey (400 geog. miles; from Thebes, 
and not 10 days as described (181) ; Augila, which is correctly de- 
scribed (172, 182); the Garamantes in Fezzan (183), whence was a 
caravan route to the Lotophagi, coinciding Avith the present route from 
Murzouk to Tripoli; the Atarantians, perhaps the Tuariks of the 
Western Saluira (184) ; and the Atlantes about the range of Atlas 
(184) in Western Algeria. Below the sandy region in the interior 
were the Ethiopian Troglodytes (183), the Tibhoos to the S. of 
Fezzan. 

§ 8. The expedition of Cyrus, so graphically described by Xeuophon 
in his ' Anabasis,' abounds wutli geographical notices of the highest 
interest, relating to countries with which the Greeks of his day had 
little more than a general acquaintance. The expedition was under- 
taken by Cyrus in the year 401 b.c. wuth the object of dethroning 
his brother Artaxerxes, then in possession of the throne of Persia. 
His route may be briefly described as follows : starting from Sardis, 
he struck across Phrygia and Pisidia until he reached Cilicia ; 
entering that province by the pass over Taurus, named the " Cilician 
Gates," and leaving it by the " Syrian and Cilician Gates" on the 
shore of the Bay of Issus, he followed the line of coast to Myriandnis, 
whence he struck inland, and, crossing the range of Amanus by 



6 Pliny and Mela give tlie name as Gampliasantians. 



40 THE WOKLD OF THE GEEEK HISTOPJAXS. Book I. 



tlie pass of i>e^7a/?, entered on the plain of Syria, and reached the 
Euphrates in ahont 36^ lat. He crossed the river at Thapsacus, 
and descended the left bank of the stream through Mesopotamia to 
Cimaxa, a place some distance X.AV. of Babylon. Cyius lost his 
life in the battle that took place there, and the command of the 
Greeks devolved on Clearchns, and after his death on Xenophon. 
Returning very nearly on their former course as far as the Median 
wall, they struck across the plain of Babylonia to the Tigris, and 
crossing that river followed up its left bank to the borders of Ar- 
menia ; their course through the high lands of Armenia cannot be 
traced with certainty ; they ultimately reached the boundaries of 
Pontus. and from the range of Theches looked down on the Euxine 
Sea. They gained the coast at TrajDezus, and following it by land 
as far as Cotyora, they took ship, and were conveyed to Heraclea in 
Bithynia, whence they reached home by well-known routes.' 

§ 9. Ctesias, of Cnidus in Caria, was a contemporary of Xenophon, 
and was to a certain extent associated with him, if we may receive 
the statement of Diodorus that he was taken prisoner at the battle of 
Cunaxa. He passed many years in Persia as physician at the cotirt 
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, and on his rettirn to his native land he re- 
corded what he had seen in several works, of which his treatises on 
Persia and India were the most important. All that has survived 
of his writings is contained in an abridgment by Photius and a few 
fragments preserved in other writers. His credulity and love of the 
marvellous deservedly broudit him into great discredit. 

§ 10. The military expeditions of Alexander tlie Great form an 
important epoch in the history of ancient geography. Xot onl\' was 
the extent of the country over which he himself travelled very con- 
siderable, but the conquests which he effected had a permanent in- 
fluence on the future progress of discovery. The establishment of the 
Gi\Tco-Bactrian kingdom constituted a link between the extreme 
east of Asia and the west ; the subjection of the Punjab led his suc- 
cessors forward to the plains of Central India and to the mouth of 
the Ganges. A new world was, in short, opened to Greek enterjDrise, 
and physical science received a fresh impetus from the discovery of 
the rich and varied products of the eastern world. 

§ 11. The extent of Alexander's discoveries may be briefly de- 
scribed as reaching to the Jaxartes in the X.E., and the Hyphasis, 
or most easterly river of the Punjab, in the E. Between these 
limits and tlie borders of Persis lay a wide extent of country which 
had hitherto been a terra incognitci to the Greek?, comprising Parthia, 
Hyrcania, Aria, Mariiiaiia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Bactriana, Sogdiana. 



The topographical questions arising out of this narrative are referred to in 
a future chapter. 



Chap. III. XEXOPHOX—CTESIAS— ALEXANDER. 



41 



the countries lying along the course of the Indus and its tributaries, 
Gedrosia, and Car mania. 

§ 12. The intere.-t excited by these conquests is shown by the 
number of literary Avorks which Avere issued at the time — mostly 
the composition of persons attached to the army of Alexander. To 
give some idea of the literary zeal displayed, we append the names 
of the authors and the titles of their works.^ Most of the works 
themselves have been lost to us : but we fortunately possess a very 
faithful and gi'aphic narrative, written by Arrian in the second cen- 
tury after Christ, the materials of which were gathered from these 
contemporary sources, particularly from the AA'orks of Ptolemy and 
Aristobulus. 



^ ' The History of the Wars of Alexander,' by Ptolemy, son of Lagus ; ' The 
Journal' of Xearchiis, describing his voyage down the Indus end along the Indian 
Ocean to the mouth of the Euphrates ; ' The Annals of Alexander,' and other 
works, by Onescritus, describing the lands in the interior of Asia — Sogdiana, 
Bactria. &:c-, and India : he is the first to notice Taprobane, Ceylon ; 'History of 
Alexander,' by Cleitarchus, vrho not only describes India, but portions of the west 
and north of Europe; 'Alexander's Campaigns,' 'History of Greece,' by Anaxi- 
menes of Lampsacus ; 'Alexander's Campaigns,' by Aristobulus of Cassandria in 
Macedonia; 'History of Greece,' and other works, by Callisthenes of Olympus; 
* Alexander's Life,' byHieronymus of Cardia, the author also of an historical work 
describing the foundation and antiquities of Rome. 




P O X T 



INfap of the Chcrsonesus Trachea, according to Herodotus. 



( 42 ) 



CHAPTEE IV. 

THE WORLD AS KXOWX TO THE GEOGRAPHERS. 

§ 1. Review of the progress of discovery: India; Caspian Sea; China 
and the East : Western Europe : the Amber Isles : Atlantic Ocean : 
Phoenician influence : northern discoveries of Himilco and Pytheas : 
Africa^ Hanno. Euthymenes, Periplus of AiTian. § 2. Geographical 
writers. § 3. Eratosthenes. § 4. Hipparchus. § 5. Polybius. 
§ 6. Minor geographical writers. § 7. Strabo : Posidonius ; Ge- 
minus; Marinus. §8. The discoveries of the Romans : Italy, Illyria, 
Spain, Africa, Armenia, Gaul and Britain, Asia, Moesia, &c. § 9. 
Roman waiters: Caesar, Sallust, Tacitus, Livy. § 10. Mela; Pliny; 
Arrian; Pausanias. §11. Ptolemy; Agathemerus, Dionysius, Peri- 
egetes, Stephanus Byzantinus. § 12. PeripU and Itineraries. 

§ 1. We are now approaching the time when, under the auspices 
of Eratosthenes, geography was raised to the dignity of a science. 
Hitherto it had been treated incidentally and superficially ; in 
future we shall see it studied for its own sake and systematically, 
receiving li^ht and support from the sister sciences of mathematics 
and astronomy. But, before we enter upon this period, it is desirable 
to take a review of the position of geographical knowledge and the 
events which led to its gradual advance during the interval that * 
elapsed between Alexander the Great and the commencement of the 
Christian era. 

(1.) India. — The advance had thus far been directed towards the 
East : the conquests of Alexander may be said to have doubled the area 
of the world as known to the Greeks of his day. AYe cannot be sur- 
prised that his successors followed in the path which he had so suc- 
cessfully opened, and advanced the frontier of the known world from 
the Indus to the Ganges. This was achieved by Seleucus Xicator in 
his war with Sandrocottus, the records of which have been unfortu- 
nately lost: the date may have been about 300 B.C. Megastheues was 
despatched on an embassy to Palibothra (probably near Patna , the 
residence of Sandrocottus, and on his return he described what he had 
seen in a work on India in four books. Another ambassador, named 
Daimachns, spent several years at the court of Allitrochades, the suc- 
cessor of the king just mentioned, and he also gave an account of his 
experience. Various expeditions were sent into the Indian Ocean. 
Patrocles, the admiral of Seleucus Xicator, wrote an account of the 
one placed under his command ; and Euhemerus, who was sent by 
Cassander, did the same. The latter discovered, or pretended to have 
discovered, a number of islands, of which he gave a fabulous accoimt. 
The establishment of a regular commercial intercoiu^se with the shores 



Chap. IV. 



PEOGRESS OF DISCOVERY. 



43 



of India was due to the Egyptian Ptolemies. A navigator, named 
Hippalus, who had studied the character of the monsoms, ventured in 
a straight course from the Red Sea to the western coast of India, 
trading to Limynca, JIangalore. in tlie south, and Barygaza, Baroach, 
in the north. From these points the interior of Hindostan would 
become more or less known. 

(2.) Caspian Sea. — In the north of Asia the progress of discovery was 
but slow. The Caspian Sea presented in that age the same sort of 
problem which the '^north-west passage" has been in modern days, — 
the question to be decided being whether any communication existed 
between it and the northern ocean. Herodotus, as we have already 
seen, entertained a correct view on this point ; but among his suc- 
cessors the opinion gradually gained credence that such a passage did 
exist. Alexander the Great determined to settle the question, and 
would doubtless have done so had his life been extended. Patrocles, 
the admiral of Seleucus Xicator, was fully convinced of the existence 
of a north-west passage from India into the Caspian ; and his ignorance 
is the more singular from the ckcumstance that he was fully aware 
of the commercial route down the Oxus and across the Caspian. Both 
Eratosthenes and Strabo held to the same false view, and the error 
was not rectified until the latest period of ancient geography. 

(3.) China and tJte East. — The countries in the extreme east of Asia 
were to a certain extent known through the commerce carried on by 
way of Bactria. It is evident that the trade in silk was extensively 
prosecuted at this period, and that a regular overland route existed 
between China and the AVest. The Chinese themselves conveyed the 
goods as far as the ''Stone Tower," a station probably on the eastern 
side of the Bolor range: from this point they were transported by 
Scythians across the passes to the head-waters of the Oxus and Jaxartes, 
and thence partly by those rivers to the Caspian Sea, partly by an 
overland route through Parthia to the west of Asia. 

(4.) Western Europe. — The progress of discovery in the west was not 
equally satisfactory : indeed, it presents a remarkable contrast. While 
the Indian ocean was well known to the Greek writers, the Atlantic 
and even the Mediterranean Sea were still regions of uncertainty. 
A few instances will illustrate the extent of this ignorance. The 
Periplus of Scylax. compiled about 350 B.C., mentions only two tov\-ns 
on the coasts of Italy, Rome and Ancona, in addition to the Greek 
colonies. Heraclides Ponticus call=; Rome a Greek city; Theopompus 
(about 300 B.C.) describes its position as not far from the ocean. 
Timeeus (280 B.C.), who is supposed to have surpassed his contempo- 
raries in the knowledge of the west, describes Sardinia as being near 
the ocean, and the Rhone as having an outlet into the Atlantic, 
Theopompus thought that the Danube discharged itself into the 
Adriatic as well as into the Euxine ; and this is repeated by Dexippus 
(about 280 b c.) with the monstrous assertion that there was a mountain 
near the Danube whence both seas could be seen. 

(o.) Tlie Aniher Isles.' — In no instance is the ignorance of the Greeks 
more conspicuous than in regard to the amber trade. It is well known 
that even before the days of Herodotus a considerable traffic in this 
highly-prized article was carried on from the Eridanus, which, accord- 
ing to the report he had received, flowed into the Northern Ocean. 
The amber really came from the shores of the Baltic^ and was conveyed 
overland to the head of the Adriatic, which thus became the entrepot 
for the trade. Several of the Greek geographers ^Dexippus may be 



4-1: THE ^^'ORLD AS KXOTTX TO THE GEOGEAPHERS. Bk. I. 



instanced) consequently conceived this to be the locality where the 
amber was found, and represented certain islands, which they named 
Electrides Insulee, as existing at the head of the Adriatic. Even when 
tliis error was exploded, the true seat of the trade remained un- 
known. Timeeits places the Amber Island (Raunonia) north of Scythia ; 
Strabo names it Basilia. but was equally mistaken as to its northern 
latitude. 

(6.) Atlantic. — The Atlantic Ocean was known only by dark ru- 
mours : Plato believed it to be so slimy from the effects of a sunken 
island, which he names Atlantis, that no vessel could navigate it. 
Ai'istotle believed it to be just as shallow as the Mediterranean was 
deep, and so liable to dead calms that sailing was out of the question. 

(7.) Phcenician Influence. — In all these repoits and in the ignorance 
which the Greeks display, we can trace the influence of the Phoeni- 
cians, who were bent on preserving a monopoly of the ocean-traffic, 
and to this end propagated the most exaggerated rumours. Their 
determination to keep navigation a secret is well illustrated by a story 
related by Sti'abo, that when a Greek ship followed in the track of a 
Carthaginian vessel, the captain of the latter deliberately ran his ship 
upon a rock, in order to deter the Greeks from any further attempt at 
discovery. Most of the rumours which they propagated appear to have 
had some foundation; but the truth was distorted and the dangers 
magnified. Thus the opinions both of Plato and .Aristotle probably 
have reference to the Sargasso sea in the neighbourhood of the 
Azores. The Phoenicians themselves were undoubtedly acquainted "^wjth 
the western shores of Europe as far as the British Isles; but, with the 
exception of the expedition 'of Himilco, we hear little of their pro- 
ceedings. In Europe, Marseilles was most distinguished for maritime 
discovery, and produced sevei'al distinguished navigators, particularly 
Pytheas and Euthyinenes. 

(8.) Xorthern Expeditions. — There is no contemporary history of Hi- 
milco's expedition; we are indebted to Pliny and to Festus Avienus, a 
poet of the 4tli century a.d., for the information we possess in regard 
to it. Himilco is supposed to have lived about 500 B.C., and is reputed 
to have been the discoverer of the British Isles. Avienus describes the 
SciUii Tslcs under the name (Estrymnides, the Land's End as CEstrymnis, 
and Ireland as Sacra Insula, probably confounding the native '*Eri" 
with the Greek le'pa. Many particulars connected with the voyage are 
evidently misplaced; thus the sea-weed which checked his progress must 
have been, as already remarked, in the Sargasso sea in the neighbourhood 
of the Azores, and not to the north of Britain. 

The report of the British Isles must have been pretty widely spread, 
as Aristotle mentions both Albion and lerne, and a notice of the latter 
occurs in one of the Orphic poems, the date of which, however, is 
imcertaiu. 

Pytheas of Massilia, born about 334 b.c ; explored the northern and 
western ocean, and published a 'Description of the World,' and a 
treatise on the Ocean, of which but a few fragments remain. He 
followed the coasts of Spain and Gaul to the shores of Britain; he 
explored the eastern coast, and, advancing beyond its northern extre- 
mity, reached Thule, where he found perpetual daylight. More to 
the northward he was stopped by masses of sea-weed. He returned 
through the German Ocean to the mouth of the Rliine, and then made 
for the amber coast of the Baltic, where he met ^vith the Teutones, A 
river which he names the Tanais was the limit of his advance in this 



GEOGEAPHICAL WRITERS. 



45 



direction. Strabo (ii. p. 75) blames him for placing Britain too far 
to the north, he himself having committed a greater error in the other 
du'ection. His estimate of the length of the British coast (20/)00 
stades; was probably intended to include the southern as well as the 
eastern coast. 

(9. ) Africa. — LaxStly, we have to notice the progi^ess of discovery in 
a southerly direction. Here again the Carthaginians were in advance 
of other nations. About 500 B.C.; as is probable^ Hanno undertook a 
voyage beyond the Pillars of Hercules for the pm^pose of establishing 
colonies on the western coast of Africa. The account of his expedition 
is contained in a Greek translation of a statement which he himself drew 
u]3 in the Punic language. 

The localities noticed are of doubtful position, but may probably be 
identified thus: Prom. Soloiis with C. Spci/'tel near Tangier; the river 
Lixus with the Alharytch ; th,^ island of Cyrne with Arguin ; the river 
Chretes with the >S'^. Jolm ; the river containing crocodiles with the 
Senegal; the Western Promontory with C. Verd ; the mountain Theon 
Ochemawith>S'^*erra-Leor^e, or with >Sfl/i(/area/i in 10" X. lat. ; the Southern 
Promontory' ^Yith. Sherhro' Sound, and the island v^'iih Flantain Island, in 
about 8" X. lat. The Gorilla which he describes in the latter have 
been with some probability explained as a species of ape still called 
Toorilla. Euthymenes of Marseilles (about 300 B.C.) conducted a 
similar expedition outside the Pillars of Hercules, and Eudoxus of 
Cyzicus is said to have circumnavigated Africa from Gades to the Red 
Sea. ^Ye have no detailed account of the eastern coast until the 
Periplus of Arrian, compiled probably in the first century a.d., which 
gives a survey of the coast down to Rhapta, probably the modern 
Quiloa. in 10° X. lat. In the interior no great discoveries were made: 
the Ptolemies prosecuted an active trade with Abyssinia from their 
ports Berenice, Ai^sinoe, and Philotera. 

§ 2. While a considerable portion of the earth's surface was laid 
open by these discoveries, there was a constant siipp)ly of geo- 
graphical works, emanating from authors whose subjects and places 
of abode show how widely diffused the taste had become. 'Most 
of these works have been lost, but the titles alone are instructive, 
as showing the amount of materials at the command of the later 
geographers. 

Geograpliical Worlis. — ^History of Sicily,' by Antioehus of Syra- 
cuse (about 400 B.C.;, Strabo's chief authority in regard to the Greek 
colonies in Italy and Sicily. A large historical work by Ephorus of 
Cumse (about 350), an authority both with Strabo and Diodorus 
Siculus. ^History of Greece,' by Theopompus of Chios (about 
35u B.C.), praised by Dionysius and Pliny for his knowledge of 
Western Europe. 'Description of the World,' by Eudoxus of 
Cnidus ^about 33'j B.C. , a mathematician and astronomer as well as a 
practical geographer : he travelled extensively in Egypt, Asia, and 
Sicily. A ' Periplus ' of Scylax, compiled in the reign of Philip of 
]\Iacedon, being a description of the coasts of the Mediterranean, 
Propontis, Euxine, and Palus Ma^otis, commencing at the Pillars of 
Hercules and terminating at the island of Cerne, off the coast of 
Africa. 'Periplus' of Phileas. describing the same coasts. 'De- 
scription of the World ' and other works, by Diceearchus of Messana 



46 THE WORLD AS KXOWX TO THE GEOGEAPHEES. Bk. I. 



(about 310 B.c.)_, who was specially devoted to drawing maps. A 
^Book of Distances/ by Timosthenes^ noticed by Strabo and Pliny, 
giving the distances between different places about the MediteiTanean 
coasts and elsewhere. ^Treatise on Greece and Sicily.' by Timaeus 
of Tauromenium B.C. 280), with much information regarding the 
north and west_, and particularly regarding Italy and Sicily; the 
amber-producing island Basilia is noticed by him. ^ Heracleia/ by 
Herodorus of Heraclea in Pontus, a contemporary of Aristotle, yielding 
information in regard to Spain in pai'ticular. ' Altitude of Moun- 
tains/ by Xeno]3hon of Lampsacus, who also refers to the Amber 
Island under the name Baltia. Lastly, the treatises of Heraclides of 
Heraclea Pontica, containing vaiious notices of interest. 

§ 3. Eratosthenes (B.C. 276-196), a native of Cyrene and educated 
at Athens, hekl the post of librarian at Alexandria, under Ptoleroy 
Euergetes. He brought mathematics and astronomy to bear on the 
subject of geography, and was thus enabled to construct a very 
much improved chart of the world, which exhibited parallels of 
latitude and longitude, the tropics, and the arctic circles. His 
equator divided the earth into two equal halves, and from it he 
drew eight parallels of latitude through the following pjoints — 
Taprobane {Ceylon)^ Meroe, Syene, Alexandria, Rhodes, the Helles- 
pont, the mouth of the Borysthenes, and Thule. That which 
passed through Rhodes (named the diacfypdyiia) divided the habit- 
able world into two halves, the northern including Europe, the 
southern Asia and Libya. These lines were crossed at right angles 
by seven parallels of longitude passing through the following points 
— Pillars of Hercules, Carthage, Alexandria, Thapsacus, the Cas- 
pian Gates, the mouth of the Indus, and that of the Ganges : the 
third of these was his main parallel. The circumference of the 
earth he estimated at 252,000 stades, or about 28,000 miles : the 
habitable world he conceived to be like a Macedonian cldamys, 
i. e. of an oblong shape, the proportions being 77,800 stades in 
length and 38,000 in breadth, but drawing to a ix)int at each end. 
In his descriptive geography, he added considerably to the know- 
ledge of the East, which Alexander's campaigns had then opened ; 
m the est a few fresh names appear. The peculiar features in his 
map are — the mistaken direction given to the British Isles ; the un- 
due easterly elongation of Africa below the Straits of Bab-«1-Mandeb ; 
the connexion between the Caspian Sea and the Xorthern Ocean ; the 
Oxus and Jaxartes flowing into that sea, and not into the Sea of Aral ; 
the absence of the peninsula of Hindostan ; the Ister communi- 
cating with the Adriatic sea through one of its branches ; the omis- 
sion of the Bay of Biscay ; the compression of the northern districts 
of Europe and Asia ; and the total omission of the eastern half of 
Asia and the southern half of Africa. He made numerous calcula- 
tions of distances, the correctness of which varies considerably, from 



48 THE WOELD AS KXOAYX TO THE GEOGEAPHERS. Bk. I. 



the circumstance of his having made his meridians of longitude 
parallel to each other. His great work on geography is unfortunately 
only known to us from the extracts preserved by Strabo and other 
waiters : it consisted of three books, the first of which contained a 
review of the progress of geography ; the second treated of mathe- 
matical, and the third of descriptive geography. 

Places, &c., of interest in Eratostlienes' Geography. — In Europe, he 
notices the Spanish rivers Anas and Tagus, the promontory of Calpe, 
and the town of Tarraco ; off the coast of Gaul, a gi'oup of islands, of 
which Uxisama represents TJ shard ; in Germany. Orkynia, or the Hercy- 
nian wood. In Africa, he is the first to notice the two tributaries of the 
iSTile, Ast§.pus and Astaboras ; the Cinnamon coast, S. of the straits of 
Bab-el-Mandeb ; the iSTubians in the interior of Libya : the to\^Ti Lixus 
in Mauretania ; and the rock Abylax, the later Abjda, opposite Calpe. 
Asia he describes as intersected by a continuous range of mountains, 
consisting of Taurus, Paropamisus, Emudi Montes, and Imaus, which 
terminated in the promontory of Thiuae on the coast of the Eastern 
ocean. The southern poi-tion of the continent is divided into four sec- 
tions — India, Ariana, Persis, and Arabia. The river Ganges, the islands 
of the Persian Gulf, Tylus, Aradus, &c,, the Arabian tribes Xabattei, 
ScenitEc, Agraei, and Sabiei, with the towns Petra, Mariaba, and Sabata, 
are first noticed by Eratosthenes, 

§ 4. Hipparchus of XiccTa in Bithynia (about B.C. 150) improved 
on Eratosthenes' plan by calculating distances from the observations 
of eclipses : he thus obtained a method of determining the true 
position of any locality. In other respects he is famous for his 
bitter criticisms of his great predecessor, and for his erroneous ideas 
that Ceylon was the commencement of a great southern continent 
(wdiich he probably suj^posed to be connected with Africa at its 
southern extremity), and that the Danube flowed into the Adriatic 
as well as into the Euxine Sea. 

§ 5. Polybius of Megalopolis in Arcadia (b.c. 205-123) must be 
ranked as a practical rather ^than a mathematical geographer, his 
object, as he himself tells us (iii. 59), being to enlighten his con- 
temporaries in regard to foreign lands, especially Eome and 
Carthage. He differed from his predecessors in subdividing the 
torrid zone by the equator, thus making six instead of five zonas : 
he believed in the southern connexion of Africa and Asia : he 
calculated the extent of many of the lands of Europe, and the 
distances between certain s2Dots. He describes at some length 
Iberia (Spain), Celtica (Gaul), Italy, and Sicily : but his descrip- 
tions are very vague and imperfect. The greater part of his 
historical work is lost to us : of the forty books in which it was 
written, only the first five and fragments of the others remain. 

§ 6. Between the times of Polybius and Strabo many important 
works on geography were composed, which have wholly disappeared. 
The fragments of some few remain, among which we may notice 



Chap. IV. 



STPvABO. 



49 



the description of the world by Apollodoriis of Athens (b.c. 140): 
of the Red ^"'ea by Agatharchldes (b.c. 120) ; the Geography of 
Artemidorus of Ephesus (b.c. 100) ; the description of Europe in 
iambic verse by Scymnus of Chios (b.c. 100); and the Periplns of 
the Meditei-ranean by Menippus (contemporary with Augustus). 

The following are authors of less importance. Polemon of Glycea 
in Troas (about 200 B.C.), the author of a 'Geography of the World/ 
and various topographical works. Mnaseas of Patara in Lycia ^about 
150 B.C.), the author of a 'Periplns.' Demetrius of Scepsis fabout 
140 B.C.), the author of a treatise on the nations engaged in the Trojan 
war. Nicander of Colophon (150 B.C.) and Alexander of Ephesus, 
authors of poetical works on geographical subjects. Cornelius Poly- 
histor, the author of a ' Periplns ' in forty books, descriptive of various 
countries. Apollodorus of Artemita (about 100 B.C.;, the author of 
works on Parthia and the Bactrian kingdom. 

§ 7. Strabo, of Amasia in Pontus (b.c. 66 — a.d. 24), gave the 
world the first systematic description of the world, in a work 
composed in seventeen books. He had travelled extensively, " from 
Armenia to Tyrrhenia (Western Italy), and from the Euxine to the 
borders of Ethiopia " (ii. p. 117), and he had studied deeply the 
writings of earlier geographers. His work was intended, not as a 
philosophical treatise, but as a manual of useful information for the 
educated classes ; hence he unfortunately omits much that would 
have added to the intrinsic value of his work, as the exact division 
of the earth into climates, and the statement of the latitude and 
longitude of places ; he is also deficient in his notices of the 
physical character and the natural phsenomena of the countries 
which he describes ; and he does not show the spirit of true 
criticism in his undue estimation of Homer and his depreciation of 
Herodotus. He agrees generally with the views of Eratosthenes : 
he holds the earth to be spherical, concentric with the outer 
sphere of the heaven, but immovable. He recognizes five zoDes, 
of which the northern was uninhabitable from extreme cold, and 
the southern from extreme heat : he divides the earth into two 
hemispheres at the equator ; and the habitable world also into two 
instead of three portions. The map of the world, as Strabo de- 
scribes it, is defective in many respects : the Bay of Biscay is 
altogether omitted, and the coast slopes off regularly from Spain 
towards the N.E., bringing Britain close to the latter country ; the 
Caspian Sea is connected with the Xorthern Ocean by a channel ; 
the Ganges flows eastward to China ; the peninsula of Hindostan is 
absent ; and the coast strikes northward from the eastern extremity 
of India, to the omission of the Malay peninsula : the southern 
elongation of the continent of Afiica is still unknown. 

PosidoniuSj Geminus, Marhius. — Posidonius of Apamea in Sjuia 
^B.C. 135-51), divided the world into seven zones: he combated the 
ANC. GEOG. D 



CiJAP. IV. 



DISCOVERIES OF THE EOMAXS. 



51 



view of Polybius, that th.e heat was greatest at the equator, on the 
ground that the level of the land was low in that part ; and he com- 
pared t?ie shape of the habitable world to a sling, as being broad in the 
centre and gradually contracting towards either extremity. 

Gemmiis the Ehodian 'about 7'j B.C. . a mathematical geogi^apher, is 
chiefly known for his recognition of the antipodes, in whose existence 
he believed, although he knew nothing of them ; he contrasts them 
vdth the o.ntreci, by whom he means the occupants of the same zone but 
in the southern hemisphere, and the synced and jpericeci in the same 
zone and the same hemisphere, the former contiguous to, the latter 
distant from any given people. 

Mai^inus of Tyre 'a.d. 15'J , the true j)redecessor of Ptolemy, has the 
merit of having rectified in a gi^eat measm-e the errors, which appeared 
on the maps of Eratosthenes and others, by the multiplication of 
i:)arallels of latitude and longitude. He had a much truer conception 
of the forms of the continents, extending Asia eastwards, Afiica south- 
wards, and describing the northern coast of Europe with tolerable 
correctness. 

§ 8. As we are now entering on the last stage of ancient geo- 
graphy, Ave must turn aside to consider to what extent Ptolemy and 
the world at lar_:e were indebted to the Eomans for contributions to 
the general stock of information on this subject. It will be found 
that they did but little for geogi'aphy as a science ; but that they 
nevertheless advanced practical geography by the extent of their con- 
quests, ar_:':l bv the mauner in which the vast dominions under their 
charge were systematized and consolidated. The portions of the 
world Avhioh Avere more thoroughly explored by them were Spain, 
Gaul, Britain, Germany, Dacia, lllyria, and the northern part of 
Africa. The description of the time when and the manner in which 
these countries were laid open, involves a brief review of the 
external history of Eome. 

Progress of Geography among tlie Eomans. — The progress of geo- 
graphy among the Eomans is coincident with the progress of the 
Eoman Emph-e. 

ItaV'i. — Theu^ knowledge even of the peninsula of Italy was 
extremely limited down to a comparatively late period. The proposal 
of Fabius to cross the Ciminian hills in Etruria, in the year 309 B.C., 
was regarded by the Eoman Senate as an act of tmwarrantable fooi- 
hardiness. At a somewhat later period, 23^ B.C., Eoman ships first 
ventured into the Bay of Tarenttim. Gradually, however, they esta- 
blished their sway over the whole of the peninsula by 265 B.C. 

''2. J//'//V'''7 ; GoJIia Cisalpina. — The eastern coasts of the Adriatic 
were expL^red in the lilyrian Avar, 230 b.c, the object of which was to 
exthpate the hordes of pirates who had, imtil that time, swept the 
coasts of Italy and Greece. This was followed by the Galhc war, 
AA'hich led the Eomans across the Po, 224 B.C., and opened Xorthern 
Italy to the foot of the Alps : it was not, however, until the subse- 
Cjuent reconc^uest of the Gallic tribes, B.C. 191, and the subjection of 
the Ligurians. who occupied the Mai'itime Alps and the Upper Apen- 
nines from the mouth of the Ehone to the borders of Etruria. in the 
year 180 B.C., that -^he pacification of Xorthem Italy was complete. 

D 2 



52 THE WOELD AS KXOWX TO THE GEOGEAPHEHS. Bk. I. 



(3.', Spain. — The Punic wars resulted in the subjugation of the 
peninsula of Spain, not, however, without a long and severe contest : 
during the second Punic war the Roman territory extended along the 
eastern coast over the modern provinces of Catalonia, Valencia. JIurcia, 
and Andalucia. The Celtiberians were pacified by Tib. Sempro- 
nius Gracchus, B.C. 179, and thus the interior districts of Castile 
and Aragon were added. The Lusitanians of Western Spain and 
Portugal were subdued, B.C. lo8, by Dec. Junius Brutus, who was 
reputed the first man who had seen the sun sink beneath the Atlantic 
Ocean. Finally, the Xumantine war, 143-134 B.C., established the 
Roman supremacy in Central Spain, and no pai't of the country re- 
mained unexplored except the northern coast of the Cantabri and 
Astures. who were not subdued until B.C. 25. 

(4.) Greece. — It is unnecessary to follow in detail the progress of the 
Roman empire in the East, as no great advance in geographical dis- 
covery resulted from it. It will suffice to say that Macedonia became 
a Roman province in the year 167 B.C. — that Illyria was completely 
subdued the same year — and that Greece wa^ reduced to a province by 
the fall of Corinth in the yeai' 146. The arms of Rome had penetrated 
across the Hellespont, and had decided the fate of Asia Minor in the 
war ^vith Antiochus, B.C. 192-190. 

(5.) Gallia Transaljnna : the Getas, Cinihrians, and Teutons. — It was, 
however, in the west and north that new countries were opened to 
the world. Southern Gaul was invaded B.C. 125 : the Salluvii saw the 
first Roman colony planted on their soil at Aqu^e Sextise [Aix , B.C. 
122 : the Allobroges and the Arverni were defeated in the following 
year, and their territory constituted a Roman province three years 
later ; Xarbo {Xarhonne) was founded to secure the coa>t-route to 
Spain. The same period "vsitnessed the first movements of the 
northern hordes, who tdtimately overran the whole of the south. 
The Geiee had crossed the Danube from Dacia into the districts adja- 
cent to Macedonia : the Roman generals drove them back, and Curio 
advanced as far as the Danube, but feared to cross the river. The Cim- 
brians and Teutons penetrated into Gaul and Italy, but were annihi- 
lated by Marius, B.C. 102-1. 

(6.) Africa. — The interior of Africa first became opened through the 
wars with J ugurtha, Rome having already acquired and organized into a 
province the coast-district which had previously belonged to Carthage : 
her armies now penetrated into Numidia, B.C. 109, and southwards 
into Geetulia in the following year. The history of Sallust contains 
many geographical notices connected with these campaigns. 

(7.) Armenia and the Fast. — The scene of the Mithiidatic wars was 
chiefly laid in Asia Minor : Lucullus, however, penetrated into the 
interior of Aj.'menia and took Tigranocerta, B.C. 69 ; and his suc- 
cessor, Pompey, three years later, b c. 66, advanced as far as the valleys 
of the Phasis and Cyrus and the southern slopes of Caucasus. After 
the settlement of Pontus as a Roman pro^unce, Pompey subdued Syria 
and Palestine, B.C. 64. At this period Egypt alone, of all the lands 
bordering on the ]\Iediterranean, remained unsubdued. 

(8.) Gaul and Britain. — The Gallic wars of Caesar first made the 
Romans acquainted with the countries of Xorthern Europe, and his 
own simple nai^rative fm-nishes us with almost the whole of the infor- 
mation which we possess relating to Gaul itself. In his first campaign, 
B.C. 58, after defeating the Helvetii, he passed northwards through 
Yesontio, Besan^on, to attack Aiiovistus : the battle took place some- 



Chap. IV. DISCOVERIES OF THE EOMAXS. 



53 



where N". of Bale. The following year, B.C. 57, he suLdued the Belg^e, 
defeating the Xervii on the banks of the Sabis, Sarahre^ and taking the 
stronghold of the Aduatici in South Brabant ; he also received the 
homage of the various tribes bordering on the Ocean, ?. e. in Brittany, 
and cleared the valley of the Rhone, in Switzerland, of the chieftains 
who levied black mail" on the merchants crossing by the Great St, 
Bernard. In the following campaign ^b.c. 56) he defeated the Veneti, 
of Southern Brittany, who had revolted, subdued the Unelli in 
Cotantiii, and the greater part of the Aquitanian tribes between the 
Loire and Garonne by his general Crassus, and the Morini and Menapii, 
the former of whom occupied the coast of the British channel from 
Gesoriacum, Boulogne, to Cassel. In the next year (e.g. 55) C^sar 
advanced against the German tribes, Usipetes and Tenctheri, who had 
crossed the Rhine, and defetited them near Cohlentz ad confluentem 
Mosae (Moselle] etRheni," Bell. Gall. iv. 15); crossed the Rhine between 
Cohlentz and Andernacli, and after staying eighteen days in Germany 
returned into Gaul, and made his first expedition to Britain. In B c. 54 
Caesar first visited the Treviri on the banks of the Moselle, and then imder- 
took his second expedition against Britain, in which he advanced west- 
ward as far as Berkshire, and northward into Hertfordshire. In B.C. 53 
he crossed the Rhine a second time, and received the submission of the 
Ubii, and wasted the territory of the Eburones in Limhourg. In the 
winter of 53-52 the Carnutes, Arverni, and other tribes revolted : by 
a series of decisive movements he took Vellaunodunum, Geuabum 
{Orleans), Xoviodunum, and Avaricum {Bourges) ; he was himself sub- 
sequently defeated at Gergovia, but was again victorious, and succeeded 
in quelling sedition. In B.C. 51 the pacification of the Gallic tribes was 
completed by the renewed subjugation of the Carnutes, and the defeat 
of the Bellovaci who lived on the banks of the Marne. This brief 
review of Caesar's campaigns will serve to show how wide an extent of 
country was now for the first time laid open to the civilization of 
Rome. 

(9.) Asia. — ^^In the East no great progress was made: the campaigns 
of Crassus, 53 B c, and of Antony, 08 B.C., were conducted in countries 
already well known. The ignorance that prevailed as to the countiy 
far east is sho\^Ti by the hope which Crassus expressed, that after the 
defeat of the Bactrians and Indians he should stand on the edge of the 
Ocean. At a somewhat later period, 2-4- B.C., Augustus sent out an 
expedition under ^Elius Gallus to explore x\rabia and Ethiopia ; the 
expedition failed through the treachery of the native guides, and at no 
time got far from the coast of the Red Sea. 

(10.) Moesia, &c. : Germany. — In the xiorth prngi-ess was still being 
made : the important district of Pannonia was first entered by Octavi- 
aims, B.C. 35, and its subjugation completed by Tiberius, a.d. 8, and 
thus the boundaries of the empire were carried to the Danube and 
the Save. Moesia was permanently subdued by Licinius Crassus, 
B.C. 29. Thrace was ravaged B.C. 14, and gradually reduced to peace- 
able subjection, though not made a province until the reign of Ves- 
pasian. Rhsetia, Vindelicia, and Xoricum, yielded to the arms of 
Drusus and Tiberius, B.C. 15. The German tribes, from the mouth of 
the Rhine to the Elbe, were invaded by Drusus, B.C. 12-9, and the 
Roman supremacy was for a time established by Tiberius as far as the 
Visurgis ( TT'e^er; eastward ; the Romans were thenceforward con- 
stantly engaged in wars -with the German tribes, and acquired con- 
siderable information respecting them. Britain became better known 



54 THE WOELD AS KXOWX TO THE GEOGRAPHERS. Bk. i. 



subsequently to tlie expedition of Aulus Plautius, a.d. 43, and more 
particularly by the conquests of Agricola (a.d. 78-84), whose fleet sailed 
round the island. The coast of Denmark was explored as far as the 
" northern extremity of Jutland by an expedition sent out under the 
auspices of Augustus, and the coasts of the Baltic were visited by 
Xero's orders for the purpose of getting amber. Finally, the lower 
course of the Danube was more thoroughly made known by the , 
expeditions of Trajan into Dacia^ a.d. 101-106 : he connected the two 
banks of the river by a bridge at Seherin. The empire of Rome at its 
greatest extent stretched eastward to the CavSpian Sea and Persian Gulf ; 
northward to Britain, the Rhine, the Danube as far as its junction with 
theTibiscus. {Theiss), and thence along the northern boundary of Dacia 
to the Tyras (Dniestr) ; southward to the interior deserts of Africa and 
Arabia ; and vrestward to the Atlantic Ocean. 

§ 9. AVhile the Romans thus contributed most materially to the 
advance of geographical knowledge by their military successes, they 
did but little to forward the subject in a literary or scientific point 
of view^ Many of their historians, indeed, abound in incidental 
notices of countries and places, in wdiich the events they record 
occurred. We have already noticed Caesar's work, ' De Bello 
Gallico,' as an authority for the geography of ancient Gaul ; Sallust 
(B.C. 85-35) in his ' Jugurthine War ' (cap. 17-19), gives a brief 
sketch of the state of Africa at the time of his narrative ; Tacitus 
(a.d. 60 to about 120) describes briefly the geography of Germany 
in the early chapters of his ' Germania,' and gives scattered notices 
relating to that country in his other works ; he has frequent notices 
of localities in Britain in his ' Life of Agricola.' Livy (58 b.c- 
19 A.D.) in his great historical work had no occasion to introduce 
his readers to new scenes : his deficiencies, as a geographer, are 
remarkable in describing countries which he ought to have known 
familiarly ; his account of Hannibal's march into Etruria, of the 
passage of the Alps, of the engagement on the Trasimene Lake, and 
of the Caudine Forks, are instances of this. 

§ 10. The only Latin writers on geography, whose works have 
survived to our day, are Pomponius Mela and the elder Pliny. 
The former, who flourished about 40 a.d., compiled a useful 
manual, entitled ' De Situ Orbis,' in three books. The most re- 
markable feature in his system is, that he believed in the existence 
of a vast southern continent, the inhabitants of which he names 
' Anticlithons he supposed Ceylon to be the commencement of 
it. In his description of the world, he takes the sea as his guide, 
and surveys the coast-lands of Africa, Europe, and Asia, in order. 
His information in regard to Britain was more full than that of any 
previous writer : but in his account of the extreme northern, eastern, 
and southern parts of the world he revives the long-exploded fables 
of sphinxes and other imaginary monsters. Pliny (a.d. 23-79) in 
his ' Historia Naturalis,' has devoted four out of the thirty-seven 



Ohap. IV. 



EOMAN WEITERS. 



books, of which that great work consisted, to a sketch of the known 
workl. His work is a compilation of incongruous materials gathered 
from writers of different ages. As a systematic treatise, therefore, 
it is comparatively worthless ; but the mere record of ancient names, 
and the incidental notices \yith which his work abounds, render it 
valuable to the critical reader. 

Arrian, Pausani as. -^These writers^ though usiDg the Greek language, 
may fairly be reckoned as belonging to the age of Latin literature. 
Arrian, who, as a. Roman citizen, bore the prsenomen of Flavins, was 
born at Nicomedia towards the end of the 1st cent, a.d., and held high 
office under the emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. We have already ^ 
referred to his ^History of the Expedition of Alexander:' in addition 
to this he was the author of a work on India, and of a ^ Periplus 
of the Euxine Sea/ which was undertaken at the command of Hadrian, 
and in which he describes the coast from Trapezus to Byzantium. 
Pausanias, a Lydian by birth, and a contemporary of Arrian, settled 
at Rome after a long course of travel, and there compiled a ^ Descrip- 
tion of Greece,' in 10 books, a work of the highest value for the topo- 
graphy, buildings, and works of art of that country, and containing 
occasional notices of other lands which he had visited. 

§ 11. Claudius Ptolemy completed the science of geography in a 
work which served as the text-book on the subject not only in his 
own age, but down to the 15tli century, when the progress of 
maritime discovery led to its disuse. Of the life of this great 
man we knoAV positively nothing beyond the fact that he flourished 
at Alexandria about a.d. 150. His work, entitled TecoypacpLKi) 
'Y<p7]yr](TLs, and drawn up in eight books, is filled with accurate 
statements as to the position of places, but is scanty in descrip- 
tive materials. In his map of the world the following features 
are noticeable : he extends the world southwards to IBv^^^ S. lat., 
and northwards to Thule somewhere of the British Isles : the 
eastern limit he unduly extends to a point beyond China, and the 
western he places at the Insular Fortunatse (Canaries). He re- 
presents the parallels of latitude in a curved form, as though drawn 
from the pole as a centre, and the meridians of longitude as con- 
verging towards the jjoles from the equator. He extends the mass 
of land too much in an easterly direction. The Baltic appears as 
part of the Northern Ocean ; the Pains Ma?otis is unduly elongated 
towards the north : the Caspian is restored to its true character as 
an inland sea, but its position is reversed, its greatest length being 
given as from E. to W. : the peninsula of Hindostan is but faintly 
represented, while Ceylon is magnified to foiu- times its real size ; 
the Malay peninsula appears on his map, but, instead of carrying 
the line of coast northwards from that point, he brings it round the 



1 Cap. III. §12. 



56 THE WORLD AS KXOWX TO THE GEOGEAPHERS. Book I. 




Map of the World 



Sinus Magnus {Gulf of Siam) in a southerly direction, and connects 
it with the southern extremity of Africa, thus enclosing the Indian 
Ocean ; the form which he assigns to the western coast of Africa is 
also very erroneous, the westerly curve being omitted, and the line 
of coast brought straight down from the Straits of Gibraltar ; the 
eastern coast is correct until it reaches the point where he supposed 
it to trend eastward to meet Asia. With regard to the new places 
noticed, the most interesting are the river Xigir, and the Mountains 
of the Moon in the interior of Africa, and a group of 1378 islands 
near Ceylon, evidently the Lacdiva and MaJdiva groups. 

Agathemerus. JJ/onijs'iis Feriegetes, Stephamis of Byzantium.— fhe 
writers who followed Ptolemy, we may notice Agathemerus, the author 



Chap. VI. 



KOMAN AViUTERS. 




iccovding to Ptolemy 



of an epitome of Ptolemy's work, iu whicli,, however, he renews the 
error with regard to the Caspian Sea, and describes Britain as reaching 
from the middle of Spain to the middle of Germany, and Scandia ''the 
Scandinavian peninsula) as an island opposite the Cimbric Chersonese : 
Ceylon is designated by a name, Salike, which seems to be the proto- 
type of its modern title. Dionysius Periegetes 'about a d. 300) was the 
author of a poetical manual of geography, in which he follows Erato- 
sthenes and other writers of an earlier age. Lastly, Stephanus Byzan- 
tinus about the com.mencenient of the sixth century j compiled a 
Geographical Dictionary entitled ' Ethnica,' with articles on countries, 
peoples, and towns, natural objects being omitted : the work was 
epitomized by Hermolaus in Justinian's reign: of the original but a 
few fragments remain, but the quotations from it are numerous. 

§ 12. Among the works which contributed inaterially to the 

D 3 



58 THE WOELD AS KNOWN TO THE GEOGEAPHERS. Book I. 



stock of knowledge with regard to special localities, the Peripli and 
the Itineraries deserve particular notice. I. The former consisted 
of descriptions of sea-coasts, with the distances of the places from 
each other ; in addition to those which we have already noticed in the 
preceding chapters, we possess portions of six,^ describing the follow- 
ing seas : — (1.) The Mediterranean ; parts relating to the African and 
Asiatic coasts alone survive. (2.) The Indian Ocean; the south coasts 
of Arabia, Persia, and India being described. (3.) The Euxine ; for 
the most part a mere repetition of the Peri pi us of Arrian. (4.) The 
Euxine and the Palus McTotis, which is valuable as containing mate- 
rials borrowed from Scymnus. (5.) The Euxine. (6.) The Ocean, 
by Marcian, composed about the commencement of the oth century, 
describing the southern coast of Asia, and the western and northern 
coasts of Europe. II. The Itineraries were of two classes, scripta 
^\-\{{ pida. The former were exactly what our old road-books were, 
giving directions as to the routes, the distances, the more important 
places, and the resting-places. Of this class we have the two so-called 
Itineraries of Anton ine^^ gi^'ii^g the routes throughout almost every 
province of the Pioman empire, the distances from place to place 
being given in Roman miles; and the Itinerary of Jerusalem or 
Bourdeaux, compiled by a Christian in the 4tli century, describing 
the route between these two places, as well as between Heraclea and 
Milan, with historical notices, and references to all localities con- 
nected with sacred events. Of the Itineraria Picta, or illustrated 
f^uide books, only one specimen, or rather copy, has come down to 
us the Tabula Petit ingeriana, so named after its early possessor 
Conrad Pentinger. The original was probably drawn up about 
A.D. 230 ; the present copy dates from the 13tli century. The 
whole of the Roman empire, with the exception of the western 
districts, which have been accidentally lost, is depicted in this 
itinerary, the roads alone being given, with the names of the pro- 
vinces and places, the distances, the junction of bye-roads, and the 
various objects — woods, towns, castles, &c. — by which they pass. 



2 The dates at which the first five of these Peripli were compiled are quite 
uncertain : they belong probably to the period of the Romgm emperors. 

3 This work was undoubtedly official ; but there has been much controversy 
respecting its date. It was probably published in the reign of Caracalla, who also 
bore the name of Antoninus ; but it received alterations after his time down to the 
reign of Diocletian, subsequently to which we have no evidence of any alterations, 
for the passages in which the name " Constantinopolis" occurs are probably 
spurious. 




Temple of the Winds. 



CHAPTEE V. 

MATHEMATICAL A^D PHYSICAL GEOCxEAPHY OF THE ANCIENTS. 

I. ]\Iathematical — § 1. Formation of tlie Earth. § 2. Its position 
in the universe. § 3. Its shape. § 4, Its size. § 5. Tropics, 
zones^, &c. § 6. Parallels of latitude : meridians of longitude. 
§ 7. Climates. § 8. Maps; globes. § 9. Measures of distance. 
II. Physical. — § lu. Divisions: land. sea. air; terms relating to 
land. § 11- Mountains. § 12. Springs. § 13. Rivers. §14. 
Lakes. § 15. Seas. § 16. Winds. § 17. Temperature. § IS. 
Changes produced by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and alluvial 
deposits. 

I. !Matheaiatical Geogeaphy. 

§ 1 . Formation of the Eartli. — The Greeks did not hold the same opi- 
nion as ourselves on the subject of the formation of the universe. 
on the authority of Scripture, believe that the Almighty ^' created the 
heavens and the earth/'' /. e., not only shaped nature into the forms 
whicli it assumes, btit brought matter itself into existence. They, on 
the other hand, held that the universe wa.s constructed out of pre- 



60 



GEOGEAPHY OF THE ANCIENTS. 



Book I. 



existent matter, though they were not agreed as to what the nature 
of this matter was. Thales considered water to have been the original 
element ; Anaximenes and Archelaus air, HeracHtus fire, Xenophanes 
earth, Anaximander something infinite {rh 6.Tr eipov), meaning pro- 
bably a mixture of simple unchangeable elements : the opinions, how- 
ever, which obtained most wide and permanent sway were, either 
that the original matter consisted of a mixture of the four elements 
(earth, air, fire, water), which was the creed of Empedocles, Plato, 
and Aristotle ; or that it was composed of atoms," i. e. small indi- 
visible particles, combined together in various ways, which was the 
creed of Leucippus, Democritus, and Epicurus. Equally various were 
the theories as to how this matter came to assume its present form : 
the most distinctive views on this subject were, on the one side, that 
matter was shaped by the infusion into it of an intelligent principle 
{vovs) ; on the other hand, that it was the result either of neces- 
sity or chance. Lastly, there were various theories as to whether the 
world would be destroyed, and by what means : while the Eleatic 
school, who held all existing things to be eternal, and the later Stoics, 
who held the world to be a development of the Deity, came to the 
conclusion that it would never be destroyed, the majority of the 
philosophers whom we have above noticed adopted the opposite view, 
and supposed that it would be destroyed either by fire, or water, or by 
their joint action, or again by a resolution of the forms of matter into 
the original atoms. 

§ 2. Position. — The position of the earth in reference to the uni- 
verse was another subject on which the Greek philosophers held erro- 
neous views. They did not suppose the earth to be a planet, but a 
fixed central body, around which the celestial bodies revolved. The 
heaven, in which these bodies were fixed, was of a definite form and 
circumscribed within definite limits : it was generally supposed to be 
a large sphere, concentric with the earth, and hence was sometimes 
compared to the shell of an egg, the earth representing the yolk 
enclosed in it. Whether there were more worlds than one " was a 
question discussed in ancient as in modern daj'S, although in a dif- 
ferent sense : the question being, whether, beyond the system of which 
the world was supposed to be the centre, other systems might not 
exist in the boundless realms of space. It was never supposed that 
the stars themselves were the centres of such independent systems. 
§ o. Farm. — The form of the earth was originally held to be a disk, 
e. a flat round surface, some difierence of opinion existing as to the 
precise degree of roundness, whether it was circular or oval. Thales 
supposed this body to float, as a cork, on water; Anaximander held 
that the earth was of a cylindrical form, suspended in mid air, and sur- 
rounded by water, air, and fire, as an onion is by its coats ; Anaximenes 
supposed it to be supported by the compressed air at its lower sur- 
face ; and Xenophanes supposed it to be firmly rooted in infinite space. 
The true view of the spherical form of the earth originated with the 
Pythagoreans, and obtained general belief: its exact form (an oblate 
spheroid) was not known, although the revolution of the earth on its 
axis, which leads to the compression of the sm^face at the poles, 
appears to have been surmised by Aristarchus, B.C. 280. It was sup- 
posed that this spherical body was suspended in space, and kept in 
its proper position either by its own equilibrium, or by the pressure 
of the air on every side. While the idea that the earth moved round 
t he sun was confined to a few astronomers of a comparatively late 



Chap. V. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



61 



date, it was, nevertheless, supposed that the earth revolved on one 
and the same axis with the universe about it. 

§ 4. Size. — The size of the earth was variously estimated: Hero- 
dotus, who had no notion of its spherical form, p)robably thought its 
length to be from 37,000 to 4u,000 stades. AYhen the spheiical 
theory was received, the size of the earth was unduh^ magnified ; 
Aristotle estimated it at 400,000 stades (about 46,200 miles;, and 
Archimedes at 300, OuO (about 34/700 miles^, its real circumference 
being about 25,000 miles. Eratosthenes calculated it by an ingenious 
method 1 at 250,000 stades, or about 28, Suu miles : it was afterwards 
diminished by Posidonius to 24'j,0u0, and again to 180,00') stades. 
The latter of these estimates was adopted by Marinus and Ptolemy, 
and partly by Agathemerus, though the statements of this writer are 
not consistent. The diameter of the earth was estimated at one-third 
of the circumference. 

§ 5. Tro2jics, Zones, &c.—Tlie mathematical divisions of the earth's 
surface were founded on astronomical observation, and were the coun- 
terpart of the divisions previously established in the celestial charts. 
The most important of these lines were the '"equator" Icrrju^pLvos, 
sequator), which was originally divided by Eudoxus into 6i' degrees, 
and afterwards subdivided into 360: the summer and winter ^'tropics" 
(depiyhs, xei,aepiyDs rpoTTLKoSj : and the arctic" and "•antarctic" 
circles (apKriKos. aurapKriKos kvkXos.. The tropics Avere placed 24 
degrees X. and S. of the equator, and the arctic and antarctic circles 
36 degi^ees from the poles, leaving thus an interval of '6^ J degrees 
between these and the tropics. In modern geography the tropical 
circles are placed at 23^ degrees from the equator, and the polar cuxles 
at a similar distance from the poles. These lines formed the basis of 
the division into zones" 'C^uai, zonx, jjlagx . of which five were 
generally enumerated,^ viz. the "•torrid" (^LaKeKavu^prj. forrida, 
two •'• temperate " 'eu/cparoi, te taper at?:: , and two •■frigid," '/care- 
^vyfj-euai, frigidx\ . Sometimes the' torrid zone was subdivided into 
two or even three parts. 

§ G. Latitude and Longitude. — Parallels of latitude and meridians of 
longitude were drawn in the first instance not at equal intervals, but 
through certain well known points. Ptolemy was the first to adopt 
-equal intervals, and further improved the system by drawing the meri- 
dians not in parallel but converging lines, and by adding parallels of 
latitude south of the equator. To him we owe the introduction of 
the terms ^-latitude" (ttAcitos'^ and ""longitude" 'jiriKos), to describe 
the position of any given place in relation to the breadth and length of 
the world respectively. 

§7. Climates. — The term '^•'climates" [KKi^aara]. has a totally dif- 



1 He ascertained "by astronomical observation that tlie arc between Alexandria 
and Syene was 1-50-th part of the earth's circumference : he then measured the 
distance between these two places, and found it to be 5000 stades ; whence the total 
circumference would be 250,000. The mode of calculation was correct, but his 
observations were not sufficiently nice to ensure an accurate result. 

- " Quinque tcnent caelum zonae : quarum una corusco 
Semper Sole rubens, et torrida semper ab igni ; 
Quam circum extremoe dextra laevaque trahuntur 
Cosrulea glacie concreta? atque imbribus atris : 
Has inter mediamque, duae mortalibus aegris 
Munere concesste Divum."' — Yirg. Georg. i. 233-238. 



62 



GEOaEAPHY OF THE ANCIEXTS. Book I. 



ferent sense in ancient and modern geography. In the former it 
signified parallel belts on the earth's surface, representing equal lengths 
of day; in other words, an equal distance from the equator. The 
necessity of such a division is entirely superseded by the subdivision 
of the earth's surface into regularly marked parallels of latitude, for 
each degree represents in reality a ^'climate" or equal length of day 
to all places through which it passes. 

§ 8. Maps. — The invention of maps for geographical purposes is 
attributed to Anaximander, but it is not improbable that maps of 
separate countries were used before he drew one of the whole world. 
The art of drawing a map is described by the term yecoypacpla in its 
special sense ; the map itself being ci^lled irlya^, or more fully 7rtVa| 
y€ccypa<pLK6s, and occasionally irepioBos ttjs yrjs. Herodotus refers to 
Hecatseus's map (iv. 36), and also describes Aristagoras as producing 
a bronze tablet on which all the seas and rivers of the earth were de- 
picted (v. 49). The maps of the Greek geogi^aphers, Eratosthenes, Strabo, 
and Ptolemy, have been reproduced from the descriptions which they 
have left, and are given in the preceding chapters : Ptolemy adopted 
a more scientific style of projection than his predecessors. The inven- 
tion of globes is attributed to Crates of Mallus in the second century 
B.C. The Romans used maps both for political and educational pur- 
poses. Among the important measures which Julius Caesar originated 
may be noticed the survey of the whole Roman empire, with maps of 
thB several provinces, which was ultimately carried out by Augustus. 
Varro {De Be Bust., i. 2, § 4) refers to a map of Italy delineated on a 
wall ; and at a later date Propertius (iv. 3, 37) com2:)lains — 

*' Cogor et e tabula pictos ediscere mundos." 

§ 9. Measures of Length. — The methods of ascertaining distances are an 
important subject in connexion with ancient geography. The standard 
measure among the Greeks was the stadium {(jTahiov), among the 
Romans the mile {milliari'i/n), among the Persians the parasang iirapa- 
(Tayy-qs), and among the Eg^^tians the schoenus {(txo'lvos). The sta- 
dium contained 606 feet 9 inches English: about 8§ stades, therefore, 
equal a mile. In considering the distances as given in stades by Hero- 
dotus and other writers, it is important to remember that these were 
not measxred, but simply calculated. Thus a day's journey by land = 
200 or 180 stades, or, in the case of an army, 150 ; the rate of a sailing 
ship = 700 stades by day, and 600 by night (Herod, iv. 86, .10"1, v. 53). 
The result of this mode of calculation was that distances were gene- 
rally over-estimated. The Roman mile = 1618 English yards, and is 
thus less than an English mile by 142 yards. The parasang was com- 
monly estimated at 30 stades, but, like the modern farsakli of Persia, it 
indicated rather the time spent in traversing a certain district, than 
the space traversed. The schoenus was estimated as equal to two 
parasangs, or 60 stades. The admixture of the idea of time and space 
in the same word may be illustrated by the use of the German word 
stunde, which in one sense means an ^^hour/' in another a ^'league." 

II. Physical Geography. 

§ 10. The physical geography of the ancients is most conveniently 
treated by considering separately the three constituent elements of 
land, water, and air. 

Land. — The terms descriptive of the various forms which land 



Chap. V. 



PHYSICAL GEOGEAPTIY. 



63 



assumes are as follows — continent (^Treipos, terra continens), islands 
{urjo-uL, insu(ce), isthmuses {IcrOfjLoi, isthmi), tongues of land (jaiviaL, 
lingucS), peninsulas {x^pa6vr](Toi, peninsula:), plains {-rrehla, rjimpi, plmii- 
ties), mountains {6pr), mantes), valleys (avXCoves, ajKr], KoiKades, valles, 
convalles), gorges or ravines {vdirai, (pdpayyes, X"pa5pai, fauces), and 
passes (irvXaL, portce). 

§ 11, Mountains. — These were either isolated hills or chains ^upy) 
(Tvv€xn, monies continw). The heights of mountains were calculated 
by the Alexandrian geographers, but in a very imperfect way: the 

loftiest mountains in each continent were reputed to be, in Asia 

Caucasus^ Paropamisus, and Imaus ; in Africa — Atlas and Theon 
Ochema ; and in Europe — the Alps and the Sarmatian mountains, and 
next to them the Pyrenees. The protrusion of mountain-chains into 
the sea formed promontories (a/cpcorrjpia, proniontoria) . Certain moun- 
tains were known as volcanoes, the most famous being Mosychlus in 
Lemnos, ^tna, Vesuvius, the ^olian and Liparian isles, Chim^era in 
Asia Minor, and Theon Ochema in Africa : they were reputed to be 
the residence of Vulcan (whence their title), and the eruptions to be 
the consequences of the struggles of giants and Titans. Caves {o-rrriXaLa, 
cLvrpa, antra, speluncce) attracted much notice among the ancients : the 
largest kno^vn were the Corycian caves of Parnassus and Cilicia, and 
the Grotto of Posilippo near Naples ; some of those whence mephitic 
vapours arose, as at Delphi, were the seats of famous oracles ; others of 
a siinilar nature were reputed the entrances to the nether world (axe- 
povTLa, Plutonia, ostia Ditis). 

§ 12. Sprinris may be noticed in connexion with mountains. Homer 
supposed all the springs to be united by subterraneous channels with 
the river of Ocean : later philosophers held views hardly more conso- 
nant with truth on this subject : Aristotle, for instance^ supposed that 
rain was formed inside the earth, just as it is outside it, by the com- 
pression of the internal air ; Seneca went farther, and held that the 
earth itself turned into water, whicTi, through the pressure of the air, 
circulated about the earth, as the blood does in the human body. 
Water was held to be in itself tasteless, inodorous, colourless, and 
imponderous, the opposite qualities being attributed wholly to the 
admixture of earthy particles. It was supposed to be cool in propor- 
tion to the depth of its source, the phenomenon of hot springs being 
ascribed to the presence of volcanic action. Mineral springs were 
resorted to foa^ medicinal purposes ; among the most famous may be 
reckoned those at Baise in Campania, the springs at Aix (which is 
merely a corruption of Aquoe) in France and Prussia, and many others: 
there is abundant proof that Bath (Aqufe Solis) was the fashionable 
resort of the wealthy Eomans in Britain. The various qualities of 
springs w^ere carefully noted, as the petrifying springs at Tibur. and 
on the island of Cos ; the pitch-springs of Zacynthus ; the oily springs 
of Nyssa, &c. iSTo spring, however, has attained such celebrity as Cas- 
talia at Delphi, in which all visitors were ordered to purify themselves, 
Apollo 2 himself not disdaining to do so. 

§ 13. Water may be described according to the two principal aspects 
which it presents, as either rumum/ in the form of rivers, bropks, &;c., 
or'standing in the form of lakes, seas, marshes. 

Rivers. — Any phenomena connected w^ith rivers were carefully noted; 



^ " Qui rove puro Castaliie lavit 

Crines solutos."--Hor. Carm. iii. 4, 61. 



64 



GEOGRAPHY OF THE A^XIEXTS. Book 1- 



for instance, streams which disappeared for a space beneath the earth, 
a.s the Eul^eus. Orontes, Mseander, Acheloiis, and others— a circumstance 
on which was founded the poetical idea of the union of distant streams, 
as of the Alpheus with the fountain of Arethusa in Sicily, the Maeander 
with the Asvopus in Sicyonia. Briny streams, such as the Phasis and the 
Sicilian Himera were reputed to be — petrifying streams, as the Silarus — 
and again those which brought down gold-dust, as the Pactulus and 
the Tagus, were also noticed; as also the not unusual occuiTence of 
confluent rivers keeping their waters distinct for some distance from 
their junction ; the Titaresius, for instance, refusing to mingle with the 
Peneus, and the Hypanis with the Borysthenes : and lastly, rapids and 
cataracts [KaTappoLKrai, dejectus aquce), as in the Xile, Euphrates, Danube, 
and other rivers. 

§ 14. LriJ:es not unfrequently possess peculiarities, which were noticed 
by classical TSTiters. The vapours of Avernus, the medicinal qualities 
of the Lake Yelinus, the .•^alt lakes of Phiwgia, the asphalt of the Dead 
Sea, the naphtha of the Lake of Samosata, the natron-lakes Thonitis 
and Ascanius, may be cited as instances. Marshes were held to be 
prejudicial to the health ; the Pontine Marshes are a well known 
example. 

§ 15. The Sea. — Various opinions were broached as to the origin of 
the sea: Anaximander held it to be the surplus moisture which the 
fire had failed to consume ; Empedocles thought it to be the sweat of 
the earth ; and so forth. The original view held by Homer was that 
the ocean fl.owed round the earth in a circle, and fed the various sea^ 
and rivers, the Mediterranean being connected with it at its western 
extremity. The progress of discovery exploded this view, and the 
ocean was recognised to be not a river, but a vast sea covering a large 
portion of the earth's surface. The general view held was that all 
the different seas (Atlantic, Lidian, &c.) were connected together, 
though many took the opposite view. The Xoilhern Ocean was in- 
vested with many teirors in the eyes of the ancients: navigators 
reported the existence of constant darkness, calms, impenetrable masses 
of sea-weed ; each of these reports had a certain amount of foundation, 
though the truth was distorted ; the fact of its being frozen was first 
discovered in Strabo's time. As to the depth of the sea, the ocean was 
held to be unfathomable, but the Mediterranean had been sounded in 
various spots. The temperature of the sea was observed to be more 
equable than that of the land, being cooler in summer and warmer in 
winter. From the circumstance of its not freezing, it was supposed 
to have a higher temperature generally than rivers, which was attri- 
buted to its constant motion. The specific gi'avity of sea-water was 
observed to exceed that of fresh. The saltness of sea-water was attri- 
buted by Anaximander to the constant evaporation of the water, by 
which a large residuum of salt and other bitter particles was left 
behind. Empedocles, following up his opinion of the earth's sweat, 
was at no loss to account for the saltness on the ground that sweat is 
salt; while others attributed it to large deposits of salt. The colour 
of the sea, when quiet, is expressed in Homer by the term fj.4\as ; 
and, when in motion, by iropcpvpeos, o'luoxp, loeid-qs, T/epoetSTjs. yXavKSs, 
ttoXlos ; the Romans described it by the terms crcrule >/..<, rifidis, and 
pirrpirrcf's. The constant motion of the sea was usually attributed to 
the influence of wind : Str, bo and some others, however, conceived 
that there was some internal agency at work even during calm weather, 
analogous to the heaving of the chest in taking breath. Waves were in 



Chap. V. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, 



('5 



all cases the result of wind: the Greeks believed the tliirj v,'^\e rpi- 
KVfila), the Romans the tenth to be the strongest and most dangerous. 
The ebb and flow of the tide ^irXrifxfxvpXs Kal a/xTrcoa-is, astxs ct rccessus) 
was explained in various fanc'ful ways. The Stoics literally believed 
that ocean lived, and explained the rise and fall of the water as the 
panting of the giant's breath; Aristotle supposed it to arise from the 
pressure of the exhalations raised by the >un actiri_'' upon the water 
and driving it forward: Seleucus attributed it to tlxe inuuence of the 
moon, whose motion he supposed to be in a contrary dii'ection to that 
of the earth, and so to cause conflicting ciuTents of air. which, alter- 
nately gaining the supremacy, made the water flow backwards and 
forwards. The Phfxnicians were well acquainted with the ordinary 
phsenomena of the tides, but the early Greeks could have known but 
little of the matter, as the tides in the ^lediterranean are hardly per- 
ceptible. The currents in the sea Avere supposed to originate in the 
waters seeking a lower level. '\M1irlpool5 vrere caused either by the 
sudden depressions in the bed of the ocean, by the presence of reefs, 
or by antagonistic ciu^rents of wind. The level of the sea was by some 
supposed to be everywhere equal ; by others a contrary opinion was 
held, and, in proof of their opinion, it was alleged that the Red Sea 
was higher than the ^lediterranean, an opinion which has been repro- 
duced in modern times, and has only lately been falsified. 

§ 16. Air. — Of the various phenomena connected with the air, those 
which have the most direct bearing upon geography are winds and 
temperature. 

Winds 'aviixoL, venti^ . — Various terms were used to describe these, 
according to their violence or their source : thus we hear of land- 
breezes airoysLOL, obooei vc/iti , sea-breezes TpoTraioi. OAtani ve/iti., 
storms 'x^LucouES, OveWa.L. /'/vC':/ , hurricanes [iKi^ecpiaL. t'?rnpesto.tes 
f'lcdr , and Avhirl winds rvcpcoues. t'lrbincs^. The most prevalent and 
important winds proceeded from the four quarters of the heavens, 
X., S., E., and W., and were termed the cardinal wiiids yepLKccTaroi, 
ccirdinales^. Their names were 1^ Xot'js 'Soros, or A^'ster, the south 
wind, which prevailed in the early part of the smnmer, and from the 
end of the dog-days to the beginning of harvest — a violent, capricious, 
and unhealthy wind, generally accompanied with wet ; '2 Boreas 
[Bopeas] or Seijieuitri'::, from the north, a clear, cold, but healthy wind; 

Z'sphyras Z^cpvpos or Fivrni'is. tlie west wind, which set in with 
early spring, and was particularly prevalent at the time of the summer 
solstice ; in Greece it brought rain and stormy weather, in Italy it was 
a mild breeze; -1-^ E"riis Evpos or V''iturnus, the east ^Aund, which 
prevailed about the winter solstice, and was knov^Ti for its diy cha- 
racter. \Ve need not assume that these winds proceeded fi^om the 
exact cardinal points of the compass, but rather that they represent 
generally the four quarters of the heavens, just as the terms are used 
by ourselves in ordinary conversation. In addition to these cardinal 
winds, we meet with others in later vTiters — viz. '5^ .Sv/a/r">, 'Atttj- 
XLcoTTjs, which was substituted for Eurus, to specify due east wind; 
'5 A'l'di'j. KuLKLus, from the X.E., very constant at the time of the 
vernal equinox, bright and cold: '7, Jf.ic"s, Al\p, from the S.AV.. 
moist and violent, prevalent about the autumnal equinox ; (8) Corns, 
C''ur'/s, 'Apyecrrris, 'idirv^, from the X.AT., cool and dry. The eight 
already specified were marked on the Horologium of Andi'onicus 
Cyrrhestes, commonly called the Temple of the Winds, at Athens. 
We may further notice the winds named MeVrys, X.X.E. : ^oiviKia.s, 



6G 



GEOGEAPHY OF THE AXCIEXTS. 



Book \, 



S.S.E. : QpaKias, X.X.TT. ; and Al^ovotos or Ai^ocpolj/i^, S. S.W. 
The Etesian winds blew regularly from the X.W. in the inteiwal 
between the spring solstice and the rise of Sirius. It was a favourite 
idea of the poets that the winds had their several fixed abodes, whence 
they issued ; hence it was inferred that the lands beyond these abodes 
were not subject to the influence of the winds, and that thus beyond 
the abode of Boreas, which was supposed to be in one of the northern 
mountain-ranges, there might be a country enjoying a superlatively 
mild climate, where the Hyper-boreans passed their tranquil life. 

§ 17. Temperature. — The temperatiure of any spot was held to be 
mainly dependent upon its proximity to the sun's course, and to be 
modified by the presence either of moimtain-chains or of bodies of water. 
Great mistakes arose, however, as to the degi-ee of proximity to the 
sun which certain spots attained. Homer supposed the E. and W. to 
be the hottest, as the sun seemed to touch those sp'-t-s in his rising 
and setting, and there accordingly he placed the Ethiopians, This 
was found to be an error ; but it wa.s succeeded by one hardly less 
egregious — that the south pole was the hottest point in the world, as 
being opposite to the north, which was known to be cold. The effect 
of a chain of mountains shielding a district from the cold north wind, 
could not escape notice: the altitude of any spot above the level of 
the sea was also known to have its influence. 

§ 18. The ancient geographers were observant of the changes that 
took place on the surface of the earth. These were attributable to 
three causes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and alluvial deposits. 

(1.) Earthqnakes. — The cause of these convulsions was originally 
referred to the action of water, whence Neptune was styled the 
^^earth-shaker" ('Evvoa-lyaios or 'EvoaixOcci/) : this was the opinion of 
the Ionian philosophers, though they were not agreed as to what was 
the disturbing cause — whether heat or air coming in contact with the 
water. Aristotle explained earthquakes as arising from the escape of 
vapours generated within the earth's bowels. Others, again, attributed 
them to the action of subterraneous fire in various ways. Great effects 
were assigned to earthquakes, as the separation of Sicily from Italy, 
and of Euboea from Boeotia, and the formation of the Vale of Tempe, 

(2.) Volcanic Eruptions. — The activity of volcanic agency at particular 
spots was supposed to arise either from a superabundance of fire in 
those spots or from a thinness in the crust of the earth. The ordinary 
phenomena attendant on an eruption were closely observed, and one 
famous 23hilosopher '^Pliny~j sacrificed his life to his scientific zeal in 
reference to this question. The most striking efl'ect of volcanic action 
was the elevation or depression of masses of land, which led occa- 
sionally to the sudden appearance of new islands. 

[S. A'i"':i >I I'cposit, — Great changes were observed to take place on 
the sea-coast through the amount of mud and sand brought down by 
rivers. Hc^vodotus supposed, though erroneously, that the existence 
of Egypt was wholly attributable to the deposits of the Nile : he also 
remarks the advance of the coast of Acarnania. by which some of the 
Echinades vrere absorbed into the mainland, and again the changes 
that took place in the coast of Asia Elinor at the mouth of the 
M8sander. The plain of Cilicia is due to the alluvial deposits of the 
Sarus and Pyramus, iMany districts have been entirely altered since 
classical times by the same cause — particularly the pass of Thermo- 
pvlae, the western coast of the Adriatic, the coast line of the Persian 
Gulf, and of the western coast of Asia Minor. 



The Mesopoiamian Plain 



BOOK II. 
ASIA. 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE COXTIXE^'T OF ASIA. 

§ 1, Boundaries. Xaiiie. § 2. Oceans. § 3. Mountains. § 4. Plateaus 
and i^lains. § 5. Rivers. § 6. Climate. § 7. Productions. § 8. 
Commerce and commercial routes. § 9. Ethnogi^aphy. 

§ 1. The continent of Asia vras but partially known to the o;eo- 
grapliers of Greece and Rome. Their acciiiaintance with it was 
limited to the western and southern quarters : the north and east 
were a terra incogrnfa. The true boundaries of the continent in 
the latter directions were consequently unknown : it Tvas surmised, 
indeed, that the world was bounded on all sides by water, and 
consequently that Asia, as the most easterly of the three continents, 
was washed on the E. by an ocean, to which some few geographers 
assigned the name of Oceanus Eons, the Eastern Ocean the true 
position of this ocean was, howeA'er, entirely unknown. AVe have 
seen that both Eratosthenes and Strabo conceived it to commence on 
the eastern coast of Hindosfan^ the island of Taprobdne, or Ceylon^ 



68 



THE CONTIXEXT OF ASIA. 



Book 11. 



being at the extreme S.E. of the world : we have also seen that 
Ptolemy, whose information as to the east was more extensive, carried 
on the Indian Ocean beyond that jjoint to the coast of Cochin China, 
but that he supposed the coast then to trend towards the S. instead 
of the N., and consequently ignored the existence of an eastern 
ocean altogether. We must therefore regard the opinions of those 
who notice the ocean as the eastern boundary of Asia as a surmise, 
rather than an ascertained fact : the boundary was really unknown. 
The same observation applies to the northern boundary : the belt 
of sandy ste])pes, which stretches across the continent from the 
eastern shores of the Euxine to the confines of China, formed an 
impassable barrier to the progress of discovery in that direction, 
and may be regarded as really the northern boundary of Asia as 
known to the ancients. It was, indeed, surmised that an ocean 
existed in this direction also : but this surmise seems partly to have 
been grounded on the assumption, that so large a sea as the Caspian 
must have had a connexion with the ocean, and that as no outlet 
existed towards the S., E., or W., it must have been towards the 
X. ; accordingly, the geographers who recognized the existence of 
such an ocean (as Strabo and Eratosthenes did), placed it a very 
short distance N. of the Caspian Sea. Ptolemy, who knew that this 
was incorrect, but was unable to supply the true boundary, leaves 
out the ocean altogether. The southern boundary was the well- 
known Oceanus Indicus. The western boundary was formed partly 
by land, and partly by water : the Red Sea, the Mediterranean, ti e 
Euxine, and the chain of intermediate seas connecting the two 
■latter, have supplied, in all ages, fixed limits, but more to the N. 
the limit has varied considerably. The usually recognized boun- 
dary was formed by the Palus M^eotis, Sea of Azov, and the Tanais, 
Doyi : it has since been carried eastwards to the Caspian and the 
river Ural. 

Name. — The origin of the name Asia" is uncertain : most probably 
it comes from a Semitic root, and means the ^^Land of the East," as 
distinct from Em^ope, "the Land of the West." Greek mythology 
referred it to Asia, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and the wife 
of Prometheus ; or to a hero named Asius. The name first occurs in 
Homer, as applicable to the marsh about the Cayster, ^ and was thence 
extended over the whole continent. The Romans applied it in a 
restricted sense to their province in the W. of Asia Minor. 

§ 2. The physical features of the continent first demand our 
attention — its oceans, seas, mountains, plains, and rivers ; these we 
shall describe in the order named, noticing at present only such as 
hold an important position on the continent, and reserving the 
others to a future occasion. 



'Acrta> ep- Aet,awt't, KaiJcrTpiov ajac^t pdeOpa.— Tl. n. 461. 



Chap. YI. 



OCEAXS. 



(1.) Tlie only ocean which requires notice is that which an ashes 
the southern coast of Asia, and which was generally named the 
*' Southern Ocean" (voria SaXao-aa, fiecrrjfi^pLvos wKeavos), occasion- 
ally the "EedSea" {ipvOpa SaXaacra, Herod, ii. 102), and after 
improved knowledge of India, Oceanus Indicus. The coast line of 
this ocean is regular as compared with that of Europe, and irregular 
as compared with that of Africa, being, on the one hand, deficient 
in those numerous inlets and estuaries which characterize the 
former, and, on tlie other hand, devoid of that general uniformity 
which characterizes the latter. The sinuosities, in short, ai-e on 
a large scale : two extensive bays penetrate deeply into the in- 
terior, viz. the Sinus Gangeticus, Bay of Bengal, and the Mare 
Erytlirseuin, Arabian Sea, divided from each other by the peninsula 
of Hindostan, and bounded, the former on the E. by the Aurea 
Chersonesus, Malay Peninsula, the latter on the W. by the Arabian 
peninsula. From the latter of these seas, two gulfs penetrate yet 
more deeply into the interior, viz. the Persicus Sinus, Persian Gulf, 
and the Arabicus Sinus, Bed Sea. The Persian gulf occupies the 
southern portion of the Mesopotamian' plain, and, spreading out into 
a broad sheet, divides the plateau of Iran from tiiat of Arabia : the 
Eed Sea seems to occupy a deep narrow valley between the plateaus 
of Arabia and Africa. The Eed Sea is divided at its northern 
extremity by the mountains of the Sinaitic peninsula into two arms, 
tlie western named Sinus Hsroopolites, Gulf of Suez, and the eastern 
Sinus Slanites, Gulf of Akaha, after the towns of Heroopolis and 
^Elana, which stood respectively at the head of each. In addition 
to these, we may notice the less important seas in the Gangeticus 
Sin., named Sabaricus Sin., Gulf of 2Iarta2)an, and Perimulicus Sin., 
Straits of Malacca ; as also Magnus Sin., Gulf of Siarn, and 
Sinarum Sin., Gulf of Torujuin, which were regarded as portions 
of the Indian Ocean. 

(2.) The Mediterranean Sea, Mare Internum or Magnum, which 
bounds Asia on the "W., belongs to the three continents, but more 
especially to Europe, under which it is described at length. 

The parts adjacent to Asia received the following special designa- 
tions — Mare Pkoenicium, along the coast of Phoenicia ; II. Cilicium, 
between Cilicia and Cyprus ; M. Icarium, so named after the island of 
Icaria, along the S.W. coast of Asia Minor; and M. ^gaeum, the 

extensive basin v^'hich separates Asia Minor from Greece. 

(3.) The Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, which in ancient geography 
belongs rather to Asia than to Europe, was regarded by the ancients 
as a part of the Mare Internum, being connected with it by a chain of 
intermediate seas — the Hellespontus, Dardanelles, on the side of the 
^g£ean, a strait about a mile in breadth, and probably regarded by 



70 



THE COXTINEXT OF ASIA. 



Book II. 



Homer, vrho gives it the epithet broad," ^ as a river ; the Bosporus 
Thracius, Straits of Constantinople, on the side of the Euxine, about 
seventeen miles long, and at one point only 600 yards across ; and 
the Propontis, Sea of Marmora, between the two, an extensive sheet 
of water, about 120 miles from the entrance of one channel to that 
of the other. The shape of the Euxine was compared to that of a 
Scythian bow, the north coast from the Bosporus to the Phasis 
representing the bow itself, and the southern coast the string. 

Names. — The Black Sea is said to have been originally named Axenus, 
^'inhospitable/'^ in consequence of the violent storms that sweep over 
it; this name was changed to Euxinus/' when it became better 
known to the Greek navigators. The Hellespont was reputed to be 
so named from the legend^ that Helle, the daughter of Phrixus, was 
drowned in attempting to cross •* its waters : and the Bosporus, from 
the legend of lo having crossed it in the form of a heifer. The Pro- 
pontis owes its name to its relative position, as the " sea before the 
Pontus."^ 

(4.) The Palus Maeotis,^ Sea of Azov, is a considerable sheet of 
Avater to the K.E. of the Euxine, connected with it by the 
Bosporus" Cimmerius, Stixdts of Yeni-KaJe ; it is described by the 
ancients as of greater extent than it at present has. 

(5.) The Mare Caspium or Hyrcanum, Caspian Sea, was but 
partially known to the ancients, no vessels being built on its shores, 
and the im]^ervious character of the country which surrounded it, 
preventing exploration by land. We have already had occasion to 
notice the erroneous views entertained by them in regard to this 
sea : it was, after all, but natural to suppose that so large a body 
of water was connected with the ocean. The Caspian is considcr- 



2 eTTt TrAaret 'EAAr7(r7r6i/Taj. — II. vii. 86. 

3 << Fi-igida me coliibent Euxini littora Ponti. 

Bictus ab antiquis Axenus ille fait : 
Nam neqiie jactantiir moderatis jpqiiora ventis, 

Nec placidos portus liospita navis adit." — Ov. Trist. iv. 4, 55. 

4 Hence it is termed "EAAtjs 7rop^/xd?. — JEsch. Fej's. 745. 

5 Compare Ovid's expression : 

" Quaque tenent Ponti Byzantia littora /a ?^ces." — Trist. i. 10, 31. 
^ It was regarded by ^Eschylus as at tbe very extremity of the world : 

Kal '%Kvdy]<; 6/xtA.o? ot ya<s 

Eo"\;aTO!/ tottov a^JL^X 
Matcortt' e'xovcrt \Lfxvav. — Proin. 415. 
7 The name was referred to in the legend of lo's wanderings by JEscbylus : 
'laOixov 5' ctt' a.vTaL<5 crrei^OTropot? \Lixvy\<; TrvAai? 
Kt,a/L(,eptKbv Tj^et?, ov 6pa<TvaiTka.yxi'(j^S crk xprj 
AtTTOucrav av\.u}u kKTcepav Matcort/coV* 

Ecrrat 5e Qvy]Tol<i etcraet Koyo^ [xiya^ 
Tt)? crr)<; Tropetas, BdcTropo? 6' cttcow^io? 
KeKATyo-eraf— P?-077i. 731-736. 



Chap. VI. 



MOUNTAINS. 



71 



ably more shallow now than formerly, the sea being constantly 
reduced by the alluvial deposit of the rivers. Its level is some 
eighty feet below that of the Euxine, so that its waters could 
never have been drained off into the latter, as some of the ancients 
imagined. The steppe E. of the Caspian had altered considerably 
within histoiical times, inasmuch as the Oxus at one time dis- 
charged itself into the Caspian. 

(6.) Whether the Oxiana Palus of the ancients represents the 
Sea of A ral ^ is doubtful : Ptolemy describes the former as a small sea, 
and not as the recipient of the Oxus and Jaxartes : the first undoubted 
reference to the latter occurs in Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th 
century a.d. Its waters are also continually decreasing ; its level is 
about 110 feet higher than the Caspian Sea. 

§ 3. The mountain-system of Asia is regular and clearly defined. 
(1.) A series of mountain-ranges traverses the whole length of the 
continent, from the shores of the^g^ean Sea to those of the Eastern 
ocean, dividing the continent into two unequal portions — the 
northern, which is by far the most extensive, including the vast 
regions N. of the Euxine and Caspian Seas; and the southern 
embracing the peninsulas and plateaus that lie adjacent to the 
Indian Ocean. The main links in this great central chain consist of 
the ranges of Taurus, Abus, Ararat, Caspius Mons, Paropamlsus, 
Hindu Kiish, Emodi Montes, Eimalaya, and Semanthini 
Montes. (2.) Erom this central range depend subordinate, 
though still important systems, some of which exhibit great regu- 
larity. Thus in Central Asia there are three parallel ranges, now 
named Ki'tn-Iun, Thian-shan, and Altai, which are connected 
with the mca-e southerly range of Himalaya by a series of transverse 
ranges, of which Bolor is the most important. The regularity of 
the mountains in this region is so strongly marked, that Humboldt^ 
has divided them into two classes, viz. those which coincide with 
parallels of latitude, and those Avhich coincide with meridians of 
longitude. A similar, though not an equal degree of regularity 
pervades the mountains of Western Asia, as viewed from the 
central highlands of Armenia. (3.) Another marked feature in 
the Asiatic mountains, resulting in part from this regularity, is the 
tendency to paraJlelism. This feature did not escape the observa- 
tion of the ancients, and is expressed in the names Taurus and 
^n^f/taurus, Lebanon and AntilohdiYioTi : it may be noticed on a 
larger scale in the ranges of Zagrus which bound the plain of 
Mesopotamia on the E., and in the ranges which cross Arn.enia ; 
and on a still larger scale in the lines which form the natural 
boundaries of the countries of Western Asia, com.municating to 



s Aspects of Nature, i. 94. 



72 



THE COXTIXEXT OF ASIA. 



Book II. 



them their peculiarly regular, we might almost say geometrical, 
forms. 

The mountain-S3'stem of Western Asia may best be regarded 
from Armenia as a central point. Turning towards tlie X., the 
lofty ^ range of Caucasus forms a strong line of demarcation, striking 
across the neck of land that divides the Euxine and Caspian 
Seas in a south-easterly direction. Turning westward, three ranges 
may be traced entering the peninsula of Asia Minor— one skirting 
the northern coast and connecting with the Europa^an system at 
the Thracian Bosporus, the most important links being Paryadres 
in Pontus, and the Bithynian and Mysian Olympus — another, under 
the name of Antitaurus, striking across the ['lateau of Capj^adocia 
towards the S.V\\ — and a third, Taurus, yet more to the S., skirting 
the Mediterranean Sea to the very western angle of the peninsula ; 
the second of these forms a connecting link between the first and 
third, being united with Taurus on the borders of Cilicia, and with 
Paryadres by an intermediate range named Scydises, on the borders 
of Pontus and Armenia : the range may be traced even beyond the 
point of its junction with Paryadres, in the MoscMci Montes on 
the shores of the Euxine, and the chains which connect these with 
Caucasus. Turning southward, it will be observed, that, near the 
X.E. angle of the Mediterranean, Taurus sends out an important 
offshoot, which skiits the eastern shore of that sea, and is carried 
down through Syria and Palestine to the peninsula of Sinai, and 
along the shores of the Red sea to the Straits of Bah-el~Mandeh : 
the most important links in this chain were nnmed, Amanus on the 
borders of Cilicia, Bargylus in Syria, Lebanon on the borders of 
Phcenicia, the mountains of Palestine, the Nigri Montes, or (as 
they are more usually called) the Sinai group, and the Arabici 
Montes. Lastly, turning eastward, two chains may be traced — 
one of which, under the name of Caspius Mons, skirts the 
southern coast of the sea of the same name, and after culminating 
in the lofty height of Coronus, proceeds in an easterly direction, 
under the names of Labutas on the borders of Hyrcania and Saripbi 
Montes in Aria, to form a junction with Paropamisus, and so 
'with the mountains of Central Asia — the other strikes olf towards 
the S.E. towards the Persian Gulf, and was named Zagrus between 
Media and Assyria, and Paracboatliras in Susiana and Persis. AYe 
must lastly notice the mountain chains of Armenia itself, which 
form the connecting links between the various ranges already 



9 ^schylus refers to its gi-eat height in the lines, 
Tifftv av Trpos avrov "KavKacrov /xo'Xrj?, hpoiv 

'Yj/zccTTOv a(TrpoyeLTOva<; 8k xph 

Kopv({)as v'n-ep^dWovaav.—From. 721, 723. 




ANC. GEOG. 



74 



THE COXTIXEXT OF ASIA. 



Book II. 



descri'oed. Two important chains traverse it in nearly parallel 
lines from W. to E. ; one a continuation of Antitaunis, the other of 
Taurus. The former was named Abus, and culminates in the 
magnificent heights of the Greater and Less Ararat, overlookinc^ the 
valley of the Araxes : the latter assumed the names of Niphates 
in the W., and Caspius Mons in the E., and under the latter 
designation connected with the mountains to the S. of the Cas[>ian 
Sea : an offset from this range, named Masius, skirts the head of the 
Mesopotamian plain, and returns in a northerly direction, under the 
name of Gordyaei montes, to the E. of the Tigris. 

The ranges of Xorthern, Central, and Eastern Asia were but little 
known to the ancients. In the foi'iner direction, the Hyperborei 
montes represent the Ural chain ; the Rhymnici montes, the mountains 
between the rivers Wolrja and Ural, and Norossns, the chain in which 
the latter river has its sources. In Central Asia, the cliain of Bolor, 
which strikes northwards from the junction of Paropamisus and Emodi 
montes, was named Imaus, though this was also applied to the 
Himalayan range : tlic yet more northerly range of Muztag seems to 
have been named Comedarum montes: from this, parallel ranges are 
emitted towards the E. and W. — in the former direction, the parallel 
ranges previously referred to, and which may be identified in the 
following manner, Serici montes with Kuen-lun, Ascatancas with 
Thian-Shan, and Auxacii and Annibi montes with the (in att r and 
Less Altai— m the latter direction, the Sogdii and Oxii montes, 
between the Oxus and Lixartes, representing the present Kara and Ah 
Tarjh ; the Aspisii montes more to the N., in the Kirghiz steppe ; 
and the Anaraei montes, the Trliiugis range, yet more to the X. 
In Eastern Asia, the continuations of Himalaya were known to a 
certain extent, and were named — Bepyrrus, about the sources of the 
Doanas ; Damassi montes, about the sources of the Dorins ; and 
Semantbini montes, in the direction of the Gulf of Touquin. The 
/ange which supports the desert of Gobi on the E. may be referred to 
under the name Asmiraei montes, Khaigan. 

§ 4. The plateaus and plains of Asia next demand our attention. 
The amount of high table-land in this continent is one of its most 
striking features : while Europe possesses but one plateau of any 
extent, viz. Spain, the greater portion of "Western and a large 
portion of Central Asia stands at a ver}^ high elevation. Xot to 
speak of the immense plateau of Gobi, X. of India, with which 
the ancients were but slightly acquaiTited, we may notice the 
plateau of J ran, or Persia, which stands at an average elevation of 
about 4000 feet; that of Armenia, about 7000 feet; and that of 
Asia Minor, at a less elevation. Central Arabia, again, is a plateau ; 
so also is the peninsula of Hindostan. Indeed it may almost be 
said, that, with the exception of the strip of low land that skirts the 
shore, and the depression between the plateaus of Iran and Arabia 
which is occupied by the plain of Mesopotamia, the whole of 
Western xAsia is elevated ground : even the plain of Syria partakes 



Chap. VI. 



PLATEAUS— EIVERS. 



75 



of the same character to a certain extent ; for there is a perceptible 
differcDce in its elevation, when compared with j\tesopotamia. It 
must not be supposed that these plateaus are throughout level : 
extensive districts of unbroken plain are indeed one of their 
characteristics, but not unfrequenth^ lofty ranges rise out of them 
as from a new base, as may be marked particularly in Armenia and 
Persia. The plains or lowlands of Asia, though not so extensive, 
were important from their position and physical character : they 
were the seats of commerce, not unfrequentiy of empire, and from 
peculiarities of soil and climate, were eminently fertile: the well- 
watered plain of Mesopotamia was the key-stone of the successive 
empires of Xineveh, Babylon, Persia, and Syria : the plains of 
Xorthern India, about the valleys of the Indus and Ganges, have in 
all ages held a position of similar importance. 

§ 5. The rivers of Asia are comparatively few. It is a necessary 
consequence of the stmcture of plateaus, that few outlets should 
exist for the waters of the interior. Xo river of any importance 
attains the sea from the plateaus of Arabia and Persia : the Medi- 
rerranean coast is unbroken by the embouchnre of any considerable 
stream ; the mountain wall that skirts the sea-coast forbids access. 
Many of the rivers gather into lakes, or are absorbed in the sands ; 
and hence we may institute a classification of them into oceanic and 
continental, the former including those which reach the sea, the 
latter those which are confined to the interior. 

(1.) The rivers of the first class are found, as might be expected, 
in the plains. There were but four with which the ancients were 
well acquainted, and these retain their classical names to the present 
day, viz., the Euphrates, Tigris, Indus, and Ganges. 

The Euphrates rises in the highlands of Armenia, and consists in its 
upper coiu'se of a double stream, of which the northern is now named 
Kara-su, and the southern Murad-cliai, the latter being the most 
important. These unite, after a westerly course, on the borders of 
Asia Minor, and thence pursue a southerly course until the plain of 
Mesopotamia is gained. The river then flows towards the S.E., con- 
verging to and ultimately uniting with the Tigris Its lower course 
has evidently changed much even in historical times. The Euphrates and 
Tigris had originally separate outlets into the Persian Gulf, as also had the 
Euleeus ; these three unite in a single stream, now named Shed- el- Ar ah. 
The Euphrates is navigable as high as Samosata, above which it assumes 
the character of a mountain-stream, though its width and depth are 
very considerable. It was tordable in several places in its mid-course — 
at Samosata, Commagene, Birtha, and Thapsacus. As it issues from 
a snowy country, it is liable to periodical floods, which commence in 
March, and attain their greatest height towards the end of May. The 
Tigris also rises in Armenia, but at a lower point than the Euphrates, 
its source being a lake not far from the junction of the Kara-su and 
Murad-clia'i. Its direction in its upper course is towards the E. ; and 
in this part it drains the extensive district enclosed by Taurus and 

/ E 2 



76 



THE COXTIXEXT OF ASIA. 



Book II. 



Niphates on the X., Masiiis on the W, and S.^ and Gordyeei montes 
on the E. The latter range gives the Tigris a southerly direction, and 
after escaping from the deep gorge by which it passes through the 
lateral ridges of that chain, it enters upon the Mesopotamian plain. 
Preserving its southerly bearing, it converges to the Euphrates,, and 
above Babylon comes within twenty miles of it, but, again receding, 
ultimately unites with it in the Sliat-el-Arab. The Tigris is shorter 
than the Euphi^ates, their respective lengths being 1146 and 1780 
miles : it is narrower and swifter, whence its name Hiddekel, "arrow." 
The Tigiis receives numerous tributaries, one of which, rising in 
Xiphates not far from Lake Ai'sissa, lays claim to the name of Tigi'is. 
The Indus (or Smthus, as some -^Titers call it vrith a more exact con- 
version of the native name Sindltu) was compai-atively little known to 
the ancients until the time of .Alexander's expedition. Its sources were 
erroneously placed in Pai'opamisus, wherea.s they really cu:*e to be 
found to the north of Himalaya in about So '^ long, and 31^ lat. Pui-su- 
ing in this part of its course a westerly direction, until arrested by the 
transverse chain of Bdlor, it bursts through the ranges of HimaJaifa in 
a south-westerly direction, and, receiving on its right bank the Cophes 
or Cophen, Kabul, with its affluent the Choaspes or Choas, Kameh, 
enters the plain of the Punjab, and receives on its left bank the imited 
waters of the four rivers which water that district, the Acesines, 
Chenab, the Hydaspes «»r Bidaspes, Jelum, the Eydraotes, Bavi, and 
the Hypanis or Hyphasis, Sutlcdge or Gharra : it thence pursues an 
unbroken course to the Indian Ocean, into which it discharges itself by 
several channels, two of which, named the Bugcjaur and Sata, are the 
principal : these channels have been in a constant state of change, but 
ih is probable that the same general features have been preserved in all 
ages, and that the statement of Strabo and others, that there were 
two principal outlets, is not really inconsistent with that of Xearchus 
and Ptolemy, that there were several, according to the latter seven^ 
outlets. The Granges was not known until a comparatively late period; 
subsequently to the age of Alexander the Great ^ it was frequently 
visited, and excited considerable interest among geographers. It rises 
in the western ranges of Himalaya, and pursues a south-easterly coui^e 
to the Gangeticus Sinus. Ancient writers vary in then- reports of its size, 
which was. generally speaking, much exaggerated, and of the number of 
channels through which it reaches the sea. Fifteen of its tributaries 
are enumerated by Arrian. the names in several cases agi'eeing with 
the modern appellations, as in the case of the Jomanes, Jumna. Sonus, 
Sone. and others. The Dyardanes, Bralrmaputra, was regarded as an 
affluent of the Ganges. The Ganges forms an important featm'e in 
the map of Ptolemy, as the intermediate boundary of Eastern and 
"Western India, The names of other important rivei^s more to the E. 
were known to the ancients, but cannot be identified with certainty : 
the Doanas, Iraicaddy, the Dorias, Salven, which discharge their waters 
into Sabaricus Sinus ; the Serus, Meinam, flowing into the Magnus 
Sinus: the Amhastus, the Camboja : the Cottiaris, Si Kiang: and 
the Bautisus, Hoang-ho. 



^ Ovid refers to the Ganges as a very distant river, in the lines, 
" Xec patria est hahitata tibi, sed ad usque nivosum 
Strymona venisti, Marticohimque Geten : 
Persidaque, et lato spatiantem flumine Gangem, 

Et quascunque libris decolor Indus aquas." — T?'isf. v. 3, 21. 



Chap VI. 



CLIMATE— PRODUCTIONS. 



77 



(2.) The chief continental streams are the Jaxartes, the Oxus, 
the Rha, the Cyrus, and Daix, which were regarded as all flowinp;; 
into the Caspian, though the two first now^ join the Sea of Ai^al, 

The Jaxartes, Sir-deria, rises in the central range of Asia, the 
Comedarum monteS; and pursues a north-westerly course, in leng-th 
about 9o0 miles, to the Sea of Aral. The Oxus, Amou ov Jijhun, 
rises more to the S. in Imaus, and pursues a generally parallel course. 
The upper courses of these rivere were well kno^\TL, as they watered the 
fertile districts of Bactriana and Sogdiana : their lower courses crossed 
a sandy desert. The Cyrus, Kur, and its tributary the Araxes, Aras, 
drain a large portion of the district between the Ca-Spian and Euxine 
Seas, The former rises in the ranges of Scoedises, the latter in Abus, 
and after a lengthened course through the highlands of Armenia, they 
converge and unite at a distance of 110 miles from the Caspian. As 
they are fed by the snows of the high country, their streams are at 
certain periods very impetuous, and hence the difficulty experienced 
by the Romans in maintaining bridges.*^ The Klia, Wolga, is first noticed 
by Ptolemy, who describes it as rising in the country of the Hyper- 
borean Sannatians, and as being divided in its upper comse into two 
arms, one of which is now named the Kama, the other the Wolga. 
The Daix, Ural, rises in the Ural chain, and flows southwards to the 
Caspian, with a course of about 900 miles. 

§ 6. The climate and temperature of Asia is of the most diver- 
sified character. While the northern district falls within the arctic 
circle, the southern extremity very nearly reaches the equator, and 
in these parts the extremes of cold and heat are experienced. But 
with the exception of the peninsulas that protrude towards the S., 
the southern jjortion of the continent enjoys a fine temperate 
climate, adapted to the growth of almost every production requi- 
site for the sustenance and comfort of man. The elevation of the 
pilateaus of Western Asia contributes to moderate the heat which 
would otherwise be excessive, and offers a most agreeable alter- 
nation to the inhabitants of the adjacent lowlands. The climate 
of the central steppes is more severe, from the openness of the 
country, the absence of foliage, and the small amount of rain that 
falls there. But even here it is sufficiently warm to mature every 
species of vegetation, wherever shelter and irrigation exist. 

§ 7. The productions of Asia are too numerous to be specified 
with any degree of minuteness. We shall therefore briefly notice 
such as entered largely into the commercial arrangements of the 
continent, and these we shall class under the following heads — 
I. Metals, Precious Stones, &c. II. Materials of Clothing. III. 
Spices and Aromatic Drugs. 

I. Gold was evidently very abundant in ancient times. The eastern 
monarchs not only employed it largely in personal decorations, but 



^ " Pontem indignatus Arcaxes." — Virg". ^^^n. riii. 728. 



78 



THE COXTIXEXT OF ASIA. 



Book II. 



even in furnitm^e and the equipment of their equipages. Gold was 
procured in some quantities from Mount Tmolus in Asia Minor^ whence 
it was carried do^^Ti by the rivers Pactolus and Mfeander : it was fr': m 
this source that the Lydian monarchs enriched themselves. But the 
chief supply was undoubtedly obtained from the mountains of the 
north. Herodotus liii. 102) tells us that the Indians collected it for 
the Persian monarch on a sandy desert : he refers probably to the 
district of Gobi, the mountains that separate it from JBoliltara being to 
this day aimferous. Yet even this district would hardly supply the 
amount of gold which appears to have been current. There is good 
reason for believing that the mines of the Altaic range — the main 
source at present to the Eussian Empire — were worked in ancient 
times, and that from these arose the report which was current in 
Herodotus's time (iii. 10:3), that gold was obtained in large quantities 
from the extreme east. If this were the case, the gold was in part 
supplied from the neighbourhood of La]:t Baihal and the sources of 
the Oiio, about which are the chief mines at the present time. It was 
also believed that Araljia yielded gold : this is not the case in the 
present day, and it is tlierefi ^re possible that it was one of the articles 
of commerce inti'oduced through that country ; still the very general 
unanimity of ancient writers nn this snliject may have had a more 
substantial gTound even tlian this. Silver is not found in equal abun- 
dance in Asia ; the main supply is in the Caucasian range, to which 
Homer ^ perhaps refers in bis notice of the Halizonians ; there were 
also silver mines inBactriana. The amount of silver appears, however, 
to have exceeded these sources of supply, and it is therefore probable 
that large Cjuantities were imported by the Phoenicians from Spain. 
Iron and copper were derived from the mines of Poutus in Asia Minor 
from the days of Ezekiel (xxvii. 13-14): the latter was also found in 
Carmania, and was possessed by the Massageta}, who may have 
obtained it from the Kinjliiz steppes. Precious stones formed another 
of the valuable productions of Asia. Whether the ancients were ac- 
quainted with the diamond mines of Goh-onda, on the eastern coast of 
India, is uncertain ; but it appears probable, from a passage in Ctesias 
{India, cap. 5). that they were aware of the productiveness of the 
mountainous districts of Central Asia, particularly of the range E. of 
Bactriana, where the jasper, lapis lazuli, and onyx, still abound. 
Pearls were found in the Persian Gulf, and along the shores of India 
and Ceylon. 

11. In the second class of productions, we have first to notice cotton, 
described by Herodotus (iii. 10*3) as tree-wool " (exactly answering 
to the German term haunaroUe). It was found, according to that 
author, in India ; it also grew on the island Tylus in the Persian Gtilf. 
Silk was not introduced into Western Asia until a comparatively late 
j^eriod. The earliest notice of the silkworm occiu^s in Aristotle {H. X.^ 
v. 19), the term translated '^silk" in the Bible being really applicable 
to a different texture ; it was manufactured into robes at Cos, whence 
the Latin expression Coa restis. As soon, however, as the Romans 
became acquainted with the habitat of the silkworm, they named it 
Sericum after the Seres of China. Flax grew in India and elsewhere. 
The finest kind of linen was named by the Greeks hijssus. after a 
Hebrew word of the same meaning. Wool of fine quality was produced 



Avrap A/Vt^cui'coi' 'OSto? Kal 'E7rtcrTpo(i)0? rjpxov 

Tr]\66ev 'AAv/St}?, bOev apyvpov ecrrt yeveO^^rj.—lJ . ii. 856. 



Chap. VI. 



COMMERCE. 



79 



in many distncts, particularly in the neighbourhood of Miletus, in 
Syria (according to Ezekiel xxvii. 18^, and in Northern India or 
Cashmere, the flocks of which country are noticed by Ctesias (Ind., 
cap. 13, 20). The chief manufactories of woollen stuffs were in Baby- 
lonia and Phoenicia. The line goats' hair of Ancyra in Asia Minor was 
also highly prized. 

III. The chief fcaipply of spices and axomatics was obtained from 
Yemen, the southern part of Arabia Felix. Hence was derived frank- 
incense, ladamim (the gum of the Cistus ladaniferus), myrrii, gimi 
storax, balm, and (according to Herodotus, iii. llo, ill) cas.sia and 
cinnamon, though these were more properly the productions of 
Ethiopia than of Arabia : perhaps he really referred to a different 
production under the name of cinnamon. It is worthy of remark, as 
illustrating the origin of spices, that the Greek and in many cases the 
English terms are of Semitic origin, and maybe referred to Hebiew 
roots. 

In addition to the productions above enumerated, we may further 
notice — the dyes of Phoenicia, some of which were derived from cer- 
tain kinds of shell-fish, the tucciniun, dJid. tho. murex oy purpura, while 
the scarlet dye was produced from an insect named the coccus, which 
is found on the holm oak in Armenia and Persia — indigo, the very name 
of which (from Indicum) implies the country whence it was obtained — 
glass, which was originally invented and afterwards manufactured in 
Phoenicia — rice, noticed by Strabo (xv. p. 690, B92) as growing in 
India and Syria — and the citron, which was considered as indigenous 
in Media, and hence called Medina. The cherry was introduced into 
Europe from Cerasus (whence the name) in Pontus by the Roman 
consul LucuUus : and the pheasant derives its name from the.rivei^ 
Pha^sis in Colchis. 

§ 8. The commerce of Asia was chiefly carried on overland by 
caravans — then, as now, the only means adapted to the wide open 
plains, the insecm-e state of society, and the various difficnlties and 
dangers which attend the lengthened journeys across this vast con- 
tinent. The merchants engaged in the trade of these parts met 
at certain points for the interchange of their wares, and thus the 
goods changed hands several times before reaching their final destina- 
tion. In ancient times Babylonia formed one of these focuses for the 
prosecution chiefly of the Indian trade : Bactriana was another such 
entrepot, as BoJchara is at the present day, for the commerce of the 
north and east, and particularly of China : Phoenicia, again, was 
the mart where the products of Asia and Europe were exchanged 
and forwarded to their lespective destinations : and on a smaller 
scale. Southern Arabia was the entrepot for the trade of South 
Africa and the coasts of the Indian Ocean. 

Commerckd Routes of Asia. — The points above specified were centres, 
to which the great commercial routes converged. Some of these are 
minutely described to us by ancient writers ; others are not described, 
but are known to have existed. 

1. From Babylonia the following routes existed : — (1.) To Asia 
Minor, by the Royal Road,'' which led from Ephesus to Susa : this 
road is described by Herodotus ^v. 52); it was provided with stations 



80 



THE COXTIXEXT OF ASIA. 



Book II. 



and caravanserais, and followed verj nearly the same line as that of 
the modern route between Smyrna and Baghdad, keeping along the 
central plateau of Asia Minor, crossing the Euphrates probably near 
Melitene, or perhaps lower down at Samosata, thence crossing northern 
^Mesopotamia to the Tigris at Xineveh, and down the com-se of the 
river to Babylon. (2/^ To Phoenicia, by the course of the Euphrates 
as far as Thapsacus, thence across the desert by Palmyra and Damascus 
to Tyi'e. (3.; To Mesopotamia, by the same route as far as Thapsacus, 
and thence across the desert to Edessa. (4.) To India, through 
Ecbatana to Hecatompylos,. E. of the Caspian Gates^ thence by Alex- 
andria in ^Vi'ia, Herat, Prophthasia and Arachotus, and the valley of the 
Cahul, to Taxila on the Indus ; then either down the course of that 
river, or across to the valley of the Ganges, and by Palimbothra near 
Fatna, to the shores of the Bay of Bengal, (p.) To Bactria, by the 
same route as far as Hecatompylos, and thence towards the X.E. 
through Antiochia Margiana, Merv, to the valley of the Oxus. 

II. From Bactria. (1.; To Serica, China, across the ranges that 
intervene between the upper valleys of the Oxus and Jaxartes to where 
a pass leads across the central range to the desert of Gohi : the Chuiese 
merchants came as far as this range, and interchanged their goods at a 
spot called the TmTis Lapidea, ''stone tower," probably identical with 
the Hormeterium, or "merchants' station," to which Ptolemy refers: 
the position of this spot cannot be accurately made out : the name 
Tachkend means "stone tower," but its position is somewhat too 
low on the Jaxartes ; Tahht-i-Soulehnan stands nearer the western 
entrance of the pass and was probably the chief mart, while the ruins 
of an old building now called Chihcl-Sutun, " the forty columns," not' 
far distant, have been identitied with the "stone tower." (2.) To 
India, by the pass of Barneean to Ortospana, Cahul, and thence to the 
Indus. Cahid appears to have been an important trading station, being 
the spot where three roads converged, and hence termed the Bactrian 
Trlviurn, one perhaps leading to the Indus, another to Persia, and the 
third to Bactriana. {o.) To Europe, by the course of the Oxus to the 
Caspian Sea, which was crossed to the mouth of the Araxes on the 
opposite shore, and then by that stream to the head-waters of the 
Phasis, and so down to the Euxine. 

III. From Phcenicia the overland routes led — {I.) To Babylonia by 
Palmyra as already described. (2.) To Gerrha on the Persian Gulf, 
which was the chief trading station for India. ' 3.'^ To southern Arabia, 
either wholly by laiid or perhaps by sea as far as the S.E. angle of the 
Mediterranean, where the "Arabian marts " referred to by Herodotus 
(iii. 5 , were situated, and thence by Petra to the S. 

IV. In Arabia, overland routes led — (1.) Xorthwards from Mariaba, 
the great commercial capital of the southern district, through Macoraba, 
Mecca, to Petra. (2.) From the same point to Gerrha on the Persian 
Gulf. ''3.', From Gerrha across - the country to Petra. [A-.] From 
Petra, westward to Egypt and northward to Palestine : Petra was thus 
the great entrepot of Xorthern Arabia. Lastly, from some point on 
the soutliern coast of Arabia, probably Ade7i, an extensive maritime 
trade was prosecuted with the eastern coast of Africa, and the western 
coast of India. The commercial route established by Solomon, with 
the aid of the Phoenicians, from the head of the Red Sea to Ophir 
'1 Kings, ix. 28 ; x. 22, 23 , was probably directed to some entrepot on 
the southern coast of Arabia, where the varied productions of India, 
South Africa, and Arabia, could be procured. 



Chap. VI. 



ETHXOGRAPnY 



81 



§ 9. The ethnogTaphy of the continent of Asia is a subject of grea.t 
interest and importance, but one which in this work we can only 
treat incidentally. Asia was, as we have already observed, the 
cradle of the human race : there the first family became fruitful, 
and multiplied, and replenished the earth : " there the different 
types of language and physical conformation were first developed ; 
and thence issued the various nations to their respective homes in 
the four quarters of the globe. In Asia, therefore, we might expect 
to see the greatest diversity of race and language, and to be able to 
trace those differences back to the point of their original divergence. 
Such a diversity did in point of fact exist, as testified by the trilingual 
inscriptions of the Persian Empire : and we are enabled, b}' the 
light of history, and still more by the analysis of language, to arri^'e 
at a probable opinion as to the time when, and the place where, the 
divergence commenced. If we refer to the Bible, which furnishes us 
with the only historical narrative of these events, we find it stated 
that the human race remained " of one language and of one speech" 
until a period subsequent to the flood — that the place where the 
difference of language originated was in the plain of Shinar, the later 
Babylonia — and that a tripartite division was there established, 
consisting of the descendants of Shem, Ham, and Japhet. 

(1.) Modern philology confirms in a remarkable degree tliQ 
statements of Scripture. There are still existing abundant ti-aces 
of a language, which, from its simple and unspecific character and 
from the wide area over which it .prevailed, may be regarded as 
the representative of the " one language and one speech " of the 
Bible. Ethnologists assign to this language and to the races speaking 
it the titles "Turanian," " Allophylian," " Scythic," and "Tatar." 
The Scythians of the ancient world, the Tatars of the modern, are 
the most prominent races of this type. 

Turanian or Scythic Branch. — The language in its most ancient form 
smndves in the Assyrian, x\rmenian, and Persian inscriptions, which 
are for the most part trilingual, one column being in the Scythic 
speech. "The language and other characteristics of the following ancient 
races, viz. the Parthians, SacEe, Colchians, Asiatic Ethiopians, Saspeiri, 
Tibareni, and Moschi, point them out as belonging wholly to this 
primitive stock ; while the Armenians, Cappadocians, Susianians, and 
Chaldaeans, contained a large admixtiu'e of the same element. 

Out of this primitive language were gi'adually developed more 
perfect forms, apparently at considerable intervals of time. The 
earliest of these developments was probably the Hamitic language, 
which appears to have originated in Egypt (pre-eminently the 
" land of Ham "), and to have spread eastward along the shores of 
the Arabian Sea to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. The 
extension of Hamitism eastwards to Babvlonia is supported bv the 

E 3 



82 



THE CONTI^N^ENT OF ASIA. 



Book II. 



Mosaic genealogy, which represents Ximrod as the grandson of Ham 
(Gen. X. 8), and thus extends the territory of Cush from Abyssinia, 
which was the proper position of the race, to the eastern Cuthah in 
Babylonia. 

Hamitic or Cusliite Branch. — The nations which may be assigned to 
this family are — the southern Arabs, the early Chaldseans, the early 
Susianians, the Ethiopians of Asia, and perhaps the early Canaanites. 

(2.) The Semitic form of language appears to have en:ianated 
from Babylonia. •This circumstance appears to be indicated in the 
notices that Asshur went forth out of Babylonia to Assyria (Gen. x. 
11), that a Semitic race settled in Elam (Susiaiia) (Gen. x. 22), 
and that the Semitic family of Terah dwelt in Ur of the Chaldees 
(Gen. xi. 28). The period when this movement originated may be 
assigned to the earlier part of the 20tli century B.C. : the westerly 
migrations of Abraham to Canaan, of the Joktanida? to Arabia, and 
of the Phoenicians to the Mediterranean coast, were connected with 
this movement. 

Semitic Branch. — The nations which may be grouped together in this 
family are the later Babylonians (as distinct from the Chaldseans), the 
Assyrians, Syrians, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Jews, Cyprians, the later 
Cilicians, the Solymi, and the northern Arabians. 

• (3.) The Japhetic or Indo-Europ^ean family is the third great 
division of the human race. Its name implies an ethnical affinity 
between the Indian and Europa?an nations, a fact which has long 
been established on most indubitable evidence. Hence we must 
suppose a double migration, eastward and westward, from some cen- 
tral point. Armenia is supposed to have been that point. 

Japhetic or Indo-European Branch. — From Armenia issued westward 
the Thracians, Pelasgians, Celts, Teutons, Phrygians, Bithynians, Ly- 
dians, and Lycians ; eastward the Gette of the Caspian steppes and 
the progenitors of the modern Hindoos, who settled in the upper valley 
of the Indus, whence one branch appears to have retraced its steps 
across the Hindu Kush, and to have settled in Sogdiana, Bactria, Aria, 
Hyrcania, Arachosia, Media, Persia, Carmania, and Drangiana, while 
another descended to the plains of Hindostan, and took possession of 
the whole of that peninsula. 



Harbour of Alexandria Troas. 



CHAPTEE TII. 

ASIA MINOR. — ilYSIA; LYDIA. 

§ 1. Boundaries ; name. § 2. Position and j^bysical character. § 3. 
General featui^es. § ^. ]vIountains. § 5. PdTers. § 6. Lakes. 
§ 7. Soil and climat^ § 8. Population, § 9. Divisi'jns. I. Xysia, 
§ 10. Boundaries; general character. ^ 11. Mountains. § 12. 
Elvers. § 13. Inhabitants ; divisions. § 14. Towns ; history. 
§ 15. Islands — Lesbos. Tenedos. &c. II. Lydia. § 16. Boun- 
daries ; general character. § 17. Mountains. § IS. Elvers. § 19. 
Inhabitants. § 2ij. Tovns : history. §21. Chios. §22. Samos. 
§ 23. Icarus, &c. 

§ 1. Asia Minor is the name assigned by geographers to the 
large peninsula which stretches westward from the main body of the 
continent of Asia, and which is bounded on three of its sides by 
water — on the W. by the ^Ega?an ; on the X. by the Euxuie, and 
the chain of intermediate seas that connect it with the ^geean, 
viz. the Hellespont, Propontis, and Thracian Bosporus ; and on the 
S. by the Mediterranean : on the E. it was separated from Syria by 
the ranges of Amanus and Taurus, from Aimenia by the Euphrates 
and one of the ranges of Parvadres, and from Colchis by the river 
Phasis. 



84 



ASIA MINOR. 



Book II. 



The Name. — The application of tlie name ^^Asia Minor" to this 
peninsula may be traced as follows:: — The name ''Asia" originated, as 
we have already seen, in the alluvial plain of the Cayster, and seems at 
all periods to have adhered in a special sense to portions of the penin- 
sula, even after its extension to the whole of the continent. Hero- 
dotus, for instance, describes the territory of the Lydian monarchs as 
''Asia within the Halys ;" Strabo and Livy as "Asia -vsithin Taurus;" 
the kings of Pergamus adopted the title of "Kings of Asia," and when 
the last of these died, and bequeathed his territories to the Eomans, 
they constituted a portion of them into a province named "Asia," 
partly, perhaps, in imitation of the princes whom they succeeded, and 
partly because it was the first territory on that continent of which 
they took formal possession. From the pro^dnce of Asia^ which only 
included the western district, the name was gradually extended to the 
whole peninsula, and the addition of "Minor" first appears in Orosius, 
a writer of the fourth century of our era. It is most important to. 
note, in connexion with classical and even Biblical literature, that tlie 
term "Asia" was at no period co-extensive with the whole of the 
peninsula : it applied either to the continent, or to a portion of the 
peninsula — in Latin authors frequently, and in the New Testament 
exclusivel}^, to the latter. But the idea of Asia Minor, as a distinct 
and united country, was quite foreign to the mind of the ancients. 
The modern name of the peninsula is Anadoli, i. e. " the east." 

§ 2. The position and physical character of this peninsula des- 
tined it to hold a conspicuous place in the history of the ancient 
world. Situated at the extreme west of Asia and in close contiguity 
to Europe, it became, as it were, the bridge to unite the two con- 
tinents ; as such, it was traversed by successive waves of population 
as they surged westward from Central Asia, and it served as the great 
high-road on which the contending hosts of the East and West 
marched to the conflict, and not unfrequently the battle-field on 
which the question of supremacy was decided between them. In a 
strategetical point of view, it may be regarded as the outwork of the 
citadel of Asia : so long as any of its numerous lines of defence were 
sustained — whether the Hellespont, the Halys, the passes of Taurus 
and Amanus, the maritime plain of Issus, or the valley of the 
Euphrates — so long the safety of Europe or of Asia was inviolable. 
Xot less marked was the importance of Asia Minor in the progress 
of commerce and civilization. In this respect the western district 
occupies the first place. Holding easy communication by sea with 
Phoenicia in one direction, with Greece by the isles that stud the 
^Egaean in another, and with the Euxine in a third — with a coast 
well adapted to early navigation, being broken up into bays and 
estuaries, and fringed with islands — with a soil fertile in the pro- 
ductions most valued in ancient times — with a brilliant sky and a 
pure air — it was well calculated to become the nursery of commerce 
and art. It was here that the activity of the Greek mind w\qs first 
developed : Miletus and Phoc^ea were foremost in commercial 



Chap. VII. 



GENEEAL FEATURES. 



85 



enterprise : the first school of philosoi^hy was planted on the soil of 
Ionia : both epic and lyric poetry were born and matured in this 
favoured district : the earliest historical writers of importance, 
Hecataeus, Charon, Hellanicus, and Herodotus, were natives of Asia 
Minor. Lastly, in the culture of the fine arts, she was not 
behind her contemporaries ; the temples of Diana at Ephesus, and 
of Juno at Samos, erected in the sixth century B.C., the monu- 
mental sculpture* of Xanthus and Halicarnassus, the statuary of 
Branchida^, and the paintings of Phoca?a, attested, and in many 
instances still attest, the taste and skill of the artists of Asia Minor. 

§ 3. The general features of the peninsula of Asia Minor may be 
described in the following manner : — In form, it is an irregular 
parallelogram, the sides facing the four cardinal points ; in size, it 
has a length of about G50, and a breadth of about 350 miles, its 
area being about half that of France ; in physical conformation, it 
consists of a central plateau, surrounded by a maritime district, the 
plateau occupying a length of about 500, and a breadth of about 
250 miles, or about one-half of the whole peninsula. The general 
fall of the land is towards the X., as indicated by the courses of the 
rivers ; the southern part of the plateau is therefore higher than the 
northern. The sea-coasts vary in character : while the X. aud S. 
are regular, the former even more so than the latter, the W. coast 
is extremely irregular, the Propontis and the ^Egaean being deeply 
indented with bays and inlets. 

Considerable changes have taken place in the coast -line within his- 
torical times, through the large amount of alluvium deposited by some 
of the rivers. The Elaean Bay has been diminished on its northern side 
by the deposits of the Evenus and Caicus ; the Herma^an Bay, which 
at one time opened out widely in the direction of Temnos, is now so 
contracted at the mouth of the Hermus as to present the appearance 
of a double bay ; the port of Ephesus is entirely filled up, and the 
general level of the plain, on which the town stood, is raised by the de- 
posits of the Cayster ; but the greatest change of all is in the neigh- 
bourhood of Miletus, where the Mseander has protruded a considerable 
plain into the very centre of the Latmian Bay, turning the head of the 
bay into an inland lake, swallowing up the islands of Lade and Astoria, 
and removing the sea to a considerable distance from the site of ancient 
Miletus. On the southern coast a marked change has occmred in the 
lower course of the Pyramus, which formerly reached the sea by a 
direct channel, but now turns off" at right angles to its upper course 
near the site of Mopsuestia, and doubling round Mount Parium reaches 
the sea in an easterly direction. 

§ 4. The mountains which form the framework of the plateau are, 
Taurus in the S., Antitaurus and Scydises in the E., Paryadres and 
its continuations to the Mysian Olympus in the X., and a series of 
subordinate heights that connect the latter with Taurus in the W. 



86 



ASIA MIXOR. 



Book II. 



The most important of these mountain-ranges is Taurus, which de- 
rives its name from the Aramaic word Tur, "height." In its western 
portion it consists of an irregular series of detached moimtains, which 
cover the provinces of Lycia and Pisidia. in the former penetrating to 
the sea-coast, and terminating in a series of promontories, while, in the 
latter, they are removed somewhat inland, and leave the comparatively 
level strip occupied by Pamphylia. The range assumes a more decided 
form on the borders of Cilicia, and presents the appearance of an un- 
broken wall throughout the whole length of that province, the only 
spot where it can be crossed by an army being at the celebrated Portae 
Cilici?e. On the eastern border of Cilicia it throws off a southern limb 
named Amanus Mons, Almadagh, which, pressing closely on the Medi- 
terranean shore, presents an almost insurmountable barrier in that 
direction. Taurus itself continues its easterly course, and forms the 
boundary of Asia Minor on the border of Cappadocia. Antitaurus 
strikes off from the main chain in a northerly direction from the border 
of Cilicia, and divides Cappadocia into two pai-ts : the lofty Argaeus, 
Argish Dagh, whence, according to Strabo, both the Euxine and ]\[edi- 
terranean seas could be seen, forms its culminating point : its height 
is estimated at 13,0ij0 feet. On the frontier of Cappadocia and Pontus 
Antitaurus takes an easterly direction, bounding the valley of the 
Halys, and passes out of Asia Minor into Armenia Minor, where it 
connects with Scydises. This latter throws off a noithern offset, 
which ultimately connects it with the Moschici Montes on the eastern 
frontier of Pontus. Another offset of Scydises forms the connecting link 
between the Taurian system and the lofty range of Paryadres, Kutfag, 
which runs parallel to the Euxine Sea, and throws off from its central 
chain numerous spurs, reaching to the neighbourhood of the coast, and 
enclosing short parallel valleys. Paryadres terminates at the valley of 
the Iris, and thenceforward the continuity of the northern range is 
broken, though the system may be traced through the Galatian and 
Mysian Olympus to the very shores of the Propontis. Lastly, a southern 
range of subordinate height, Avhich leaves the Mj'sian Ol^unpus and 
passes near Coty?eum, completes the framework of the country by 
bounding the plateau on the W. Westwai^d of the line just indicated 
the table-land breaks up into numerous ridges, which descend towards 
the ^gEcan : of these we may notice — Mess5gis, Kesfaueh Dagh, which 
separates the basins of the Meander and Cayster— Tmolus, Bouz Dagh, 
betvveen the Cayster and Hermus ; and Temnus, Ak Dagli, which 
divides the upper basin of the Hermus from the Macestus and Rhyn- 
dacus, which take a northerly course. 

§ 5. Tlie chief rivers of Asia ]\rinor seek the Euxine. Kot only 
is the general slope of the country in that direction, but also more 
nmnerous outlets are offered among the broken chains of the north, 
than along the serried line of Taurus. We may notice, as running 
in that direction — the Phasis, Bion, which forms the boundary 
between Colchis and Asia Minor — the Acampsis, Tcliorulx, in Pontus 
— the Iris, Kamlviak, in the same province — the Halys, Kizil 
Tnnak, i. e. "red river," the most important in the wdiole country 
— and the Sangarius, Sakharyeh, in Bitliynia. The Propontis 
receives an important feeder in the Rhyndacus, Lupad. Pi'oceeding 
southw^ards along the coast of the uS]g£ean, ^ve meet with the Hermus, 



Chap. VII. 



EIVEES— LAKES. 



87 



Kodus Chat, in Lj'dia, and tlie Maeander, Meinder, in Caria. The 
streams that fall into the Mediterranean are necessarily short, from 
the close apx^roach of the Taurus range ; from this description, 
however, we must except the Sams, Sihun, and thePyramuS) Jihun, 

in the eastern part of Cilicia, which rise between the ranges of 
Taurus and Antitaurus, and thus have longer courses. The rivers 
above enumerated Avill be more minutely described in the subse- 
quent accounts of the provinces, with the exception of those which 
hold an important place in the general geography of Asia Minor. 

The Halys rises on the borders of Armenia, and traverses Cappa- 
docia in a south-westerly course as far as jiazaca ; thence it turns 
gi'adually towards the X., and finally towards the X.E., separating in 
this part of its course Paphlagonia from Galatia and Pontus. and dis- 
charging itself into the Euxine : it derives its modern name from the 
*^red" colour of the water when impregnated with the soil of the 
country. The Sangarius rises in the Phrygian mountain Adoreus. and, 
flowing northwards, receives an important tributary from the neigh- 
bourhood of Ancyra ; it afterwards assumes a westerly direction, until 
its junction with the Thymbres, when it again turns northwards, and 
in a tortuous course crosses Bithynia to the Euxine : it was uavicrable 
in its lower course, and yielded an abundance of fish. The Phasis 
rises in the Moschici Montes, and flows in a semicircular course, with a 
rapid stream, into the Euxine : in the upper part of its course it was 
named Boas : its water is described a^ being very cold, and so light 
that it swam like oil on the Euxine. The Sams rises in Cataonia, and 
first flows towards the S.E. through Cappadocia, and then towards the 
S.W. thi^ough Cilicia, traversing in its lower coin^se the rich Ale'ian 
plain, and emptying itself into the Mediterranean S. of Tarsus. The 
Pyramus also rises in Cataonia, and has a general S.W. course : for a 
certain distance it is said to disappear under ground ; on its reappear- 
ance it becomes a navigable stream, and forces its way through a glen 
of Taurus, which in some parts is so narrow that a dog can leap across 
it ; it then crosses the eastern part of the Aleian plain to the sea. 

§ 6. The lakes form a conspicuous feature in the map of Asia 
Minor. The central plateau is not (it should be observed) a dead 
flat, but intersected by numerous ranges of mountains of varying 
altitude. In the southern portion of the plateau these ranges form 
basins in which the waters gather into lakes, no outlet towards the 
sea existing in any direction. These lakes are for the most part 
strongly impregnated with salt. The largest of them is Tatta, Tuzla, 
on the borders of Lycaonia and Cappadocia, about 75 miles in cir- 
cumference. Coralis and Trogitis, in Pisidia, are also of a large 
size. 

§ 7. The soil and the climate of Asia Minor are, as may be 
supposed, exceedingly varial3le. The alluvial plains about the 
lower coiu'ses of the rivers of the western district and Cilicia sur- 
pass all in fertility. The extent and flatness of these plains is remark- 
able ; the mountains rise out of them at their upper extremities, 



88 



ASIA MINOR. 



Book TI. 



" like islands out of the ocean they are sheltered from the severe 
cold of the upper regions, and are for the most part well watered. 
The most extensive of these alluvial plains is in the eastern part of 
Cilicia, hence designated Campestris, which is formed by the rivers 
Cydnus, Sarus, and Py ramus. Of a similar character are the lands 
which surround many of the lakes in the interior ; these have at 
one period occupied larger beds than at present ; the dry margins 
are consequently beds of rich alluvial soil. Fertile plains of a 
different class are found occasionally on the sea-coast ; of these, that 
of Attalia on the southern coast was the most extensive. The hills 
of the western district are clothed with shrubs and wood, and in 
some cases cultivated to their very summits. The climate of the 
maritime region is fine, but the heat sometimes excessive. The 
western portion of the central plateau consists of extensive barren 
plains traversed b}^ deep gullies which the streams have worked 
out for themselves. The southern part is subdivided into numer- 
ous portions by ranges of considerable height ; in the nortliem part the 
hills are of less height, and consequently the plains present a more 
unbroken appearance. The same peculiarity, which we have already 
noted in regard to the alluvial plains, also characterizes the upper 
plains ; " they extend without any previous slope to the foot of the 
mountains, which rise from them like lofty islands out of the surface 
of the ocean." The climate of the central district is severe, the 
loftier hills being tipped with snow throughout the greater part of 
the year. The northern district along the shores of the Euxine, 
from the Iris to the Sangarius, is fertile, the hills being of no great 
elevation ; on either side of these limits the country is too moun- 
tainous to admit of much cultivation. 

§ 8. The population of Asia Minor was of a very mixed cha- 
racter : Turanian, Indo-Europ^.an, and Semitic races are found 
there coexisting in different proportions, the predominant element, 
however, being the Indo-EuropaBan. This admixture is indicated in 
the Mosaic table, where Lud, the progenitor of the Lydians, is repre- 
sented as a son of Shem, while the remainder of the northern and 
western parts of the world are assigned to the Japhetites — Gomer, 
Ashkenaz, and Riphath being (according to the best authorities) the 
representatives of the races in the western part of Asia Minor, while 
Meschech and Tubal undoubtedly held the eastern part. 

(1.) Tiuxmian Races. — The most important were the Moschi, the 
Meschech of Scripture, and the Mnskai of the Assyrian inscriptions, the 
progenitors of the Muscovites ; and the Tibareni, the Tubal of Scripture. 
These races occupied the later Cappadocia, and were pressed northwards 
to the shores of the Euxine by the entrance of the Cappadocians. At a 



' Fellows's Asia Minor, p. 26. 



2 Leake's Asia Minor, p. 95. 



Chap. VIT. 



POPULATION-DIVISIONS. 



89 



later period Scytho-Thracian tribes recrossed the Bosporus from Europe 
into Asia, and settled along the northern coast, under the names Thyni, 
Bithyni, and Mariandyni. 

(2.) Lido-Earopcean Races. — The Phrygians, Trojans.. Mysians, Mseo- 
nians, Mygdonians, and Dolionians, as well as the Pelasgians, who were 
closely allied to the Phrygians, belong to this class. The Phrygians 
(whose name appears under the different forms of Phryges, Bryges, 
Briges, Breuci, Bebryces, and Berecynthse) were in early times the 
dominant race in Asia Minor, and had even crossed over the Hellespont 
into Europe, whence, however, they were driven back by the advance 
of the Illyrians and Scytho-Thracians, and resettled on the shores of 
the Propontis, in the districts named Lesser Phrygia and Mysia. A 
Celtic race, the Galatians, entered Asia Minor at a comparatively 
late period. 

(3.) Semitic Races. — These were chiefly located on the shores of the 
Mediterranean Sea. The Cilicians were connected by their own tradi- 
tions with the Phoenicians. The Pisidians and the early inhabitants of 
Lycia, the Solymi and Termilse, were undoubtedly of Semitic origin 
the frequent occurrence of Semitic names in the latter district, as 
Solj^mi (Salem), Phoenix (Phoenicia), and Cabalia (Gebal), furnishes a 
proof of this. The Lydians on the western coast are supposed to be 
also a Semitic race, but this question can hardly yet be considered as 
decided. The same may be said of the Cappadocians, who are described 
as Syrians by Herodotus — a 'prima facie ground for inferring that they 
were of Aramaean and thus of Semitic origin. That description may 
hawever have been attached to them from their having entered Asia 
Minor from the side of Syria. The Cappadocians are by some ethnolo- 
gists sup230sed to be of the Arian division of Indo-Europa^ans, an 
opinion which is favoured by the comparatively late period of their 
immigration. 

§ 9. The territorial divisions of Asia Minor varied considerably 
in different ages. We have described the positions which the 
several races were supposed to occupy in the age of Herodotus 
(p. 36). Subsequently to that time we may note the following 
changes : — (1.) the introduction of the name " Pontus," w^hich first 
appears in Xenophon {Anah. v. 6, § 15), to describe the province 
lying along the shore of the Euxine in the N.E. ; (2.) the separa- 
tion of Pisidia from Phrygia and Pamphylia, which was not form- 
ally effected until the time of Constantine the Great ; (3.) the 
immigration of the Gauls into the district named Galatia ; and (4.) 
the consequent contraction of the boundaries of Phrygia and Bithy- 
nia. The divisions usually recognised in geographical works belong 
to the period of the Roman empire, and are partly of a political, 
partly of an ethnographical character. They are the following 14 : 
on the western coast, Mysia with. Troas and ^olis, Lydia with the 
northern portion of Ionia, and Caria with, southern Ionia and 
Doris ; on the southern coast, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia ; in 
the interior, Cappadocia with Armenia Minor, Lycaonia with Isau- 
ria, Pisidia, Phrygia, and Galatia ; and on the northern coast, Bi~ 
thynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. 



90 



ASIA MINOR. 



Book II. 



History.— In the earliest historical period Asia Minor was parcelled 
out into a number of independent kingdoms^ among which the Phry- 
gian^ appears to have been the most powerful. The Trojan and earlier 
Lydian dynasties are also known to us. The last of the Lydian dynas- 
ties, the Mermnadse, extended their sway over the whole of Asia Minor 
westward of the Halys from B.C. 720 to 546, when their territory, along 
with the rest of the peninsula, was incorporated by Cyrus into the Per"^ 
sian Empire. Asia Minor remained subject to Persia "until the time of 
Alexander the Great, B.C. 334-, when it was transferred to the Macedo- 
nian Empire. After the death of the conqueror it fell in the first in- 
stance to Antigonus, and after the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 30 V, to Lysi- 
machus. About 20 years later, Seleucus attached the gi-eater part of it 
to Syria, while several provinces, Bithynia, Galatia, Cappadocia, Pontus, 
Paphlagonia, and Armenia Minor, and the town of Pergamus, became the 
seats of independent monarchies. The battle of Magnesia, B.C. 190, ter- 
minated the supremacy of the Seleucidae, and the" Roman conquerors 
handed over Lyciaand Cariato the Rhodians, Mysia, Lydia, andPhrygia 
to the kings of Pergamus. The last of these kings bequeathed his terri- 
tory to Rome, B.C. 133, and the Roman province of Asia was formed, in- 
cluding a large part of Phrygia, Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, which last 
had been taken away from the Rhodians, Lycia being declared inde- 
pendent. By degrees the other portions of Asia Minor fell into the 
hands of the Romans ; Bithynia by the bequest of Xicomedes IV., B.C. 
75; Cilicia by the conquest of Pompe\-, B.C. 67; Pontus partly 'after 
the defeat of Mithridates, and the remainder in the reign of Nero ; Ga- 
latia and Lycaonia after the death of the Tetrarch Amyntas, b.c' 25 ; 
Cappadocia after the death of Archelaus, A. D. 18; and lastly Armenia 
Minor, after the death of Tigranes in Vespasian's reign. Asia Minor 
was then divided into the following provinces :— Asia, Lvcia, Cilicia 
with Pamphylia, Cappadocia, Galatia with Lycaonia, Bithynia with 
Pontus, and Armenia Minor. In Constantine's division Asia Minor 
(with the exception of Cilicia and Isauria, which were added to the 
Diocese of the East), was divided into two Dioceses, Asiana and Pontus, 
the latter consiscing of Pontus, Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, the 
former of the remaining provinces. 




Site of Abydos, from the West. 



Chap. VII. 



MYSIA, WITH JEOLIS. 



91 



I. Mysia, with ^Eoijs. 

§ 10. The province of Mysia lay in the north- west of Asia Muror, 
bounded on the N. by the Propontis and the Hellespont, on the 
W. by the JEg^ean, on the S. by Mount Temnus and Lydia, and 
on the E. by Bithynia and Phrygia, the boundary in this direction 
being marked by the river Ehyndacus and Mount Olympus. It is 
generally mountainous, but possesses some plains on the sea-coast. 
It is also well watered by a number of small rivers. Nevertheless 
it was not in ancient times so productive as other portions of Asia 
Minor, and many parts of it were covered with marshes and forests. 
Besides the ordinary products and the wdieat of Assus, Mysia was 
celebrated for the lapis assius, found near Assus, which had the 
property of quickly consuming the human body, and was hence used 
for coffins. Kear the coasts of the Hellespont there were excellent 
oyster beds.^ 

Name. — The name Mysia is probably only another form of Moesia, 
derived from a Celtic word signifyiDg ^^a marsh." The Mysians were 
sometimes distinguished from the Moesians by the title of ^'Asiatic." 

§ 11. The moimtains of Mysia are irregular. The highlands of 
the central plateau break up into a number of ranges, which seek 
the sea in various directions, though wdth a general tendency to- 
wards the W. lire most important of the^e ranges are — Olympus 
on the eastern border — Temnus on the southern border — and Ida in 
Troas near the ^ga?an. 

Olympus, Ketchicli Dagh, distinguished from other mountains of the 
same name by the title of " Mysian," is an extensive raDge between 
the valleys of the Sangarius and Ehyndacus, and attains the height of 
7000 feet. The lower regions are well clad with forests, which in 
ancient times harboured dangerous bands of robbers ; the summit is 
covered with snow for the greater part of the year. Temnus traverses 
the province in a north-westerly direction from the angle in which 
Mysia meets Phrygia and Lydia to the neighbourhood of Ida ; it is 
only noticed by the later geographers, and has no associations of any 
interest. Ida ^ is an irregular ridge running out into several branches 

3 Pontus et ostriferi fauces tentantur Abydi. — Virg. Georg. i. 207. 
Hellespontia, ceeteris ostreosior oris. — Catl'll. xviii. 4. 
Pontus et ostriferam dirimat Chalcedona eursu. — Luc. ix. 959. 

* The proximity of Ida to Troy leads to its being- frequently noticed by the poets. 
Virgil describes the meteor as disappearing behind its wooded heights : — 

Illam, summa super labentem culmina tecti 

Cernimus Idiea claram se condere silva. — .En. ii. 695. 
So, again, it appears among the ornaments of .Eneas's vessel : — 

Imminet Ida super, profugis gratissima Teucris. — x. l58. 
Ida was further celebratec^in mythology as the birthplace of Cybcle : — 

Alma parens Ida?a deiim. — Yirg. ^En. x. 252. 
It is also used as a synonym for Trojan ; as in the expressions — Ichvus judex for 



92 



MYSIA, WITH .EOLIS. 



Book II. 



near the ^gcean ; the highest point, named Grargarus, attains an eleva- 
tion of 465'"' feet above the level of the sea; these ranges are well 
covered ^\ith wood, the haunts in ancient times of wild beasts, and 
contain the sources of numerous rivers.^ 

The sea-coast is also irregular, particularly iu the southern part 
of the province, where the Sinus Adramyttenus, G^i^?/ of Adramyfti, 
advances far inland between Lesbos and the mainland, and is suc- 
ceeded by a series of sinuosities terminating with the Sin. Elaiticus, 
Gulf of Sandarli, on the borders of Lydia. The promontorit-s of 
Ehoetenm.*^ lutendi, on the Hellespont — Sigemn/ Yenisheri, at the 
entrance of the Hellespont — and Lectum, Baha, the extremity of 
the range of Ida — are frequently noticed by classical writers. 

The less impoitant promontories are — Abarnns, near Lampsacus — 
Dardanis, S. of Abydus near Dardanus — and Cane, C Coloni, W. of 
the mouth of the Caicus. 

§ 12. Tlie most important rivers are the Ehyndacns and the Caicus. 
The former rises in Northern Phrygia, and flows in a north-western 
direction between Mysia and Bithynia through the Lake of Apol- 
lonia, and, after receiving the Macestus from the S.W., falls into 
the Propontis. The C^cus,^ Ak-su, rises in Temnus, and consists 
in its upper course of two streams, which unit€ near Pergamum : 
thence it flcivrs into the Bay of EhTa. In addition to these, there are 
numerous streams, unimix)rtant in point of size, but invested with 
historical associations, which we will briefly notice. 

Paris (Ov. Fast. vi. 44), Id<pw ?iaves Hor. Od. 1. 15, 2) ; or for Phrygian, as 
Id(Bce urbes (Virg. JEn. vii. 207} ; or lastly for Roman, as being descended from 
Troy, as Idmis sanguis (Sil. Ital. i. 126;. 

Propertius confounds this Ida with the one in Crete : — 
Idoeum Simoenta Jovis cunabula parvi iii. 1, 27\ 
^ *I^7]r 5' LKavev TToXvTTL^aKa, fiTjrepa &r}pbjv. HOM. 27. viii. 47. 

Concidit : ut quondam cava concidit, aut Erymantho 
Ant Ida in magna, radicibus eruta pinus. — Yibg. ^n. v. 448. 
Ardua proceris spoliantur Gargara silvis : 

lunumerasque mihi longa dat Ida trabes.— Ovid. Heroid. xvi, 107. 

^ Rhoeteius is often used as a synonym for " Trojan;'' e. g. Bhosteius ductor seil. 
JEneas ^Virg. ^En. xii. 456 : Bnateia Uttora Luc. vi. SoT ; and by a secondaiy 
application, for " Eoman," e. g. Bhoezeia regna Sil. Ital. vii. 431}. 

' The naval camp of the Greeks was formed near Sigeum : hence it is frequently 
noticed by Homer and Virgil. The latter alludes to its position just where the 

Hellespont widens out into the ^Egaean : — 

Sigea igni freta lata relucent. — JEn. ii. 312. 
Sigeus. or Sigei'us. is also used as a synonym for "Trojan;" e. g. Sxgei campi 
^^jEn. vii. 294 , Sigco in pulvere Stat. AcJuI. i. S4_ ; and for "Roman : — 

Seu Laurens tibi Sigeo sulcata colono 

Arridet teilus. Sil. Ital. ix. 203. 

5 Mysusque Caicus. Tieg. Gcorg. iv, 370. 

Et Mysum capitisque sui ripaeque prioris 

Poenituisse ferunt, alia nunc ire. Caicum. — Ovid. Met. xv. 27 7. 



Chap. VII. 



EIVERS— INHABITANTS. 



93 



The Propontis receives the -ffisepus,^ which rises in Ida, and flows 
towards the forming the eastern boundary of the Troad— and 

the Granicus,^ the scene of the victory of Alexander the Great over the 
Persians, B.C. 334, and of Lucullus over Mithridates, B.C. 73; it is pro- 
bably the same as the Kodsha-su. The Hellespont receives the follow- 
ing streams from E. to W. — the Perc5tes, Brogas, the Practius, Mus- 
hakoi-su, the Ehodius, the Simois, Dumhreh-chai. formerly a tributary 
of the Scamander, but now an independent stream, and the Scamander'^ 
or Xanth.us, Mendere-su, which flowed by the walls of Troy, with its tri- 
butary, the Thymbrius, perhaps the Kamara-su, wdiich still flows into 
the Mender e-m, though the name Timhrek is applied to a stream which 
has an independent course to the sea. The Satniois, Tuzla, in the 
southern part of Troas, rises in Ida and flows into the ^gsean Sea : the 
Evenus, Sandarli, rises in Temnus, and flows into the Bay of Eleea. 
Most of these streams owe their celebrity to their connexion with the 
Homeric poems. The Scamander is described by Homer as having 
two sources close to Ilium, one of them sending forth hot water, the 
other cold ; he also describes it as a large and deep river ;^ it was 
named Xanthus from the yellow colour of its water. Pliny describes 
the Xanthus and Scamander as distinct streams ; Ptolemy gives the 
Simois and Scamander independent courses to the sea. The proba- 
bility is that even in ancient times considerable changes had taken 
place in the line of coast by the alluvial deposits carried down by these 
streams. The Simois crossed the plain of Troy, and was therefore the 
scene of some of the most striking events in the Trojan war.^ 

§ 13. The inhabitants of Mysia belonged to various races. (1.) 
The Mysians themselves in the age of Homer appear to have lived 
on the shores of the Propontis in Mysia Minor ; thence they ad- 
vanced southwards and eastwards, and about the time of the ^olian 
migration founded the kingdom of Teuthrania. (2.) The Trojans 
occupied the district of Troas in the Homeric age ; they were pro- 
bably, like the Mysians, an immigrant race from Thrace ; they 
amalgamated with the Phrygians, and hence the terms are used in- 
differently. (3.) Greek colonists settled at an early period along 
the western coast ; they consisted of Ach^eans, Boeotians, and 
lians, of whom the latter possessed the chief influence, and commu- 
nicated their name both to the migration and the district. 



3 "Ot Se ZeAetaf evatov viral iroSa veCarop 'iSrjg, 
'A</)i/etol, TrcVoi/res vSoop [xiXau Alcriq-OLO. HOM. 77. 11. 824. 

1 Ovid describes it as bifurcating near its mouth : — ■ 

Alexirhoe, Granico nata hicorni. — Met. xi. 7fr». 
- "^Ov s.dvOov KaXdovac Oeol, av8pe<; Se '^KafxavSpov. — H03I. TL XX. 74. 
Xanthus hence appears to have been the more ancient of the two names. 
3 'KdvOov ^a9v8LVT^evTOS. — II. xxi. 15. 

'ApyvpoBiirqv. — II. xxi. 8. 
5 Kal St/xoei?, 69l iroWd jSoaypta tcai Tpv(/)aAetat 

'Kdmrecrov ev KOvCrjaL, kol r^jXLdeojv yivos dvSpu>v' — HoM. i7. xii. 22. 

Ssevus ubi ^Eacidae telo jacet Hector, ubi ingens 

Sarpedon : ubi tot Simois correpta sub undis 

Scuta virum, galeasque, et fortia corpora volvit. — Virg. .En. i. 99. 



94 



MYSIA, WITH .EOLIS. 



Book 11. 



Mysiawas divided into tlie following districts : — (1.) Mysia Minor 
or Hellespontiaca, tlie coast-district along the Hellespont and the 
Propontis. (2.) Mysia Major, the southern portion of the interioi 
of the province, with Pergammn for its capital, and hence sometimes 
termed Pergamene. (3.) Troas, the northern part of the western 
coast from the Hellespont to the Bay of Adramyttium. (4.) JEolis, 
the southern part of the coast, though more especially applicable to 
the portion between the rivers Caicus and Hermus. (5.) Teuthrania,^ 
a district on the southern frontier, where the Mysians under Teuthras 
had settled about the time of the ^Eolian migration. Under the 
Persians the western portion of the coast of the Hellespont was 
named Phrygia Minor. 

§ 14. The towns of Mysia belonged to various historical eras, and 
are invested with associations more than usually varied, and ex- 
tending over a long series of ages. The position of IMysia, in com- 
mand of the most easy point of crossing the channel that separates 
Asia from Europe, naturally rendered it the high-road of connnuni- 
cation between the two continents. Hence it was visited by Darius 
both in his Scythian and Greek expeditions, by Xerxes, hy Alex- 
ander the Great, by Antiochus in his advance into Greece, and by 
Luctillus in the AEithridatic War. The banks of the Granicus wit- 
nessed more than one contest for the empire of the l\ast, and the 
beach of Abydus was oft-times the parade-ground of hosts gatlicred 
from every nation of the known world. The towns of Mysia either 
lined the sea-coasts of the Propontis and the ^E-jcTan, or were situ- 
ated within easy communication with the seaboard. In the Heroic 
age, as depicted in the Homeric poems, the toAvns were the seats of 
small sovereignties : the far-famed Ilium, Dardanus, Antandrus, 
Thebe, Scepsis, and many others, belong to this age. The period 
of Greek immigration followed : most of the towns that were favour- 
ably situated received colonies either immediately from Greece or 
from the Greek colonies on the shores of Asia Minor. The ^Eolians 
settled at Cv^me and ten'' other places, and, at a later period, these 
again sent out colonies to Antandrus, Hium Xovum, and else- 
where : Adramyttium claimed Athens as its fomider : the Milesians, 
accompanied in some instances by other Greek colonists, settled 
at Cyzlcus, Abydus, Priapus, Parium, Lampsacus, and Gargara. 
Some of the old towns perished from the effects of war or natural 



6 Forsitan, ut quondam Teuthrantia regna tenenti, 
Sic milii res eadem vulnus opemque feret. — Ov. Trist. ii. 19. 
Teuthranteusque Caicus.— Id. 3Ief. ii. 243. 

7 The names of the other ten were — Temnos, Larissa, Xeon-TTchos, J:l2:ae, 
M}i-Tna, Grynium, Cilia, Notium, ^Egiroessa, and I'itane : Smyrna was originally 
an ^Eolian colony, but was afterwards occupied by lonians. 



Chap. VU. 



TOWNS. 



95 



decay : others from the foundation of new towns and the forcible 
removal of their inhabitants. The period succeeding Alexander the 
Great witnessed the rise of Ilium Kovum, Alexandria Troas, and 
Pergamum : each of these owed its pr<:>s])erity to a different cause — 
Ilium Xovum to its associations with the Troy of Homer, Alexandria 
Troas to its faA'ourable position on the sea-coast, and Pergamum to 
the establishment of the monarchy which through the favour of the 
Piomans held sway over the greater part of Asia Minor. After 
the extension of the Eoman Empire over Asia, the towns of Mysia 
received various boons conducive to their prosperity : Pergamum is 
described by Pliny as " longe clarissimum Asia^ : " Cyzicus and 
Dardanus became free cities : Parium and Alexandria Eoman colo- 
nies. The fine air and scenery of Cyzicus rendered it a fashionable 
resort of the wealthy Romans.^ These towns are described below 
in their order from X. to S. 

Cyzicus was well situated on the shores of the Propontis, at the 
inner extremity of an isthmus which connects a peninsula of consider- 
able size with the mainland. The isthmus^ was severed by an artificial 
channel, over which two bridges were thrown, and thus the place was 
easily defensible on the land side. Between the peninsula and the main- 
land were tAvo roadsteads, one on each side of the isthmus. The Doli- 
one.s were reputed its earliest inhabitants, but its prosperity was due 
to the Milesians who settled there. It fell to the Persians after the 
conquest of ]\liletus — to the Athenians and Lacedaemonians alternately in 
the Peloponnesian AVar — 
and to the Persians again 
at the peace of Antal- 
cidas. It was besieged 
by Mithridates,, n.c. 74-, 
but relieved by Luculkis : 
and. in gratitude for its 
resistance, it was made a 
free city by the Romans. 
Its gold coins, named 
Cyziceni, had a very ex- 
tensive circulation. The 
oysters and the marble of Cyzicus were much prized. The 
ruins of Cyzicus are extensive, and are named Bed Kiz. Lampsacus 
stood on the Hellespont, near the modern LamsaJii, and nearly 
opposite to Callipolis. on the Thracian coast : it was named Pityusa 
before the ^Milesians settled there. During the Ionian revolt it was 



8 Frigida tani multos placrdt tibi Cyzicus annos 
Tulle, Propontiaca qua fluit Istlinios aqua. — Prop. iii. 22, 1. 

9 There is some doubt as to T^-lietlier the ground on which Cyzicus stood was 
originally an island or a peninsula. The great length of the isthmus 'above a mile} 
renders it probable that it was made into an artificial island, by a narrow channel 
dug across, rather than into an artificial peninsula by so long a bridge or mole. 

i<> Hence it is termed Hsemonia, i. e. Thessalian : — 
Hincqire Propontiaeis hferentem Cyzicon oris, 

Cyzicon Ilcemonite nobile gentis opus. — Ov. Trist. i. 10, 29. 




Coin of Cyzicus. 



96 



MYSIA, WITH ^OLIS. 



Book II. 



taken by the Persians, and remained under their supremacy, though 
governed by a native tyrant. After the battle of Mycale it joined 
the side of Athens, and, having revolted from her, was besieged 
and taken by Strombichides. It was the birthplace of several illus- 
trious men — Charon the historian, Anaxiiiienes the orator, and Metro- 
dorus the disciple of Epicurus.^ Abydus was situated at the point 
where the Hellespont is narrowest,- being no more than 7 stadia across : 
on the other side of the strait was Sestos, about 30 stadia distant. 
Xerxes erected his bridge of boats from a point a little N. of the town, 
B.C. 480. Under the Komans it became a free to^-Q, in gratitude for 
its sturdy resistance to Philip II. of Macedon. Abydus is well knoAvn 
in mythology as the scene of Leander's exploit of s^^imming across the 
strait to visit Hero.-^ Dardanus stood about 8 miles from Abydos, and 
is supposed to have communicated to the strait its modern appellation, 
Dardanelles : it was regarded as the ancient capital of the Dardanians, 
and is further known as the spot where Sylla concluded peace vnth. 
Mithridates, B.C. 8J-. Further to the S., at the junction of the Helles- 
pont with the ^g£ean sea,"^ we enter upon the plain of Troy,^ the stage 
on which the events of the Iliad were enacted. AVe have already had 
.occasion to remark that the features of the sea-coast, and of the plain 
itself, have undergone much alteration, and that the Simois no longer 
flows into the Scamander. The site of Troy itself is a matter of great 
uncertainty : some fix ib at Ilium Novum, the modern Kissarlih, about 



1 Lampsaciis was the chief seat of the worship of Priapus : — 

Et te ruricola, Lampsace, tiita deo. — Ov. Trist. i. 10, 26. 
Hellespontiaci servet tutela Priapi. — Virg. Georg. iv. 111. 
Hence Lampsacenus is used as a synonym for "obscene : " — 

Nam mea Lampsacio lascivit pagina versu. — Mart- xi. 16. 
Quantam Lampsaciae colunt puellae. Id. xi. 51. 

- Hence the expression fauces Abydi." — Virg. Georg. i. 207. 
The junction of the two shores, effected by Xerxes, was regarded as one of the 
greatest feats of skill and labour : — 

Pama canit tumidum super aequora Xerxem 
Construxisse vias, multum cum pontibus ausus, 
Europamque Asiee, Sestonque admovit Abydo 
Incessitque fretum rapidi super Hellesponti. — Lrc. ii. 672. 
Tot potuere manus vel jungere Seston Abydo, 
Ingestoque solo Phrixeum elidere pontum. — Id. vi. 55. 

3 Vel tua me Sestos vel te mea sumat Abydos. — Ov. Heroid. xviii. 127. 
Utque rogem de te, et scribam tibi, si quis Abydo 
Venerit, aut quaero, si quis Abydon eat. — Id. xix. 30. 

* Longus in angustum qua clauditur Hellespontus 
Ilion ardebat. Ov. Met. xiii. 407. 

= By Latin writers the place was usually called Troja ; the poets, however, 
frequently used the names Ilium, Ilion, and Hios : e. g. 
divum domus Iliinn, et inclyta hello 

Mcenia Dardanidum. Yirg. .^n. ii. 241. 

Ilion aspicies, firmataque turribus altis 

Moenia, Phoebeae structa canore lyrae. — Ov. Heroid. xvi. 179, 
Non semel Bios 
Yexata. Hor. Od. iv. 9, 18. 



Chap. VII. 



COUNTEY ABOUT TKOY. 



97 




ANC. GEOG. 



98 



MYSIA, ^YITH ^OLIS. 



Book II. 



12 stadia distant from the sea; others at a spot more to the S.E., 
distant 42 stadia from the sea, now named Bunarhashi : the former 
opinion has in its favour the voice of antiquity, dovm to the time of 
Demetrius of Scepsis and Strabo, and must be received as most pro- 
bably the correct view. The town is described in the Iliad as situated 
on rising groimd ^ between the rivers Simois and Scamander to the 
S.E. rose a hill, a spur of Ida, on which stood the acropolis named 
Pergamum, containing temples and palaces : the city was sun^ounded 
with walls, and one of the gates leading to the X.W. was named the 
Sc8ean or left gate." The town was believed to have been destroyed 
about B.C. 1184, and rebuilt at a later period, with the title of Xew 
Ilium," in which ^olian colonists settled. This was probably the 
place which was visited by Xerxes, Alexander, and Julius Ceesar, and 
which, as the representative of the ancient Troy,^ was enlarged and 
favoured by the Romans. During the Mithridatic war Xew Ilium was 
taken by Fimbria, B.C. 85, and suffered severely. In the neighbour- 
hood were several spots associated ^vith the Homeric poems — Sigeum, 
on the sea coast, where the mounds still exist which were reputed to 
cover the bodies of Achilles and Patroclus; and Ehoeteiun, on the 
Hellespont, ^^-ith the mound of Ajax: near each of these spots towns 
sprang up, the materials in the case of Sigeum being procured out of 
the ruins of Troy. Alexandria Troas, or, as it was sometimes briefly 
termed, Troas, stood on the coast opposite the S.E. point of the island 
of Tenedos : it owed its foundation to Antigonus, one of Alexander's 
generals, and its enlargement to Lysimachus, king of Thmce, who 
changed the original name of Antigonia into that of Alexandria. Its 
position rendered it valuable to the Romans, and they did much for 
it in the way of public works and buildings, of which an aqueduct to 
bring water from Mount Ida was the most remarkable. Julius Ceesar 
is said to have designed making it the Roman capital of the East, and 



* The epithets applied to it are atVeti^, rjvefjioea-a-a, and o4)pv6ea<Ta. 

' Assaraci telliis, quam frigida parvi 
Findunt Scamandri flumina 
Lubricus et Siinois. Hor. Ep. 13, 13. 

* The site of old Ilium was sought for in the neighbourhood. Caesar's visit to 
it is described by Lucan in the following passage : — 

Sigeeasque petit famae mirator arenas, 
Et Simoentis aquas, et Graio nobile busto 
E-hoDtion, et multum debentes vatibus, umbras. 
Circuit exustae nomen memorabile Trojae, 
Magnaque Phoebei quaerit vestigia muri. 
Jam sylvae steriles, et putres robore trunci 
Assaraci pressere domos, et tcmpla deorum 
Jam lassa radice tenent, ac tota teguntur 
Pergama dumetis : etiam periere ruinae. 
Adspicit Hesiones scopulos, svlvisque latentes 
Anchisae thalamos : quo judex sederit antro : 
Unde puer raptus coelo : quo vertice Nais 
Luserit CEnone : nullum est sine nomine saxum. 
Inscius in sicco serpentem pulvere ri-s-um 
Transierat, qui Xanthus erat : securus in alto 
Gramine ponebat gressus ; Phryx incola manes 
Hectoreos calcare vetat. Discussa jacebant 
Saxa, neciillius faciem servantia sacri. — ix. 961-978. 



Chap. YII. 



TOWXS. 



99 



Constantine hesitated between this spot and Constantinople. The 
ruins of Troas supplied a large amount of stone for the erection of 
Constantinople. The Turks still call the site Esld Stamhoul, Old 
Constantinople." Assus stood on the southern coast of Troas^ eastward 
of Prom. Tectum: it possessed a harbour formed by a mole, and must 
have been a flourishing place, to judge from the extensive ruins of 
temples, tombs, and other edifices, still existing on its site at Beriam 
Kalesi. Of these remains the Street of Tombs, a kind of Via Sacra, is 
the most remarkable. It was the birth-place of Cleanthes, and the 
temporary residence of Aristotle. Farther along the same coast we 
meet with G-argara,-'^ surrounded by a plain of remarkable fertility ; 
and Antandrus, the Pelasgis of Herodotus (vii. 42), ad^'antageously 
situated under a spur of Ida, and thus supplied with abundance of 
timber for ship -building. ^ It was taken by the Persians in the reign 
of Darius, and, though it for a while shook them off in the time of 
the Peloponnesian War, it remained generally subject to them. 
Adramyttium, at the head of the bay named after it, rose to some 
importance as a seaport,^ under the kings of Pergamum, and was the 
seat of a Conventus Juridicus under the Eomans. Pergamum or Per- 
gamus, Bergamali, was situated on the banks of the Caicus, near the 
junction of the streams Selinus and Cetius. Tradition assigned to it a 
Greek origin, but it remained an unimportant place until it was chosen 
by Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals, as the receptacle of his 
vast treasures. PhiletEerus, to whose care these were entrusted, ren- 
dered himself independent. The iovni was enlarged and embellished 
by one of his successors, EumeDes II., the founder of a magnificent 
library, second only to Alexandria : the massive substructure of some 
of the buildings still attests the solidity and splendour of the town. 
Pergamum remained a remarkably fine town under the Roman empire.^ 
Elsea, Kliseli, was situated on the bay to which it gave name, about 
12 stadia S. of the mouth of the Caicus: it served as the port of Per- 
gamum. Cyme,^ Sandarli, was on the coast, opposite the southern 
extremity of Lesbos: it was the most flourishing of all the ^olian 
towns, and has some few historical associations in connexion with the 
Ionian revolt. Scepsis, Eslu-Vpsi, was the chief town in the interior: 
it stood on the -^sepus, and was the seat of a school of philosophy: it 
w£LS here that the works of Aristotle are said to have been bimed in a 
pit after the death of Xeleus, who had acquired them from Theo- 
phrastus. 

AVe may further give a brief notice of the following to^vns of less 
importance : — Priapus, on the Propontis, a Milesian colony, and the 



^ Nullo tantum se Mysia cultu 
Jactat, et ipsa suos mirantiir Garg-ara messes.— Virg. Georg. 1. 102. 

1 Hence .Eneas is represented as building Ms fleet here — 

Classemque sub ipsa 
Antandro et Pbrygiae molimur montibus Idae. — Yirg. ^n. iii. 5. 

2 "A ship of Adramyttium" conveyed St. Paul from Caesarea (Acts xxvii. 2). 

2 It was celebrated for its manufacture of parchment, which derived its name 
(charta Pergamena) from this city. It has a still higher interest for us as being 
the site of one of the Seven Churches of Asia. 

The Italian Cumae is said to have been partly founded by a native of Cj-me, 
Hippocles, and to have derived its name from that circiunstance. It was also the 
birth-place of Hesiod's father, and of the historian Ephorus. 

F 2 



100 



MYSIA, WITH ^OLIS. 



Book II. 



chief seat of the worship of Priapus ; Parium, Kemer, more to the W., 
with a good harbour, occupied by a mixed colony of Milesians, Ery- 
thrseans and Phocaeans ; • Cremaste, near Abydus, with gold-mines in its 
neighbourhood ; Sigeum, the position of which has been already 
described, an ^olian colony, which was for a long time the source of 
dispute between Athens and Mitylene, but ultimately fell to the 
former, and became the residence of the Peisistratids ; Larissa, near 
Alexandria Troas, an old Pelasgian town, but not regarded as the one 
to which Homer refers (II. ii. 8-1:1) ; Hamaxitus and Chrysa, in the 
southern part of Troas, in both of which Apollo was worshipped under 
the form of a mouse, with the appellation of Smintheus ; Atarneus, 
opposite Lesbos, for some time the residence of Aristotle, and the place 
where Histiaeus the Milesian was captured by the Persians ; Cane, oppo- 
site the southern point of Lesbos, where the Roman fleet wintered in 
the war with Antiochus : Pitane, on the bay of Elsea, with two har- 
bours ; Grynium, on the coast S. of Elcca, the seat of a celebrated 
temple and oracle of Apollo;^ Myrina, S.W. of Grynium, a strong 
place with a good harbour, occupied for a while by Philip of Mace- 
donia in his wars with the Romans ; JEgdB, a short distance from the 
coast, near Cyme ; and Tenmos, S. of the Hermus. The position of 
the old Homeric town Lyraessus ^ is uncertain : it is usually placed 
near the sources of the Evenus. Several of the towns on the Bay of 
Elgea were destroyed by earthquakes in the first century of the Chris- 
tian era ; such was the fate of Temnus, Mj^rina, Elaea, Pitane, and 

Histary. — The history of Mysia resolves itself into that of the towns 
which from time to time were dominant, this province ha\ing at no 

period acquu^ed any spe- 
cific national existence. 
In the Heroic a^ije Ilium 
was the seat of a small 
sovereignty, which sur- 
vived the destruction of 
its capital, B.C. 1184, and 
was ultimately over- 
thrown by the growing 
power of the Phrygians. 
At a later period ]\Iysia 
formed a part succes- 
sively of the Persian and Macedonian empires, and after the death 
of Alexander fell to the lot of the Seleucidse. Gradually Pergamum 
became the seat of a pettv sovereignty under the management of Phile- 
tserus (B.C. 283-263), Eumenes I. (B.C. 263-241), and Attalus I. 
(B.C. 241-197 ), the latter of whom amassed enormous wealth, and esta- 
blished an alliance with Rome. At this period the possession of Mysia 



5 Hence Apollo is named GrjTieus : — ■ 

His tibi Grynei nemoris dicatur origo. — Virg. EcJ. vi. 72. 
Sed nunc Italiam magnam Gryneus Apollo. — Id. ^En. iv. 345. 

6 It was the birthplace of Briseis : — 

Fertur et abducta'Lyrnesside tristis Achilles. — Ov. Trist. iv. i. 15. 
Audierat, Lyrnessi, tuos, abducta, doiores. — Id. Art. Am. ii. 403. 
Compare 77. ii. 690, ^En. xii. 547. 




Coin of Lampsaciis. 



Chap. VII. 



ISLANDS. 



101 



was contested between tlie kings of Pergamum and Bithynia. Eumenes II. 
^B.c. 197-159; continued the Koman alliance^ and received a large por- 
tion of Asia Minor for his teriitory in return for his services. He was 
succeeded by Attalus II. (b.c. 159-138), and he by Attalua III. (b.c. 
138-133), who on his death bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. 

St. Paul's Travels. — Mysia was visited by St. Paul in his second 
journey. Though it was really a portion of *^Asia" in the Biblical 
sense of the term, the ancient name of Mysia was retained as a terri- 
torial designation, as distinct, however, from that of the district of 
Troas. He entered it on the side of Galatia, and, descending to the 
coast, probably at Adramyttium, rea^ihed the towTi of Troas, and thence 
set sail for Macedonia (Acts xvi. 7-11). In his third journey he returned 
to this same spot from Philippi, and spent a week there : crossed over 
by land to Assus, follo\\T.ng the Roman road which connects these two 
towns, and there took ship and coasted down the Gulf of Adramyttium 
to ]VIitylene, and thence southwards (Acts xx. 6-14). We may infer 
from 2 Cor. ii. 12 that he had visited previously Troas on his way from 
Ephesus to Macedonia in this same journey. 

§ 15. The follov>4i3g islands lie off the coast of Mysia : — In the 
Propontis, Proconnesus, JIarmora, which supplied Cyzicus and other 
places with the fine streaked marble to which it owes its modern 
appellation, with a town of the same name colonized by the Mile- 
sians — in "the ^gasan, Tenedos, Tenedo, 40 stadia distant from the 
coast, about 10 miles in circumference, with a town on its eastern 
coast which possessed a double harbour ; and Lesbos, now named 
Mitylene after its ancient capital, situated in the Gulf of Adra- 
myttium, and separated from the mainland by a channel about 7 
miles broad. The shape of Lesbos is very irregular : it resembles 
a triangle, the three angles being formed by the promontories 
Argennum in the X., Sigrium in the S.AV., and Malea in the S.E. : 
on the side between these two latter, two inlets penetrate deeply into 
the interior ; one near Malea, probably the Portus Hier^eus of Pliny, 
now Fort Hiero^ the other named Euiipus Pyrrha^us, Port Caloni. 
The interior is mountainous, Olympus, in the S., attaining an ele- 
vation of above 3000 feet. The Pelasgians, lonians, and ^olians, 
entered the island in succession ; the latter race, however, became 
dominant, and here they retained a vigour both of intellect and 
character far beyond the standard of their race elsewhere : Lesbos 
has been rightly described as "the pearl of the ^Eolian race."^ 
They possessed six cities — Methymna, Molivo, and Arisba, on the 
northern coast ; Antissa and Eressus, near Cape Sigrium ; Pyrrha, 
vt the head of the Euripus named after it ; and Mitylene, which 
retains its name, on the eastern coast, opposite the mainland. The 
last of these towns became, from its position and capacities, the 
natural capital of Lesbos : it was originally built on a small island, 



Niebnhr's Lectures^ i. 2 IS. 



102 



MYSIA, WITH -EOLIS. 



Book II. 



wliicli was afterwards joined to the main island by a causeway, 
and thus a double harbour was made, the one X. of the causeway 

adapted for ships of war, 
and the southern for 
merchant-ships. The 
beauty of the to^n and 
the strength of its for- 
tifications are noticed 
by several classical 
writers. Its history is 
involved in that of 
Lesbos itself, and Avill be noticed below. The Arginusae were three 
small islands between Mitylene and the mainland, olf which the ten 
Athenian generals defeated the Spartans, B.C. 406. 

Histori/ of Tenedos and Leshos. — Tenedos was a place of considerable 
importaiice' so eai'ly as the time of the Trojan^ War, and remained at 

all penods a valuable ac- 
quisition for warlike pur- 
poses, as it comDianded 
the entrance of the Hel- 
lespont. During the Per- 
sian War it was occupied 
by the Persians : it sided 
^-ith Athens in the Pelo- 
ponnesian War, and was 
consequently ravaged by 
the Spartans, B.C. 389. 
Restored to Persia by 
the peace of Antalcidas, 
it revolted on more than one occasion. In the Macedonian wars of 
the Romans it was held as a maritime station, and in the ^lithiidatic 
War was the scene of Lucullus's victory, B.C. 85. In the reign of 
Justinian it became an entrepot for the corn-trade between Egypt and 
Constantinople. Les"bos appears as an important island in the Homeric 
poems. It joined the reA'olt of Aristagoras, and suffered severe 
punishment from the Persians. In the early j^art of the Peloponnesian 
Wai' it sided with Athens : in the fourth year of the war, however, 
^litylene revolted, and suffered the destmction of her walls and the 
forfeiture of her fleet : all the island, ^ith the exception of the terri- 
tory of ]\IethYmna. was divided among Athenian settlers. After the 
peace of Antalcidas it became independent. Alexander the Great made 
a treaty with it, and in com-se of time the Macedonian supremacy 
was established. In the Mithridatic Waj.-- Mitylene was the last city 
that held out against the Romans, and was reduced by !Minucius 
Thermus. Pompey made it a free city, and it became the chief 



* Est in coiispectii Tenedos, notissima fama 
Insula, dives opum, Priami dum regna manebant : 
Nunc tantum. sinus, et static male nda carinis : 
Hue se provecti deserto in litore condunt. — Vieg. .£?i. ii. 2\. 




Coin of Mitylene. 




Coin of Tenedos. 



Chap. VII. 



ISLANDS. 



103 



towD of the province of Asia. In addition to its liistorical fame, 
Lesbos has acquired celebrity as the primitive seat of the music 
of the lyre.^ The lyre of Orpheus was believed to have been carried to 
its shore by the waves. It was the birth-place of Lesches, Terpander, 
Arion, and, above all, of Alcaeus and Sappho. Its women were famed 
for their beauty,^ and, unfortunately, for their profligacy, which passed 
into a proTerb in the term X^a^ia^^iv. The historians Hellanicus and 
Theophanes, and the philosophers Pittacus and Theophrastiis, were 
also Lesbians. Lastly, we must notice the healthiness of the climate, 
justifying Tacitus's encomium, ^^nsula nobilis et amoena ; " and its 
highly-prized wine.- 




Kiiins of Sardis. 



9 Hence the expression " ies&io plectro " (Hon. Carm. i. 26, 11), and the 
allusion in the lines — 

Age, die Latinmn, 
Barbite, carmen, 
Lesbio prinium modulate civi. — Id. Carm. i. 32, 3. 

^ Homer describes them in the complimentary terms — 

'Al KO-kkeL ivLKOiV (^v\a yvvaiKUiV. — i7. ix. 130, 27 2. 

- Non eadem arboribus pendent vindemia nostris, 
Quam MethymncEO carpit de palmite Lesbos. — Virg. Georg. it. 89. 
Innocentis pocula Lesbii. — Hor. Carm. i. 17, 21. 
Tu licet abjectus Tiberina molliter unda 

Lesbia Mentoreo vina bibas opere. — Prop. i. 14, 1. 



104 



LYDIA. 



Book 11. 



II. Lydia. 

§ 16. Lydia was bounded by the ^gsean Sea ou the W., Mysia 
on the N., Phrygia on the E., and Caria on the S. In the latter 
direction the boundary was carried do^vn by Strabo to the Marauder ; 
the range of Messogis, however, forms the more correct limit. 
Within these limits is included the northern part of Ionia, which 
stretches along the sea-coast from the Hemsean Bay in the N. 

I^ydia is mountainous in its southern and western parrs, but it 
contains extensive plains and valleys between the various ranges. 
It is one of the most fertile coimtries in the world, even the sides 
of the mountains admitting of cultivation ; its climate is mild 
and healthy, and the chief drawback to the country is the frequency 
of earthquakes. In the eastern portion of the province there are 
evident traces of volcanic action : numerous extinct volcanos, and 
particularly three conical hills of scoria3 and ashes, with deep craters, 
and lava-streams issuing from them, are found on an extensive plain, 
to which the ancients gave the name CatacecaumeDc, i,e, burnt." 
The most important productions of Lydia were an excellent kind of 
wine, saffron, and gold. 

§ 17. The chief mountain-ranges are Tmolus and Messogis, whose 
general direction has been already described (p. 86). The former 
ramifies into several subordinate ranges towards the W., viz. : Dracon 
and Olympus in the direction of the HemiEean Bay — Sipylus^ more to 
the N., the fabled scene of Niobe's transformation — the isolated 
height of Gallesius, in the neighbourhood of Ephesus — and the irre- 
gular cluster of hills which form the peninsula of ErytlmT, named 
Corycus and Mimas, and which terminate on the shores of the .Egean 
in the promontories of Melama, Argennum opposite Chios, and Cory- 
c^eum. The slopes of Tmolus were clothed with vines,^ and it was 



3 Nuj/ 6e TTov kv irerpyio'LV, ev ovpeaiv olottoXolo-lv 
'Ei/ St-TTvAo), 60L (^acrl Oedcuv e/a/aei'ai euva.5 

Nv/i(^)dwi/, HoM. 77. xxiv. 614. 

Flet tamen, et validi circumdata turbine Tenti 
In patriam rapta est. Ibi fixa eacumine mentis 

Liquitui', et lacrymas etiammun marniora nianant.- — Ov. Met. vi. 310. 
The mountain is said from a certain point of view to assume the appearance of a 
woman weeping. 

Virgil praises them in Georg. ii. 98, and Ovid in the following lines : — 
Jamque nemus Bacchi Tmoli vineta, tenebat. — Fast. ii. 313. 
Cumque choro meliore, sui vineta Tymoli, 
Pactolonque petit. Met. xi. 86. 

Saffron also grew plentifully upon it : — 

Nonne "vides croceos ut Tmolus odores. — Yirg. Georg. i. 56. 
The prominent appearance of Tmolus in the landscape is well described by Ovid : — 
Nam freta prospiciens late riget arduus alto 
Tmolus in adscensu. Met. xi. 150. 



Chap. VI f. 



MOUNTAINS AND RIVERS. 



105 



rich, in gold mines. With Messogis is connected the range of 
Pactyas, which presses close on the Cayster near Ephesus ; and its 
westerly continuation Mycale, terminating in the promontory of 
Trogylium, St. Marie, opposite Samos : the name of Mycale is ren- 
dered illustrious b}^ the battle between the Greeks and Persians, 
fought partly on the beach at its foot, partly in the adjacent channel, 
B.C. 479. The line of coast is very irregular, two bays penetrating 
deeply into the interior on each side of the peninsula of Erythra^ 
viz. the Hermseus Sinus, G. of Smyrna, on the N., and Caistrianus 
Sin., G. of Scala Nuova, on the S. 

§ 18. The chief river is the Hermus, Kodus-chai, which rises in 
the Phrygian Mount Dindymus, and flov/s with a very devious 
course, but with a general westerly direction, into the bay to which 
it communicates its name, receiving on its right bank the Hyllus 
and Lycus, and on its left the Cogamus and Pactolus, Sarahat. The 
plains through which it flows in its middle course are broad and 
fertile : that which stretches from Magnesia to Sardis was specifically 
named Hermanns campus, while a more northerly portion was named 
Hyrcanus campus. Both the Hermus^ and the Pactolus^ are said 
to have carried down large quantities of gold-dust from Mount 
Tmolus. In the S. of Lydia, between Tmolus and Messogis, is the 
river Cayster, Little Meinder, which rises on the slope of Tmolus, 
and winding about the flat rich plains which border it, falls into the 
gulf named after it, near Ephesus. The upper plains of the Cayster 
were named Gilbiani campi, and were divided into "upper" and 
" lower." The broader plains about its mid course were the proper 
Caystriani campi, while near its mouth was a narrow maritime plain 
shut off from the central plain by the projecting spurs of Pactyas 
and Gallesius. This last was the original ""Ao-tos Xeificov of Homer 
(i7. ii. 461), the favourite resort of wild-fowl,^ particularly swans. 



5 Auro turbidus Hermus. — Viiig. Georg. ii. 137. 
Maeonium non ille vadum, non Lydia mallet 
Stagna sibi, nec qui riguo perfunditur auro 

Campum, atque illatis Hermi flavescit arenis. — Sil. Ital. 1. 15?, 
Aut quales referunt Baccho sollennia Nymphge 
Mseonioe, quas Hermus alit, ripasque paternas 
Percurrunt auro madidae : leetatur in antro 
Amnis, et undantem declinat prodigus urnam. 

Clal'd. Mapt. Pros. ii. 67. 

6 Pactolusque irrigat auro. — Yirg. M71, x. 142. 

Sis pecore et multa dives teilure licebit 

Tibique Pactolus fluat. Hor. Epod. xv. 19. 

Jam varias pelagi yolucrcs, et quee Asia circum 
Dulcibus in stagnis rimantur prata Caystri.' — Virg. Grorcj. i. 383. 

Ceu quondam nivei liquida inter nubila cyeni, 
Cum sese e pastu referunt, et longa canoros 

F 3 



106 



LYDIA. 



Book 11. 



§ 19. The earliest inhabitants of this province were the Mseones, 
a Tyrrhenian or Pelasgian race. The Lydians, whose name first 
appears in the poems of Mimnermus, were a kindred race to the 
Carians and Mysians, and gradually overpowered the Ma^onians, 
probably about the time when the Mermnadee supplanted the Hera- 
cleid dynasty. In addition to these the Hellenic race contributed 
an important element in the colonies which were planted along the 
sea-coast at different periods and by various branches of the Hellenic 
race, among whom the lonians became dominant, and communicated 
their name to the district. 

§ 20. The to^vns of Lydia may be arranged into two classes — the 
Greek towns which lined the coast, and the old Lydian towns of the 
interior, situated amid the fertile plains of the Hemus and Cayster. 
The former comprised Phoc^ea, Smyrna, Clazomente, Erythree, Teos, 
Lebedos, Colophon, and Ephesus, which were members of the Ionic 
confederation. The sites in most instances had been previously oc- 
cupied by Carians, Leleges, and other kindred races ; and Smyrna at 
a later period by iEolians. The lonians seized them, and their 
choice justifies the character for taste which Herodotus (i. 142) im- 
putes to this race. Of the Lydian toTOS we know but little. Sardis 
is the only one which comes prominently forward. The hostilities 
which existed between the Lydian monarchs and the Greek cities of 
the coast bring into early notice Smyrna, Clazomena?, and ColoiDhon, 
the first of which was utterly destroyed. Sardis itself, after the 
death of Croesus, retained its position as the residence of the Persian 
governors, but was never a place of commercial importance. The 
Greek towns succumbed to Persia after the Ionian revolt. Phocaea, 
which had hitherto been the first in commercial enterprise, sunk at 
this period, through the withdrawal of its inhabitants. The Alex- 
andrian age witnessed the rebuilding of Smyrna, the ruin of 
Lebedus and Colophon, whose inhabitants were removed by Lysi- 
machus to Ephesus, and the rise of Ephesus to a state of com- 
mercial eminence. Thyatira and Philadelphia belong to a someAvhat 
later period — the former owing its name to Seleucus Xicator, the 
latter to one of the kings of Pergamum. In the Swian wars 
Smyrna, Erythra3, and the Colophonians of Xotium, sided with 
Rome, and received various immunities in return. On the consti- 



Dant per colla modos : sonat amnis, et Asia longe 

Pulsa palus. Yirg. vii. 699. 

Sic niger, in ripis errat quum. forte Caystri, 

Inter Ledaeos ridetur corTus olores. — Mart. i. 54. 

Utque jacens ripa deflere Caj'strius ales 

Dicitur ore suam deficiente necem, 
Sic ego, Sarmaticas longe projectus in oras, 

Efficio, taciturn ne miM funus eat. — Ov. Trist. v. 1, 11. 



Chap. VII. TOWNS. 107 

tution of the province of Asia, Ephesus was selected as the capital, 
and was thenceforth the capital of the whole surrounding district. 
Most of the cities of Lydia suffered severely from an earthquake in 
the reign of Tiberius. We shall describe these towns in their order 
from N. to S. 




Site of Ephesus. 



Phocsea stood at the head of a small inlet on the peninsula between 
the bays of Cyme and Hermus. The mouth of the inlet was closed by 
the island of Bacchium^ which contained the chief public buildings^ 
and protected the two harbours of the town. Phoc8ea became a place of 
commercial importance^ and must have been strongly fortified. It was 
besieged by Harpagus in the Ionian War, on which occasion the greater 
part of its population emigi^ated to Corsica.^ It revived^ however, and 
was strong enough- to sustain a long siege from the Roman fleet under 
^milius in the Syrian War. Its ruins retain the ancient name, Palaio 
Foggia. Smyrna was originally built on the northern side of the 
Hermaean bay, near its head. This was destroyed by Alyattes, B.C. 



^ Nulla sit hac potior senteiitia (Phocseorum 
Yelut profugit exseciata ci vitas 
Agros atque lares patrios, habitandaque fana 

Apris reliquit et rapacibus lupis), 
Ire, pedes quocunque ferent, quocunque per undas 

Notus vocabit, aut'protervus Africus. — Hor. Upod. 16, 17. 
The PhocEeans are said to have founded Massalia on this occasion : but the 
traditions in regard to this vary. The Latin poets use the term Phocaicus as a 
synonjTn for Massilian : e. g. 

Scipio Phocaicis sese referebat ab oris. — Sil. iv. 52. 
See also i. 335, and Luc. iii. 301. 

The purple shell-fish was abundant on this part of the coast : — 
Phocaico bibulas tingebat murice lanas. — Ov. Met. vi. 0. 



108 



LYDIA. 



Book II. 



627, and for 400 years the town ceased to exist. A second tovm, named 
New Smyrna, was then founded on the southern side of the bay by 
Antigonus, and completed by Lysimachus. The former was the old 
colony of the ^olians, and, subsequently to B.C. 688, of the lonians. 
The latter was the Smyrna which attracted so much admiration by the 
beauty of its streets and the excellence of its harbour ; and which has 
a special interest for the Christian as the seat of one of the Seven 
Churches, and the scene of St. Polycarp's martyrdom. Smyrna, alone 
of the Ionic towns, retains its ancient importance, and is the chief 
mart of the Levant. The Cyclopean walls of the Acropolis mark the 



Erythrae stood. Originally on the mainland, the town was transferred 
to an adjacent island, which was at a later peiiod turned into a penin- 
sula by a causeway connecting it with the coast. It derives its chief 
interest from being the bu'th-place of Anaxagoras. Erythrae was situated 
at the head of a capacious bay opposite the island of Chios, the entrance 
to which was partially closed by a small group of islands named Hippi. 
Its history is unimportant. The remains at Bitri consist of the ancient 
walls, a theatre scooped out of the solid rock, and traces of aqueducts 
and terraces. Teos stood opposite Clazoniense, on the southern side of 
the Erythraean peninsula. Under the Persians its inhabitants emi- 
grated to Abdera in Thrace; and the town, though still existing in the 
time of the Peloponnesian "War, ceased to be of importance. There are 
interesting remains of a theatre and of a splendid temple of Bacchus at 
Sighajik, one of the ports of the city. It produced two illustrious men, 
Anacreon^ and Hecatseus. Lebedus stood on the coast about 10 miles 
E. of Prom. Myonnesus, and by its commerce and the fertility of its 
district it flourished until the removal of the bulk of its inhabitants to 
Ephesus by Lysimachus. Under the Romans it was a poor deserted 
place, ^ but attained some celebritj' as the head-quarters of the guild of 



9 Hence the expressions Smyrncmis rates (Luc. ix. 984), and Smyrncea- plectra 
(Sil. viii. 596) : so also Statins, 



^ Titabis Eestus, et fide Tela 
Dices laboiantes in uno 

Penelopen, vitreamque Circen. — Hor. Carm. i. 18, 18. 

Anacreonta Teium. — Id. Epod. xiv. 10. 

Sit quoque vinosi Tela Musa senis. — Ov. Ai^t. Am. iii. 330. 

2 An Lebedum laudas, odio maris atque viarum ? 
Scis Lebedus quid sit ? Gabiis desertior atque 
Pldenis vicus. ' Hoe. Ep. i. 11, 6. 




site of the old town : the 



Coin of Clazomeuae. 



stadium and theatre ai-e 
the most striking remains 
of the new town. It 
claimed to be Homer's 
birth-place,^ and had a' 
temple erected to him. 
Clazomenae was on the 
southern coast of the Her- 
m£ean bay, at the entrance 
of the peninsula on which 



Non si pariter mi hi vertice laeto 
Xectat adoratas et SmjTua et Mantua lauros, 
Digna loquar. Silv. iv. 2, 8. 



Chap. VII. 



TO\YNS. 



109 



actors. A few shattered masses of masonry at Ecclesia are all that re- 
mains of it. Colophon was on the banks of the small river Hales, about 
2 miles distant from the shore and from its port of ISTotium, with re- 
spect to which Colophjon was designated the upper city" (Thuc. 
iii. 34). Its history is almost wholly concerned with the disputes of 
its own citizens. After the removal of its inhabitants by Lysimachus, 
it sunk; but Xotium still existed, and was unsuccessfully besieged by 
Antiochus, B.C. 190. It claimed to be the birth-place of Homer, and 
produced ^limnermus the poet. Ephesus was finely situated near the 
S'pot where the Cayster discharges itself into the head of the bay named 
after it. The original town of Androclus was on the slope of Coressus : 
thence it gradually spread over the adjacent plain, and was afterwards 
extended by Lysimachus over the heights of Prion. Down to the 
Alexandrian age, Ephesus derived its importance almost entirely from 
its connexion ^^ith the worship of Diana : under Lysimachus it became 
a commercial tov,m, and under the Romans^ it attained its greatest pro- 
sperity as the capital of the province of Asia. The original temple of 
Diana existed on the spot before the lonians came there : the first 
Greek edifice, erected about the 6th century B.C., perished by fire on 
the night of Alexander's birth. A new one v/as erected, 425 feet in 
length, and 220 in width, adorned (according to Pliny) with 127 
columns, each 60 feet high. It was the largest of all the Greek temples. 
This was the temple which existed in St. Paul's time, and survived 
until Christianity over- 
spread the land. The 
trade of Ephesus under 
the Romans was con- 
siderable : it had easy 
access to the interior of 
Asia Minor, and pos- 
sessed an excellent 
double harbour. It has 
acquired an especial in- 
terest for the Christian 
from the visit which St. 
Paul made to it, and the dangers to which he was exposed from the 
worshippers of Diana. He founded a Church there, to which he ad- 
dressed an epistle : this was one of the Seven Churches of Asia. 
Ephesus has perished through the extinction of its port by the de- 
posits of the Cayster. Numerous remains of it exist at Ayasaluh, but 
the site of the great temple has not been made out. The stadium, the 
theatre (which was the scene of the tumult raised by Demetrius), and 
the agora, are the most remarkable objects. Sardis, the old capital of 
the Lydian monarchy, was well situated on the plain between Mount 
Tmoius and Hermus, on both sides of the small river Pactolus, with its 
acropolis posted on a precipitous height. It w^as destroyed by fire on 
three occasions : by the Cimmerians in the reign of Ardys, by the 
lonians at the time of their revolt, and by Antiochus the Great in 
his war with Achseus. It was the seat of one of the Seven Churches. 
A small village, named Sert, still exists on the site, with the remains 
of a stadium, theatre, and the walls of the acropohs. Magnesia, 




3 Ephesus was mucli admired by tliein : — 

Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon, aut Mitylenem, 

Aut Epheson. Hor. Carm. i. 7, 1. 



110 



LYDIA. 



Book 11. 



Manissa, surnamed ad Sipylum, to distinguish it from the town on the 
Mseander, stood on the left Lank of the Hermus, and is celebrated for 
the victory gained by the Scipios over Antiochus the Great, B.C. 190. 
Though destroyed by the earthquake in Tiberius's reign, it revived, and 
existed down to the 5th century. Philadelphia, on the Cogamus, was 
founded by Attains Philadelphus, king of Pergamum, and derives its 
interest from having been one of the Seven Churches. Parts of its walls 
and of its ruined churches, twenty-four in number, exist at AUaTisher. 
Thyatira, between Sardis and Pergamum, is frequently noticed in the 
history of the Roman wars ^^ith Antiochus. It is better kno^\TL, how- 
ever, as one of the Seven Chui^hes, and the abode of Lydia the purjjle- 
seller. 

We may briefly notice the following less important towns : — Leucse, S. 
of Phocaea, the scene of a battle between Licinius Crassus and Aristonicus, 

B.C. 131; Clarus,-^ near 
Colophon, the seat of a 
famous temple and oracle 
of Apollo ; Pygela, S. of 
Ephesus, vdlh a temple 
ofDiaDa; and Metropolis, 
X.W. of Ephesus, which 
produced an excellent 
kind of ^rine. 

History of tlie Lydian 
Empire. — According to 
Herodotus (i. 7), Lydia 
was successively governed by thi-ee dynasties — the Atyadee, down to 
about B.C. 1200; the Heracleids, down to about B.C. T^ 'O : and the 
Mermnadse, down to B.C. 5-i'3. The dates are still undecided, the death 
of Croesus being sometimes placed in 554. The two first of these 
d^masties are almost wholly mythical : real histoiy commences with the 
third. The first of this race, Gyges, B.C. 713, instituted an aggi'esive 
policy against the Greeks of the sea-coast, waging war vdih. Miletus and 
Smyrna, and captming Colophon. His successor Ardys, B.C. 678, cai'- 
ried on the war, and captm^ed Priene. The latter part of his reign wa.s 
disturbed by the Cimmerian invasion. Alyattes, B.C. 617, expelled the 
Cimmerians, and extended his dominion as far as the Halys, where he 
came in contact with Cyaxares : he also conquered most of the Greek 
cities. The tomb of Alyattes, which Herodotus (i. 93) describes as only 
inferior to the monuments of Egypt and Babylon, is still extant. It is 
an immense mound of earth about half a mile in circumference. In 
the centre a sepulchural chamber has been recently discovered. 
Croesus, B.C. 560, raised the power of the Lydian throne to its highest 
pitch of greatness, his authority on the western side of the Halys 
being undisputed. He was conquered by Cyrus, and his territories 
added to the Persian empii'e ; and thenceforth the histoiy of Lydia 
is involved in that of the peninsula generally. 



* Phoebi 

Qui tripodasj Clarii lauros, qui sidera sentis. — Yirg. ^-n. iii. 359. 

Mihi Delphica tellus 
Et Claros, et Tenedos, Pataraeaque regia servit. — Ov. Met, i. 515. 
Hence Clarius is an appropriate epithet of a poet : — 

Xec tantnm Clario Lyde dilecta poetee. — Ov. Tr^ist. i, 6, 1. 




Coin of Smyrna. 



Chap. VII. 



ISLAND OF CHIOS. 



Ill 



>S'^. Paul's Travels. — St. Paul's first visit to Lydia occurred in the 
course of his second apostolical journey, when he touched at Ephesus 
on his return from Greece : on that occasion his stay was but short 
(Acts xviii. 19-21). On his third journey he must have traversed 
Lydia on his way from Phrygia to Ephesus. The route he pursued is a 
matter of conjecture : as he probably never visited Colossa), he may 
have descended the valley of the Hermus, and crossed from Sardis to 
Ephesus. He remained in Ephesus three years, during which he ap- 
pears, from expressions in his Second Epistle to the Corinthians, to 
have paid a short visit to Corinth. At the conclusion of his visit he 
went northwards, probably by sea, to Troas (Acts xix.). 

§ 21. Off the coast of Lydia lies the important island of Chios, 
Scio, separated from the mainland by a channel 5 miles in width. 
Its length from X. to S. is about 32 miles : its mdth yaries from 18 
to 8 miles ; and its area is 400 square miles, or about thrice the area 
of the Isle of Wight. The whole island is rocky and uneven ; ^ the 
mountains of the northern portion rise to a great height, and form a 
striking object from the coast of Asia Minor. The most valuable 
productions were the wine^ which the Eoman writers describe as 
" vinum arvisium," and the gum-mastic produced from the len- 
tiscus tree. The Chian women were famed for beauty. The highest 
summit in the island was named Peliuceus, Mount Elias ; the chief 
promontories were Posidium, JIastico, on the S., Phana3 7 on the W., 
and Melsena, >S'. Xicolo, on the X.AY. The oldest inhabitants were 
either Pelasgi or Leleges ; settlers from Crete, Euboea, and Caria, 
afterwards entered. The chief town, also named Chios, stood on 
the eastern coast, on the site of the modern capital : no remains 
of antiquity have been found there. Delphinium, on the same 
coast, was a strong position. 



'"^ H KctOv—epOe Xtoto veoLfjL€9a 77aL—aKoi(Tar}g, 
y-qcTOV e-l '^vpiri<;, avrrjP err' apiarep e)(0i're5, 
'^H vTiivepQe. Xtoto, — ap' rjvsjJiOsvTa '^ilCfj.avra. — HoM. Od. iii. 170. 
s Quo CMuni pretio cadum 

Merceniur. Hoe. Ca/^m. iii. 19, 5. 

At sermo lingua concinnus utraqiie 
Suavior ; ut Chio nota si coimnixta Falerni est. — Id. Sat. I. x. 23. 
It should be observed that the quantity of the penultimate is different in the 
substantive and adjective : — 

Quid tibi visa Chios ? — Hor. i. 11, 1. 
Capaciores affer hue, puer, scyphos 

Et Chia vina, aut Lesbia. — Id. Epoch ix. 33. 

The figs of Chios are celebrated by Martial : — 

Chia seni similis Baccho, quern Setia misit 

Ipsa merum secum. portat et ipsa salem. — xiii. 23. 

Nam mihi, quee novit pungere, Chia sapit. — vii. 25. 
' The grape of Phanae ^vas famed : — 

Rex ipse Phanaeus. — Yirg. Georg. ii. 98. 



112 



LYDIA. 



Book II. 




Coin of Chios, 



History, — Cliios was a member of the Ionian confederation, and held 
a conspicuous place as a maritime power until the Ionian revolt, when 

it became subject to Persia, 
and remained in that posi- 
tion until the battle of 
Mvcale, B.C. 479, when it 
jouied Athens, and re- 
mained among its allies 
until B.C. -1-12, when it re- 
volted, and was in conse- 
quence devastated. It sided 
with the Romans in the 
Syrian and Mithridatic 
Avars, and was gifted with 
freedom in reward for its fidelity. Chios claimed Homer as one of her 
sons, and gave birth to tlie historian Theopompus, and the poets Theo- 
critus ;ind Ion. 

§ 22. The important island of Samos, Samo, is situated just oppo- 
site the point where Lydia and Caria meet, and is separated from 
the mainland by a channel less than a mile in width, which was the 
scene of the battle of Mycale. Its length from E. to AY. is about 
25 miles ; its breadth is very variable. The island is covered with 
mountains of great elevation, rendering Samos a very conspjicuous 
object in the landscape. It is to this that it owes its name Samos, 
" a height." The island was productive to a proverb, aud famed for 
its dried grapes and other fruits. It possessed a stone used for 
polishing gold, and its earthenware was so prized at Rome that the 
title " Samian ware" was transferred to the red lustrous pottery of 
the Roman manufacturers. The general name for the mountain 
range wliicli traverses the island was Ampelus. It culminates in a 
height named CercSteus, KtrJcis, at an elevation of 4725 feet, and 
terminates in the promontories of Posidium in the E., and Can- 
tharium in the W. The original inhabitants were Carians and 
Leleges. Colonies of ^Eolians from Lesbos, and lonians from Ep)i- 
daurus, afterwards settled on it. The principal town, ^Iso named 
Samos, was situated on the S. coast, at the extremity of a plain, at 
the other end of which stood the famed temple of Juno.^ Under 
Polycrates it ranked as the greatest ^ city in the world ; its harbour 
protected by a double mole, and an immense tunnel which formed 



^ Hence the affection with which Juno was supposed to regard the island. 
Quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus nnam 
Posthahita coUiisse Samo. Yirg. ^n. i. lo. 

Et jam Junonia laeva 
Parte Samos fuerant, Delosque, Parosque relictce. 

Or. Met. Yiii. 220. 

^ Horace characterizes it as concinna Samos" {Ejj. 1. 11, 2) : it was among 
the spots which the Komans most admired : — 

Romae laudetur Samos et Chios et Rhodos absens.— Id. 21. 



Chap. Vll. 



ISLANDS OF SAMOS AND PSYRA. 



113 



au aqueduct, were the most remarlxable objects in it. The town 
lay partly ou the phain, partly ou the slopes of the hills that hack 
it, on one of ^\"hich, named Astypahea, the citadel was posted. The 
theatre and a portion of the walls alone remain. The temple of 
Juno was of enormous size^ — 346 feet long and 189 broad, of the 
Ionic order, and decorated with statues and paintings. It was burnt 
by the Persians ; and, after its restoration, plundered by the pirates 
in the Mithridatic AVar, by Yen-es, and by M. Antony. 

History. — Samos was at an early period famed for its commercial 
ei^terprise. and was an influential member of the Ionian confederacy. 
Cnder Polycrates (b.c. 53-;) it became the gi-eatest Greek maritime 
power, and entered into 

commercial relations ^ith ■ "^x^. ^ ^'^^^^^--^.>^, 



with Antiochus against 
Rome : in the ]\Iithridatic it adopted a similar policy. Iz was united 
with the province of Asia r..c. 84. Its prosperity gi-adually decayed 
under the Roman emperors. Samos v\-as the birth-place of the philo- 
sophers Pythagoras ^ and Melissus. and the poets Asius^ Choerilus, and 
^Eschrion. 

§ 23. The small island of Psyra, Ipsara^ lies about 6 miles from 
the X.AV. point of Chios, and the CEuussse between Chios and the 
mainland. Icarus or Icaria,^ Xikaria, is 10 miles distant from 
Samos, and may be regarded as a contmuation of the elevated chain 
which forms that island. It extends from X.E. to S.AV,, with a 
length of about 17 miles. Its inhabitants were originally Milesians, 
but it afterwards belonged to the Samians. It possessed the towns 
of Isti, CEnoe, and Drepanum, or Dracanum — the latter situated near 
the promontory of the same name at the E. end of the island. The 
surrounding sea Avas named Icarium Mare. 



2 The name is connected in mythology ^vith Icarus, the son of Deedalus. 
Transit et Icarium, lapsas ubi perdidit alas 

Icarus, et vastee nomina fecit aquae. — Or. Fast. iv. 2 S3. 
Ceratis ope Deedalea 
Nititur pennis, vitreo daturus 




Coin of Samos. 



1 Yir fuit hie, ortu Samius : sed fugerat una 
Et Samon et-dominos, odioque t}Tannidis exsul 
Sponte erat. Ov. Jlet. xv. 60. 

Samii sunt rata dicta" senis. Id. Trisf. iii. 3, 62. 



Nomina ponto. 



HoR. Carm. i\. 2, 2. 



Kuius of Miletus. 



CHAPTER yill. 
Asia Minor (continued), — Caria, Lycia, Pamphylta, Cilicia. 

III. Caria. § 1. Boundaries. § 2. Mountains, bays, and promon 
tories. § 3. Rivers. § 4. Inhabitants. § 5. Towns; history. 
§ 6. Cos, Calymna, &c. § 7. Rhodes. § 8. Carpathus. IV. 
Lycia. § 9. Boundaries. § 10. Mountains, rivers, &c. § 11. In- 
habitants. § 12. Towns ; history. Y. Pa3IPhylia. § 13. Boun- 
daries. § 14". Rivers, &c. § 15. Inhabitants; towns; history. 
VI. Cilicia. § 16. Boundaries. § 17. Situation. § 18. Moun- 
tains ; passes. § 19. Coast. § 20. Rivers. § 21. Inhabitants. 
§ 22. Towns; history. § 23. Cyprus; general features. § 2-1. 
Physical features. §25. Towns; history. 

III. Caria. 

§ 1. Caria occupied tlie sou tli- west augle of Asia Minor, and was 
bounded on the W. and S. by the sea, on the X. by Messogis 
dividing it from Lydia, and on the E. by the river Glaucus and 
Lycia. Though generally a mountainous country, it contains some 
extensive valleys and a great deal of rich land in the basin of the 
Ma3ander. The Perasa, or southern district, is a beautiful country, 
and contains some fertile tracts. Timber is abundant, and the 
country produces good grain and fruits, the fig ^ and the olive. The 



1 Dried figs were named Caricce, lit. " Carian figs," by the Latins : — 
Hie mix, hie mixta est rugosis carica palmis. — Ov. Met. viii. 674. 



Chap. VIII. 



MOUXTAIXS, BAYS, kc. 



]15 



climate varies with the varying altitude : the highest tracts are 
cold and wintry, while it is hot in the lower grounds. The former 
supplied pasturage for large flocks of sheep, and even now the green 
slopes near Alabanda are covered with flocks. The wool of Miletus 
and the wine of Cnidus were the chief exports. The limestone of 
the country furnished excellent building-material. 

§ 2. The mountain-ranges ofCariaare connected with the Taurus 
system. The watershed which divides the basin of the Mgeander 
from the Calbis and the other streams that seek the Mediterranean, 
is formed by a range which emanates from Cadmus in theX.E. angle 
of the province, and Avhich takes first a southerly and then a 
westerly direction, terminating in the peninsula of Halicarnassus : 
near the southern coast the ridge was named Lide. From this range 
lateral ridges strike off towards the X.W., in the direction of the 
Maeander, and form the valleys in which its tributaries flow : the 
most westerly of these was named Latmus,^ terminating in the 
subordinate ridge of Grion, near Miletus. The sea-coast is iiTegular ; 
the Latmicus Sinus once extended inland to the roots of the hills, but 
has long since been filled up by the alluvium of the Ma?ander : 
between Grion and Lide lies the lasius Sin., G-uIf of Asynkalessi^ 
with a much indented line of coast : between Lide and the high 
ground which forms the peninsula of Cnidus, the deep inlet named 
Ceramicus Sin., G. of Budrum : and on the other side of Cnidus the 
irregular gulf in front of the isle of Syme, containing the three 
lesser bays named Bubassius, Schoenus, and Thymnias. The penin- 
sulas form the most striking feature in the outline of Caria : that 
on which Miletus stood was of a triangular shape, the southern 
point forming the promontory of Posidium; the peninsula of Hali- 
carnassus narrowed at the point where the town stood, and again 
expanding ended in the promontories of Zephyrium, Astypalaea, and 
Temerium; the peninsula of Cnidus is about 40 miles long, and no- 
where more than 10 miles broad, and terminates in the promontory 
of Triopium, Crio : it is contracted to a narrow neck in two places, 
viz. at the point where it connects ^vith the mainland, and midway 
at the Bubassius Sinus : there is thus a double peninsula, to which 
Herodotus (i. 174) gives the distinctive names of the Triopian and 
the Bybassian, and it was at the junction of these two that the 
Cnidians cut their canal in the Persian AYar. The peninsula on the 
eastern side of the bay of Schoenus is formed by a ridge named 
Phoenix, which terminates in Cynossema, "the Dog's tomb,'' now 
C. VoIjjo : lastly, another peninsula is formed between the Calbis 



- Latmus was the fabled scene of Diana's interviews with Endymion, to whom 
the epithet Latmius is hence applied by the Latin poets (Ov. Trist. ii. 299; VaL 
Flacc. viii. 28 ; Stat. Sih\ iii. 4, 40). 



116 



CARIA. 



Book II. 



and tlie Gulf of Glaiiciis, Avhicli teiToinates in the promontorT of 
Pedalium or Artemisium. scenery along tlie coast is very fine, 

the rocks in many places rising abruptly from the sea. 

§ 3. The chief river of Caria is the Maeander, 2Ieinder, which rises 
near Celfen^e in Phrygia, having its sources in a lake, whence issues 
also one of its tributaries, the Marsyas : its coui^se takes a south- 
western direction, skirting the southern slopes of the range of 
Messogis, and is remarkable for its extreme tortuousness,^ whence 
the term "to marauder owes its origin. The stream is deep, but 
not broad : it frequently overflows its banks, and carries down an 
immense amount of deposit. 

The less important streams were, for the most part, tributaries of 
the Mscander: on its right bank it receives the Lethaeus, which joins it 
near Magnesia, and the Geesus, which flowed by Priene ; on its left 
bank, the Orsinus or Mosynus, Hagisik ; the Harpasii5, Harpa : and the 
Marsyas, Tshina, which rises near Stratouicea, and joins the ^la^ander 
opposite to Tralles. We liave yet to notice the Calbis or Indus, Tavasf, 
which rises in Mount Cadmus, and, flowing to the S., joins the Medi- 
terranean near Caunus. 

§ 4. Caria was occupied by the following races — the Carians, who 
believed themselves to be autochthonous, but, according to the 
Greeks, w-ere emigrants from Crete — the Caunians, who may have 
been allied to them, and who were settled on the south coast — and 
the Hellenic races of the lonians and Doi-ians, the fomer of whom 
occupied the western coast as far as the lasian bay, while the latter 
held the promontories of Halicarnassus and Cnidus. The C'arians 
are re^n'osiaitcd as a warlike race,^ serving as mercenaries under any 
one who Avas willing to pay them. Their language differed from 
that of the Greek settlers,^ although the two people probably became 
intermixed. The southern coast between these peninsulas and the 
Calbis was designated Peraea, or more fully Pera^a Rhodiorum, as it 
once belonged to Rhodes. 

§ 5. Caria possessed some of the most flourishing and magnificent 
to\vns of Asia Minor, especially Miletus, the metropolis of Ionia, 



^ Xon secus ac liqiiidus Phryg-iis Moeandros in arvis 
Ludit, et ambigiio lapsu refluitque fluitque : 
Occurrensque sibi venturas aspicit imdas : 
Et nunc ad fontes, nunc in mare versus apertum, 
Incertas exercet aquas. Or. ITet. riii. 162. 

Maeandros, toties qui terris errat in isdem, 

Qui lapsas in se ssepe retorquet aquas. — In. Heroid. ix. 5 5. 

The following lines supply us with an instance of the metaphorical use of the 
term : — 

Yictori chlamydem auratam, quam plurima circuni 

Purpura lEceandro dupUci Meiiboea cucurrit. — Yirg. ^En. v. 250. 

^ Theocritus [Id. xrii, S9) describes them as </)tAo-ToAeVoi?. 

^ Hence Homer characterises them as /Sap/Sapo(/)ajvcov [IL ii. 867). 



Chap. VIII. 



TOWNS. 



117 



and the lirst maritime power of Western Asia — Mylasa, the ancient 
capital of Caria — Halicarnassus, the greatest of the Dorian colonies 
— Tralles and Alabanda, which passed into a proverb for wealth and 
hixury— and Cnidus, a seat both of commerce and art. Most of 
these towns possessed buildings of celebrity : w^e may instance the 
temple of Branchidse near Miletus, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 
and the temple of Labranda near Mylasa. In addition to tliese, the 
following less important towns had magnificent temples— JMagnesia, 
Aphrodisias, and Euromus ; while others can show to this day the 
remains of fine theatres and other public buildings. These towns 
and works of art testify to the extent of Greek influence in this 
country : with the exception of Mylasa, indeed, they all claimed a 
Greek origin. Three towns belonging to the Ionian confederacy — 
Priene, Myus, and Miletus— were grouped on the shores of the 
Latmian bay : they deca3^ed through natural causes, the alluvium 
of the Ma3ander gradually turning the bay into a pestilential marsh : 
the two former ceased to exist even in classical times : Miletus 
survived until the Middle Ages, but the period of its commercial 
greatness terminated with its capture by the Persians, B.C. 494. 
The Dorian tov\^ns were situated on the southern peninsulas : the 
position of Halicarnassus w^as one of great natural strength, and it 
became, during the Persian period, the virtual capital of Caria : it 
fell after its capture by Alexander. Cnidus was, from its central 
position, the metropolis of the Dorian confederacy, and flourished 
down to the period of the Poman empire. A few towns rose under 
the Seleucida3 : they were situated in the valley of the McTander : 
Antiochia, Stratonicea, and probably Aphrodisias, belong to this 
period : these towns continued to exist under the later Roman 
empire. The gTeat fertility of the soil seems to have been the 
foundation of the wealth of the towns of the interior : Tralles, 
Alabanda, and Mylasa, w^ere all surrounded by remarkably fertile 
districts. We shall describe these towns in their order from X. to S. 
taking firstly those which stood on or near the sea-coast, and 
secondly, those of the interior. 

1 . Magnesia stood on the Lethaeus, a short distance from the right 
bank of the Mseander, surrounded by a plain of great fertility. Origi- 
nally an ^olian town, it was destroyed by the Cimmerians about 
B.C. 726^ and was re-occupied by Milesian colonists ; it is known as the 
residence of Themistocles, and as possessing a splendid temple of 
Artemis Leucophryne, the ruins of which are foimd at Tnek-hazar. 
Priene was well situated on the terraced slope of Mycale, and in ancient 
times stood immediately on the coast of the Bay of Latmus, from 
which, however, it was removed a distance of 40 stades even in 
Strabo's time by the alluvial deposits of the Mseander. The two ports, 
which it originally possessed, were thus filled up, and the to™ early 
sunk into insignificance. It was the birth-place of Bias. Remains of it 
exist near Samsoon, particularly the ruins of the temple of Athena 



118 



CAEIA. 



Book II. 



Polias.7 Myns, the smallest of the Ionian to^^Tis. was on the southern 
bank of the Mseander, about 30 stades from its mouth : it was one of 
the towns given to Themistocles by the Persian king: it was after- 
wards connected with Miletus, which finally received its inhabitants. 
Miletus occupied a peninsula at the southern entrance of the Bay of 
Latmus ; it consisted of an inner and an outer city, ^yiih. their separate 

fortifications, and four har- 
bours, which were protected 
on the sea- side by Lade and the 
other islands which formed the 
Tragasasan group. Down to the 
period of the Ionian revolt, 
B.C. 49-!-, Miletus enjoyed the 
highest commercial prosperity, 
and planted its colonies along 
the shores of the ^gcean, the 
Hellespont, the Propontis, 
and the Euxine : it was exposed to contests with the Lydian kings 
Ardys, Sadyattes, and Alyattes, and ultimately yielded to Croesus. 




Chart of the Coast about 3Iiletus. 

From 494, when the city was plundered and its inhabitants removed 
by DariuS, it was subject to Persia imtil the battle of Mycale, B.C. 479, 
when it became independent, and joined Athens, with which it was 




Coin of Miletus. 



The ruins of tliis temple afiord a fine specimen of Ionic architecture, of about 
the same date as the Mausoleum. 



Chap. VIII. 



TOAVNS. 



119 



connected until nearly the end of the Peloponnenian War. In B.C. 3.S-!- 
it was taken and partly destroyed by Alexander. St. Paul visited it 
on his return from Macedonia. Miletus holds a conspicuous place in 
Greek literature, as the birth-place of the philosophers Thales, Anaxi- 
mander, and Anaximenes, and of the historians Cadmus and Ilecataeus.^ 
Its manufactiu'es of furniture, woollen cloths, and carpets,^ were also 
celebrated. At BrancMdae, or Didyma, 12 miles S. of Miletus, and 
about 2 miles inland from Prom. Posidium, was the famous temple of 
Apollo Didymeus. Avith an oracle, which was consulted alike by lonians 
and ^Eolians, as w-ell as by foreig-ners : the kings Crcesus of Lydia and 
Xecos of E^y]_:'t r'ai'l reverence tc- it. The temple was destroyed by the 
Persians. B.C. 404, and ufterwards rebuilt by the Aliiesians on an 
enormous scale. A road called the ••' sacred way/' lined with seated 
statues led to it from the sea. Only two columns now remain; the 
rest is a heap of ruins. The length of the temple Avas 3'j4, and its 
breadth 13.5 feet ; in p':iint of size it ranked next to the great temple 
of Diana at Ephesus. lassus, Asyn KaltssK on a small island close to 
the north coast of the bay named after it, had a mixed population of 
Greek settlers, whose chief occupation was fishing. It was taken by 
the Lacedtemonians in the Peloponnesian War, and was besieged by the 
last Philip of Macedonia. 

Halicarnassus, Budruru, was situated on the Cerarnian Gulf, and was 
regarded as the large-: and strongest city in all Caria. I:s principal 
acropolis was named Salmacis after a well near it, w-hose Avatcrs were 
supposed to have an eneiwating inliuence.^ It possessed two harbour.?, 
the entrance to the larger one being guarded by a pier on each side. 
The most remarkable building was the Alausoieum erected to the 
memory of Mausolns by his widow Artemisia (B.C. 3.5'2) : it was 
situated in the centre of the town. lEalicarnassus originally belonged 
to the Dorian confederacy, but was expelled from it : it became subject 
to Persia, and, at the same time, the seat of a tyranny founded by 
Lygdamis, and earned on by Artemisia, who fought at Salamis : this 
dynasty gi^adually established its supremacy over the whole of Caria. 
iEalicarnassus was besieged by Alexander, and. with the exception, of 
the acropolis, wa-S taken and destroyed. It was the birth-place of the 
historians Dionysius and iHerodotus. The remains of Halicarnassus 
consist of the ancient polygonal walls, which are in a good state of 
preserwation, part of a mole on the E. side of the harboui', the founda- 
tions of a large Ionic temple, and of a Doric colonnade near the Mauso- 
leum, and some cemeteries outside the w^alls. The Mausoleum - itself 

5 The morals of the Milesians were so lax that ILile&ius became a synonym for 
wanton." 

Junxit Aristides Milesia carmina secum. — Ov. Trist. ii. 413. 
9 Quamris Milesia magno 
Teller a matentur, Tyiios incocta riibores. — Tieg. Georg. iii. 306. 

Earn circum Milesia vellera Xymphae 
Carpebant, hyali saturo fucata colore. Id. iv. 334, 

1 rnde sit infamis ; quare male fortibus imdis 
Salmacis enervet, tactosque remoEiat artus ; 

Discite. Causa latet : vis est notissima fontis. — Or. :SIet. iv. 28-5. 
2 The name was applied by the Eomans, as it is by ourselves, to any fins 
sepulchral monument :■ — 

Nee mausolei dives fortuna sepulcri 

Mortis ab extrema conditione vacat. — Prop. iii. 2, 19. 
Nam vicima docent nos vivere mausolea : 

Cum doceant ipsos posse perire deos. — Maet. v. 64. 



120 



CARIA. 



Book II. 



is correctly described by Pliny as having been a circular building sur- 
rounded by 36 columns ancl surmounted by a pyramid, which was 
crowned with a colossal group of a chariot ^vith four horses. The 
height of the whole edifice was 140 ft. and its circumference 411. It 
was decorated with sculptures in relief, executed in Parian marble and 
of the highest merit. The site of the Mausoleum was explored in 1857 
by Mr. C. Xewton, who discovered two colossal figures^ one of which 
is supposed to represent !Mausolus himself, the halves of two hoi^es 
forming a portion of the crowning group, some slabs of the frieze, 
several lions, and other interesting objects. These objects are deposited 
in the British Museum. 



Pr. Tri'opt 




Cnidus stood at the very extremity of the peninsula already 

described as terminating in Prom. Triopium : a portion of it was 
built on the mainland, and a portion on an island which was joined 
to it by a causeway. The island sheltered the two harbours which 
lay on each side of the causeway, the larger of them, on the soutli 
side, being protected by moles of great strength. Cnidus was a 



ander near it. B.C. 3P4. Cnidus had considerable trade, and pro- 
duced many eminent men— Eudoxus, Ctesias, and Agatharcides- and 




Plan of Cnidus, and Chart of the adjoining Coast. 




Coin of Cnidns. 



member of the Dorian con- 
federacy, the members of 
which met at the temple of 
the Triopian Apollo. It 
suiTendered to the Persian 
general Hai-pagus, in the 
time of Cyrus, and was at- 
tacked by the Athenians in 
the Peloponnesian War. 
Cimon defeated the Lace- 
dtemonian fleet under Pis- 



Chap. VIJI. 



TOWNS. 



121 



acquired some remarkaLle works of art, particularly the statue of 
Apiu^odite by Praxiteles, and others which were set up at Olympia 
and Delphi. The worship of Veuus^ was prevalent at Cnidus. 
Caunus, in Pera?a, stood on the banks of a small stream now called 
Koi-gez. which communicates with a lake about 10 miles from the sea: 
it is frequently mentioned in history : it was taken ^ ^'- ' my, B.C. 
o09 ; it was subsequently given by the lujuian.- t-j t,. ]js, taken 

from them. B.C. 167. but again restored to them : it A\-ci> tnu :jirth-place 
of Protogenes the painter. 

2. Tralles stood on the slope of ilessogis, not far from the M^e- 
ander, and was centrally situated at a point where roads from the S., 
E.^ and AV. converged. Its origin is uncertain, some assigning its 
foundation to the Argives^ others to the Pelasgians. The plci.cx- was 
chiefly famous for the wealth of its inhabitants, derived partly from 
the fertility uf the surrounding district, partly from its commercial im- 
portance. Extensive ruins of it exist at Ghiuzd Hissar. Alabanda 
wa.s situated 5.bout 18 miles S. of Tralles, and was also a place of great 
wealth and luxury : under the Roman empire it became the seat of a 
Conventus Juridicus. or court-house: its site is supposed to be at 
Ar'i'j-JIis^ 'r on the Marsyas, where are the remains of a temple and 
other buildings. Mylasa was situated in a fertile plain, not far from 
the head of the lassianBay, and at the foot of a mountain which yielded 
the beautiful white marble, out of which the town was built : Physcus 
served as its port. The town boasted a high antiquity, and possessed 
two splendid temples, one of which stood in the village of Labranda, 
and was connected with the town by a Yia Sacra about 9 miles long. 
Its resistance to Philip, the son of Demetrius, is the only historical 
event of interest connected with it. The remains at Jldasso consist 
of a marble archway, the vestiges of a theatre, and ranges of coliunns. 
The temple at Labranda was sacred to Jupiter Stratius, and was of 
immense size : it was surrounded by a grove of plane trees. It was 
situated in the mountains between Mylasa and Alabanda, where exten- 
sive ruins have been found. Aphrodisias stood on the Mosynus, S. of 
the M^eander, not far distant from the eastern border : it was a very 
large and fine city, as the ruins at Gliera testify, particularly th* 'se of 
the temple of Aphrodite ; of its history we know nothing beyond the 
fact that under the Romans it became a free city. Antiochia, sur- 
named ad Meeandrum, stood on the Mosynus, and was named after 
Antiochis, the mother of Antiochus, son of Seleucus. Cn. Manlius en- 
camped here, B.C. 189, on his way to Galatia : the supposed remains, 
about 5 miles S.E. of Kuyvja, are inconsiderable. Stratonicea, S.E. 
of Mylasa, derived its name from Stratonice, the wife of Antiochus 
Soter, who founded it, probably on the site of the more ancient Idrias. 
iMithridates resided there : at a later period its resistance to Labienu.s 



4 Eome was nmch. frequented by the inhabitants of Tralles and Aiabanda : — 



3 Nunc, ceernleo creata ponto, 
Quae sanctum Idalium, Syrosque apertos, 
Quaeque Ancona, Cnidumque arundinosam, 
Colis. C. 
Venus, regina Cnidi Paphique. H 



Catvll. xxxvi. 1 1 . 
HoR. Carm. i. 30, 1. 



Hie Andro, ille Samo, hie Trallibus aut Alabandis 

Esquilias dictumque petunt a viminc eollem 

Viscera magnarum domuiun dominique futuri. — Jrv. iii. 70. 



A^C. GEOG. 



G 



122 



CAETA. 



Book II. 



attracted tne notice of the Romans to it, and Hadrian took it under his 
special care. The remains at Eski-Hissar are very extensive : some 
columns still stand erect, and the theatre still preserves its seats and 
a part of the proscenium. 

Among the less important towns we may briefly notice — (1.) on the 
sea-coast, Heraclea, whose agnomen ad Latmum," sufficiently explains 
its position — Bargylia, on the Bay of lassus, which was sometimes 
named after it Bargylieticus, once occupied by a garrison of Philip III. 
of Macedonia — Caryanda, on an island ofip the north coast of the Hali- 
carnassian peninsula — Myndus, a few miles N.W. of Halicarnassus, 
strongly fortified, and possessing a good harbour, probably at Gumishlu 
— Pedasa, probably at the entrance of the Halicarnassian peninsula, 
where the Persians were defeated in the Ionian revolt — Physcus, on 
the coast of Persea, with a magnificent harbour, now called Marmorice, 
whence communication with Rhodes was maintained — Loryma, near 
Cape Cynossema, supposed to be at Fort Aplotlieca, where walls 
and several towers show that a strong place once existed — Calynda, 
near the borders of Lycia, about 7 miles from the sea, and probably 
on the Calbis, though its site has not been made out. (2.) In the interior 
— Nysa, in the valley of the Maeander. at Sultan- Hissar, where are the 
remains of a theatre mth the rows of seats almost entire, an amphi- 
theatre and other buildings ; a place of literary distinction — Alinda, 
between Alabanda and Mylasa, one of the strongest places in Caria — 
and Eur5mus, N.W. of Mjdasa, at laldee, where are the ruins of a 
magnificent temple. 

Histo7'y. — The Carians do not come prominently forward in history. 
After they were driven from the sea-coast by the Greek settlers, they 
lived in villages, and formed a confederation, the members of which 
met at the temple of Zeus Chrysaoreus, on the site of the later Stra- 
tonicea. Caria formed a portion of tbe Lydian and Persian empires. 
In the Ionian revolt it joined the Greeks, and after the suppression 
of the revolt it returned to its former masters, who established a 
monarchy at Halicarnassus._ After the defeat of Antiochus, the- 
Romans divided Caria between the kings of Pergamus and the 
Rhodians. In the year B.C. 129, the portion assigned to the former 
was added to the province of Asia. 

§ 6. The island of Cos^ lies off the coast of Caria, separated by a 
narrow channel from the Halicarnassian peninsula, of which it may 
be deemed a continuation. Its length from N.E. to S.W. is about 
23 miles. Its soil was very productive, and its wines and oint- 
ment were well known to the Romans ; ^ its textile fabrics, consisting 
of a kind of gauz.e,7 were also celebrated. The most fertile portion 

5 The modern name, Sta7icho, is a corruption of e? tolv Kw. 

6 Albo non sine Coo. — Hor. Sat, ii. 4, 29. 
Lubrica Coa. Pers. Sat. v. 135. 

^ Ilia gerat vestes tennes, quas femina Coa 

Texuit, auratas disposuitque vias. — Tibull. ii. 3, 53. 
Quid juvat ornato procedere, vita, capillo, 

Et tenues Coa veste movere sinus. — Prop. i. 2, 1. 
Sive illam Cois fulgentem incedere vidi 
Totum de Coa veste volumen erit.^ — Id. ii. 1, 5. 
The term Coa is sometimes used by itself for these robes : — 
Cois tibi paene videre est. Hor. Sat. i. 2, 101. 



Chap. VIII. 



ISLANDS. 



123 



of the island was towards the X. and E., w^here the ground wa:^ 
level : the rest was mountainous. The capital, also named Cos, 
was situated at the 
eastern extremity of the 
island, and possessed a / 
well sheltered roadstead, ( 
much frequented by I 
the numerous vessels ^ 
which passed through 
the channel between the 
island and the main- 
land ; it was thus visited 
by St. Paul (Acts xxi. 1). 
^Esculapius, to which a school of physicians was attached. Cos 
was a member of the Dorian Pentapolis : under the Romans it be- 
came a free state. The tow^n was fortified by Alcibiades : having 
been destroyed by an earthquake, it was rebuilt by Antoninus Pius. 
It was the birth-place of Ptolemy Philadelphus, the painter Apelles, 
ana the physician Hij)pocrates. 

Between Cos and Icaria are the less important islands — Calynma, 
famed for its excellent honey^ but not meriting the praises bestowed 
upon its foliage,^ being a bare island — Leros, about 30 miles S.W. of 
Miletus, colonized successively by Dorians and Milesians,^ with a 
sanctuary of Artemis, which witnessed, according to mythology, the 
metamorphosis of Meleager's sisters into guinea-fowls — Patmos, to 
the interestiDg as the spot whither St. John was banished, and 

where he is believed to have composed the Apocalypse — and the 
Corassise, a group of two larger and several smaller islands. Between 
Cos and Rhodes are Nisyrns, of volcanic origin, well known for its 
wine, its millstones, and its hot springs, occupied by a Dorian popula- 
tion, with a town of which the remains of the acropolis still exist — 
Telos, celebrated for its ointment— Syme, at the entrancQ of the Sinus 
Schoenus, high and barren, and hence at times wholly deserted — and 
Chalcia, off the west coast of Rhodes. These islands retain, with but 
slight variation, their ancient names. 

§ 7. The large island of Rliodus ^ is distant about 9 or 10 miles 
from the south coast of Caria : its length from X. to S. is about 45 
miles, and its width varies from 20 to 25. A range of m.ountains 



8 Fecimdaque meile Calymne. — Ov. Met. viii. 222. 
Silvis umbrosa Calymne. Id. Art. Am. ii. 81. 

9 Its inhabitants enjoyed an unfortunate celebrity for their extreme ill-temper, 
according to the subjoined verses of Phocylides : — 
Aeptot KcuKoL, ovx ^ f^^^' °^ ^ 
nap-re?, TrX.r}V TIpoKAeov?" /cat Upo/cA-e'T)? Aeptog. 
Even in modern times they are unpopular from their stinginess. 

I The name \vas supposed to be derived from poSov, *' a rose," which appears 
as the national emblem on the coins. 




• Coin of Cos. 

It was also famed for a temple of 



124 



EHODUS. 



Book JI. 



traverses the island from X. to S., cnlminating in Mount Atabyris, 
at a lieiglit of 4560 feet, tlie very summit of wliich was crowned 

with a temple of 
Zeus. Though gene- 
rally mountainous, and 
especially so about 
the tovms of Ehodes 
and Lindus, the island 
was very fertile, the 
soil being rich, and 
the climate unrival- 
led : 2 its wine,3 dried 
raisins, figs, saffron, and oil, were much valued, as also its marble, 
sponge, and fish ; its inhabitants were skilled in the manufac- 
ture of ships, arms, and militaiy engines : hence, even in the 
d.ays of Homer, the island obtained fame for gi'eat wealth. 
The early inhabitants, named Telchines, enjoyed a semi-mythical 
fame : the race that succeeded them, the Heliada?, were of a similar 
character : they were followed by settlers froDi various foreign 
countries, among whom the Dorians became dominant, and at length 
gave a decidedly Doric character to the island. The three most 
ancient to^vns, Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus, which were known in 
the Homeric age,"^ were members of the Doric Pentapolis, along with 
Cos and Cnidus. The later capital, Ehodus, was not founded until 
B.C. 408 : its rise proved fatal to the existence of Lindus and lalysus, 
whose inhabitants were removed thither. 

Ehodus was at the X.E. end of the island, and was built in the form 
of au amphitheatre, on groimd gradually rising from the shore, and 
with such regularity that it was said to appear like one bouse. The 
acropolis was posted at the S.W. of the town, and there were two 
excellent harbours. Id addition to many remarkable works of art, 
both in sculpture and painting, Rhodes boasted of one of the seven 
wonders of the world in the brazen statue of Helios, commonly known 
as the Colossus. It was erected, r..c. 280, by Chares, overthrown by 
an earthquake, B.C. 2-24:, and appears to have been afterwards restored: 
its height was 70 cubits, and it stood at the entrance of one of the 
ports. Rhodes produced many men of literary eminence. St. Paul 

- There was a proverb that the sun shone every day at Rhodes : — 

Claramque relinqnit 
Sole Ehodon. Lrc. Fhars. viii. 247. 

Yii-gil highly praises the Ehodian grape : — 

Xon ego te, dis et mensis accepta secimdis 
Transierim, Rhodia. Georg. ii. 101. 

* T/\77776/\e,u.09 5' 'Hpa/</Vei(S-i79, r[v<; re fxiya? re 
'Ek 'PoSov ei'i'ea lO/a? ayev 'PoSicov ayepuyxwv 
Ol 'VoSov aixdevifjiovro 5taTp(.\a /cocr/xr]0eKre9, 

\lv6ov, 'Irjkvdov T€ Kal apyLvoevra Kdixetpov. — HoM. //. ii. 653. 




Chap. VIII. 



LYCIA. 



125 



touched there on his voyage from Macedonia to Phoenicia. Lindus 
stood on the eastern coast, and contained the r^^vered sanctuaries of 
Minerva and Hercules : it was the birth-place of CleoVjulus, one of the 
seven sages, and of Chares, the maker of the Colossus : the site of the 
town is marked by the remains of a theatre, and of many highly orna- 
mented tombs. lalysus stood on the northern coast, about 7 miles 
from Rhodes. Camirus was about midway down the western coast ; 
the Homeric e-pithet JipyLpSeis had reference to the colour of the soil. 

History. — Rhodes did not rise to any political importance until after 
the erection of its capital in B.C. 408, when the equally balanced state of 
its parties offered an opening at one time for Sparta, at pmother time for 
Athens, according as the oligarchical or democratical faction was upper- 
most. The naval power of Rhodes rose about the time of Demosthenes, 
and the town distinguished itself for its resistance to Demetrius 
Poliorcetes after the death of Alexander. Rhodes sided with Rome in 
her eastern wars, and received a portion of Caria in reward. In the 
civil wars it took the part of Caesar, and, after his death, resisted 
Cassius, and suffered in consequence most severely. From this period, 
B.C. 42, Rhodes sunk in power, but retained fame as a seat of learning. 
In Constantine's division, Rhodes became the metropolis of the Pro- 
vincia Insularum. 

§ 8. S.W. of Rhodes lies Carpathus, Ska7yanfo,\Yhich gave to the 
surrounding sea the title of Carpathium Mare. It consists for the 
most part of bare mountains, rising to a central height of 4000 feet, 
with a steep and inaccessible coast. It was originally a portion of 
Minos's kingdom; it was afterwards colonized by Dorians, but seems 
to have been dependent on Rhodes. It possessed four towns, of 
which Nisyrus was the chief. The small island of Casus, Kaso, lies 
off its southern extremity. 

lY. Lycia. 

§ 9. Lycia was bounded on the N.W. by Caria, on the N. by 
Phrygia and Pisidia, on the N.E. by Pamphylia, and on the S. by 
the Mediterranean, wdiich also w^ashes a portion of its eastern and 
western coasts. It is throughout a mountainous district, being 
intersected in all directions by the southerly branches of the IV.urus 
range : it was, nevertheless, fertile in wune, corn, and other pro- 
ductions. The scenery. is highly picturesque, rich valleys, wooded 
mountains, and precipitous crags, being beautifully intermingled. 
Among the products peculiar to Lycia w-e may notice a particularly 
soft kind of sponge found at Antiphellus, and a species of chalk pos- 
sessed of medicinal x^roperties. It also contained springs of naphtha, 
which attest its volcanic character. 

§ 10. The principal mountains in Lycia were named — Dsedala, on 
the border of Caria — Cragus and Anticragus. two loity peaks, sepa- 
rated from each other by an elevated plain, and terminating in a 
cluster of rugged heights on the western coast, Cragus being the most 
southerly of the two — Massicytiis, in the centre of the province, 
running from N. to S. parallel to tlie river Xanthus — and Climax, 



126 



LYCIA. 



Book II. 



on the eastern coast, the name (meaning "ladder") being originally 
applied to a mountain which overhung the sea near Phaselis so closely, 
that at certain times the road at its base was impassable, while the 
mountain w\as surmounted only by a difficult pass : the name was 
afterwards extended to the whole ridge between Lycia and Pamphyha. 




I;ock-cut Lvcuin iomb (lexier's Asia MmeureX 



A portion of this mountain is the Chimaera, which Ctesias describes as 
having a perpetual flame issuing from it : this is no doubt a reference 
to the inflammable gas found in that neighbourhood. The ancient 
poets ^ frequently refer to this phenomenon, the nature of which 
they did not understand. To the S. of this range was a volcanic 
mountain named Olympus or Phoenicus. Numerous promontories 
occur on the coast, the most conspicuous being — Prom. Sacrum, Yedy- 
Booroon, at the termination of Cragus — and another at the S.E. 
point, also called Sacrum, but sometimes Chelidonium, CheUdonia, 
off which lay a group of five rocky islands of the same name : the 

5 UpojTOv fJiei' pa Xt/xatpav afxai ixaKdrrjv iKe^evcre 
Ue(^veiJiev' rj 5' ao' irjv Oelox-' yei'O?, oi'S' ai'Opco-ujv, 
JlpoaOe \eujv, o—iQev de SpaKoov. txecrcri-j 8k \Lij.aLpa. 
Aeivbi' aTTo-peCovcra Trvpo'; /xeVo? alOoi-xdvoLO. — Ho:m. //. vi. 179. 
Yix illigatum te trifornii 

Pegasus expecliet Cliimeera, Hon. Carm. i. 27, 23. 

Flanimisqiie armata CMmeera. Yirg. ^En. vi. 2 88. 
Kal Xtjaatpav irvp Ttveovcrav, 

Kal loXvixovs eTr€(f)V€v. * PiND. Oil/ nip. xiii. 128. 



Chap. VIII. 



IXHABITAXTS— TO^VXS. 



127 



promontory was regarded as the commencement of Taurus. The 
most important river is the Xanthus, EtcJiea^ Avhich rises in Taums, 
and flows in a S.W. direction through an extensive plain between 
the ranges of Cragus and Massicytus to the sea : the name, meaning 
" yellow," has reference to the colour of the Avater : this river 
was known to Homer,^ and was regarded as a favourite stream of 
Apollo,' to whom indeed the whole of Lycia was sacred. In the 
eastern part of the province a smaller stream was named Limyrusj to 
which the Arycandus, Fineka^ is tributary. 

§ 11. The most ancient inhabitants of Lycia were a Semitic race, 
divided into two tribes named Solymi and Termila^ or Tremilas. 
The Lycians entered from Crete before that island received its 
Hellenic character, and subdued the Termila3 on the sea-coast with 
ease, but had to maintain an arduous struggle Avith the Solymi, 
who had retreated into the mountainous district on the border of 
Pisidia, named Milyas. The Solymi appear to have assumed the 
name of this district, as they were afterwards known as ]\[ilya3. 
The Lycians, though ''barbarians" in the Greek sense of the term, 
were an enlightened nation, enjoying a free constitution consisting 
of a confederacy of 23 towns, cultivating the arts of sculpture and 
architecture,^ and probably having a literature of their own. 

§ 12. The towns of Lycia were A^ery numerous ; Pliny states that 
it once contained seventy, though in his day the numbers had sunk 
to tAventy-six ; the higher estimate is justified by the numerous 
ruins scattered over the face of the country, many of them repre- 
senting toAAms, the very names of AA'hich are unrecorded. The six 
largest toAAms of the confederacy Avere — Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, 
Olympus, Myra, and Tlos. The first of these Avas the capital of 
the country, and AA^as situated in the rich plain of the Xanthus : 
Pinara and Tlos Avere not far distant from it : the other three Avei'c 
on the coast. Phaselis, on the eastern coast, though not a member 
of the Lycian confederacy, rose to great impoitance as a commer- 
cial toAvn. The dates at AAdiich these and other toAvns Avere built 
can only be conjectured from the character of the architecture, 
which, in many cases, indicates a high antiquity. Their flourishing 

6 TrjAo^ev e/c AvKL-qg, 'Ba.vdov airo BtinqevTog HoM. 77. ii. 877 = 

'AaA.' ore 8r] Au/ctrjv I^e, BdvOov re pdovra, 

Ilpo^poveaj? jXLV rtev ava^ Avxtrj? evpecT]? Id. vi. 172. 

7 Phoebe, qui Xantlio lavis amiie crin.es. IIor. Carm. iv. 6, 26. 

Qui Lyciae tenet 
Dumeta, natalemque silvam, 

Delius et Patareus Apollo. Id. Carm. ili. 4, 62. 
s The architecture is partly of a Cyclopean, partly of a Greek character, the 
latter exhibiting a high state' of art. The monumental architecture has a pecu- 
liar character, consisting in the use of a pointed arch, not very unlike that used 
in Gothic architecture. 



128 



LYCIA. 



Book I J. 



period appears to have been about the time when the Eomans first 
became cormected with the country; it terminated with the fall of 
Xanthus, and the exactions imposed by Bmtus. We shall describe 
these towns in order fi'om AV. to E. 

Telmessus stood on the shores of the Bay of Glaucus, and was once 
a liounshiDg town, as the remarkable remains at ilf^/es— a theatre, porti- 
coes, and sepnlchral chambers in the solid rock — still testify : its in- 
habitants were highly skilled in angury. Patara, the port of Xanthus, 
was situated near the mouth of the Xanthus, and possessed a fine har- 
bour, as well as a celebrated temple and oracle of Apollo, hence sur- 
named Patareus. The harbour was much visited by vessels trading to 
Phoenicia : St. Paul touched there ( Acts xxi. 1). The ruins are very ex- 
tensive, particularly those of a theatre built in the time of Antoninus Pius; 
but the harbour has become choked with sand. Xantlius, the capital, 
vra? beautifully situated on the left bank of the Xanthus, about 6 miles 
from its moiit]i. The city is famous for it^ determined resistance to 
Harpagus in the reign of Cyrus, and again to Brutus — on each of 
which occasions it was destroyed. Tl^e ruins near Koonih are magni- 
ficent, consisting of temples, tombs, triumphal arches, and a theatre : 
the sculptures on the tombs are in the best style of art, and very per- 
fect. Tlos stood higlier up the valley of the Xanthus : though almost 
unknoAvn to history, it was a splendid town, and strongly placed, its 
acrop lis being on a precipitous rock. The theatre still remains, ^^ith 
highly worked seats of marble : the side of the acropolis rock is covered 
with excavated tombs with ornamental entrances. Pinara stood on the 
declivity of Mount Cragus, and was one of the largest towns in Lycia. 
A rou.id rocky clitf rises out of the centre of the town, the sides of 
which are covered with tombs ; the rock-tombs, as elsewhere, are highly 
decorated, and the theatre is in a very perfect state : the ancient name 
survives in Minara. Antiphellus stood on a small bay on the southern 
CO: '-St : the remains are extensive : it served as the port of Phellus, 
which was probably more to the X., at TcliooTcoorhye. Opposite Anti- 
phellus is the island of Megisl^, Kastelorizo, which is now the chief 
place of business along this coast. Myra, Dernhre, stood on a plain 
about 2^ miles from the sea c.-ast, and at the entrance of a mountain- 
gora'e that leads into the interior: Andriaca served as its port, and was 
mi-ioli fi^e^iieuted by vessels bound westward from Syria: St. Paul touched 
tliere on his V':>yage to Piome Acts xxvii. 5\ The theatre at Myra is 
one of the linest in Asia Minor, and the other ruins are very beautiful : 
the bas-reiiefs in some of tlie tombs still preserve their original colouring. 
Limyi'a v. as more to the E., in the valley of the Limyrus ; its site is 
marked by extensive ruins, some of the inscriptions on the tombs being 
richly c loured, and the bas-reliefs representing stories from Greek 
rayrhoLr.gy. Olympus was situated at the foot of the mountain of that 
name, at Del'Jdosli. Lastly, Phaselis. TeJ:rora, on the eastern coast, 
witli three harbours, formed an entrepot for the trade between Greece 
and Phoenicia : it became the haunt of pirates, and was taken by Servi- 
lius Isaimcus, after which it sunk.^ The light boats called j^'haseh' were 



° Hoe. Carm. hi. 4, 64. See above, note '. 

Phoebe parens, sen te LyciL-e Patareea nivosis 

Exereent dumeta jug-j?. Stat. Theh. i. 696. 

1 Te primum, i^aria Phasehs 

Magnus adit, Luc. Fhars, viii. 251. 



Chap. VIIT. 



PAMPHYLIA. 



129 



said to have beeu built here, and were the usual device on the coins of 
the place. 

History. — The Lycians appear as allies of the Trojans in the Homeric 
poems, but are not again mentioned until the time of Croesus, who 
failed in his endeavour 
to subdue them. Cyrus 
was more successful, and 
added Lycia to the Per- 
sian empire. Alexander 
traversed a portion of it, 
and easily conquered it. 
It then passed succes- 
sively to the Ptolemies, 
the SeleucidEe, and the 
Romans, who handed it 

over for a time to the Rhodians, but afterwards restored it to inde- 
pendence. The country suffered severely from Brutus on suspicion of 
its having favoured his opponents, and never recovered its prosj^erity. 
Claudius made it a Roman province in the prefecture of Pamphylia, 
with which it remained united until the time of Theodosius II. 




Coin of Phaselis, 




Ionic Lycian Tumb ( Texier's Asia ^Mineiiro). 



Y. Pamphylia. 

§ 13. Pamphylia was bounded on the W. by Lycia, on the S. by 
the Mediterranean, on the E. by the river Melas separating it from 
Cilicia, and on the N. by Pisidia. It consists of -a narrow strip of 

G 3 



130 



PAMPHYLIA. 



Book II. 



laud, skirting in a semicircular form the coast of tlie Pamphylium 
Mare. Tlie name was extended by the Eomans to Pisidia on the 
northern side of Taurus. The country is generally mountainous, 
the spurs of Taurus pressing closely on the sea : the most extensive 
plain is that which surrounds Attalia. 

§ 14. The rivers have a southerly course through the lateral ridges 
of Taurus, and fall into the Pamphylian Sea. Following the Une of 
coast from W. to E., we meet with the Catarrliactes, Duden-su, de- 
riving its ancient name from the manner in which it precipitates 
itself over the cUfls into the sea near Attalia : its lower course across 
the plain is continually changing, and hence some difficulty has 
arisen in fixing the sites of the towns — the Oestrus, Ah-su, which 
was formerly navigable up to Perga, but has its entrance now closed 
by a bar — the Eurymedon, Capn-su, which has undergone a similar 
change : at its mouth Cimon defeated the Persians,* B.C. 466 ; 
lastly the Melas, Menavgat-su, in the eastern part of the district. 
The coast is regular, the onlv promontorv being Leucotheum, near 
Side. 

§ 15. The inhabitants of this district were a mixed race of abori- 
gines, Cilicians, and Greeks : hence their name " Pamphyli " (from 
Tray and (pvXrj), resembling in its origin the later " Alemanni." Of 
their history we know little : they were chiefly devoted to maritime 
pursuits, and joined the Cilicians in their piratical proceedings. The 
chief towns were either on the sea-coast or on the navigable rivers. 
In earlier times the Greek colonies of Side and Aspendus were the 
more important ; but at a later period Attalia, which was founded 
by Attains II. of Pergamus, when this province was attached to his 
kingdom. Perga was also a considerable town, situated on the road 
between Phaselis and Aspendus. 

01"bia was the most westerly of the Pamphylian towns, and appeal's 
to have been about 3^ miles W. of Adalia, near the coast : it has 
been by some geogmphers incoi-rectly identified with Attalia. Attalia 
was situated at the inmost point of the Pamphylian Bay, near the 
shifting course of the Catarrhactes : it was founded by Attains, pro- 
bably with a view to command the trade of Egj-pt, and even to this 
day it retains its ancient name and importance. Perga wa5 beautifullv 
situated between two hills bordering on the valley of the Cestrus, and 
was the seat of a famous temple of Diana : the ruins of a theatre, sta- 
dium, aqueduct, and other buildings mark its site. Aspendus was on a 
hill near the Eurymedon, about 8 miles from the sea ; it was visited by 
Alexander in his Asiatic expedition, and appears to have been a popu- 
lous place. Syllium was a fortified place between the Eurymedon and 
the Cestrus. Side, on the coast, was a colony from Cyme in iEolis : it 
possessed a good port, which became the principal resort of the pirates 
of this district : it retained its imjDortance under the Roman emperore, 
and became the metropolis of Pamphylia Prima : its ruins at EsJiij 
Adalia are extensive, the most remarkable being the theatre, on an emi- 
nence in the centre of the town : the harbom- is choked up \dih. sand. 



Chap. VIII. 



CILICIA. 



131 



History, — The Pamphyliaus never acquired any great political im- 
portance, Tliey were subject to Persia, Macedonia, and Syria, in suc- 
cession. After the defeat of Antiochus they were handed over to the 
kings of Pergamus. At the death of the last Attains they were in- 
cluded in the province of Asia, but were afterwards attached to Cilicia. 
In the reign of Augustus, Paniphylia became a separate province, in- 
cluding a portion of Pisidia, and under Claudius a part of Lycia also. 

St. Paul's Travels. — St. Paul visited Pamphylia in his first apostolical 
journey : having sailed from Cyprus, he disembarked at Perga, and 
thence crossed the range of Taurus, probably by the course of the 
Cestrus, into Pisidia. He returned to the same point, but instead of 
taking ship at Perga, he crossed the plain to Attalia, and thence sailed 
for Antioch. 

VI. ClLICIA. 

§ 16. Cilicia was bounded on the W. hj Pamphylia, on tlie X. by 
the range of Tanrus separating it from Lycaonia and Cappadocia, on 
the E. by the range of Amanus separating it from Syria, and on the 
S. by the Mediterranean. Within these limits are inclnded two 
districts of an entirely different character — tlie western being moun- 
tainous, and hence named Trachea, or " rough tlie eastern con- 
taining extensive plains, and hence named Pedias, or Campestris, 
*' level the river Lamus forms the division between them. The 
second of these districts is naturally subdivided into two, viz. the 
plain of Tarsus and Adana, and the plain of Issus. The province 
is inclosed on the JST. and E. by a continuous wall of mountains, 
and possesses a lengthened line of coast on the S. The length 
from E. to W. is about 250 miles ; the breadth varies from 30 to 50 
miles ; the length of the coast-line is about 500 miles. 

§ 17. The position and physical character of Cilicia bring it into 
frequent notice in ancient geography. Situated between Syria on 
the one side, and the rest of Asia Minor on the other, it became the 
highway between the East and the West, and was of special value to 
the rulers of Syria. The extent of its seaboard and the supphes of 
timber which it yielded rendered it a valuable acquisition to Egypt. 
The beauty of its scenery and its luxurious climate attracted the 
wealthy Pvomans tldther, and were the indirect means of elevating 
Tarsus into a seat of learning. Lastly, the fertility of its soil was 
so great that it was independent of all other countries in regard not 
only to the necessities but the luxuries of life : in addition to corn, 
wine, and oil, it was famed for its saffron, and for the goats'-hair 
cloth named cilicium. 

§ 18. The chief mountain-ranges of Cilicia are Taurus in the jST., 
and Amanus in the E. The former fills the western district with 
lateral ridges extending to the very edge of the sea. Eastward of 
the Lamus the mountains recede from the coast, and attain such 
an elevation that their peaks are covered with snow even in Junp. 
Between them and the sea-coast intervenes the broad and fertile 



132 



CILICIA. 



Book II. 



plain of Tarsus. Amanns consists of a double range, which may be 
distinguished as the Cilician and Syrian branches: the former de- 
scends to the sea in a S.AV. direction, between the Pyi'amus and the 
Bay of Issus ; the latter takes a due southerly direction parallel to 
the eastern shore of the bay, and terminates abruptly in the pro- 
montory of Rhosus at the southern entrance of the bay : these 
branches unite in the X., and enclose the 2:>lain of Issus. 

The passes across these mountains deserve special notice. The most 
frequented pass across Taiu'us, named Ciliciae Pylae or Portae, now Golek 
Bogliras, was situated at the head of the valley of the Cydnus, and led 
across to Tyana : it is a remarkable fissure in the mountain, and easily 
defensible at several points. It was crossed by the younger Cyrus, and 
by Alexander the Great, and was selected by Niger as his point of re- 
sistance against Septimius Severus. In the western part of the province 
a pass crosses from Laranda in I ycaonia to one of the lateral valleys of 
the Calycadniis. The Cilician Amanus had a pass named by Strabo 
Amanides Pylse It , between Mallus and Issus : this is now named Kara 
Kajju. The Syrian Amanus was crossed at two points, to each of which 
the name of Amanides Pylse was again applied : one of these, which 
may be termed the lou'er pass, ansvrers to the Pass of Beilan (2\ between 
the Gulf of Issus and Antioch; while the other, or upper pass, lies E. 
of Bayas 4) : it was by the latter that Darius crossed before the battle 
of Issus. Lastly, at the point where the mountain approaches the coast 
most nearly, and where the little stream Cersus, Merfcez [1), reaches the 
sea, a double wall with gateways was thrown across, one on each side 
of the Cersus: these were the "Cilician and Syrian Gates" described 
by Xenophon (Anah. i. 4), through which Cyrus passed, and which 
xVlexander passed and repassed before the battle of Issus. 

§ 19. The coast is varied both in outline and character : in Trachea 
it assumes a convex form, and presents a jagged outline with nume- 
rous small bays and promontories : it is here rock-bound and dan- 
gerous. The chief promontories are — Anemurium, Anamoiir, the 
most southerly point of Cilicia — Sarpedon, Lissan el Kapeh, near the 
Calycadnus — Zephyrium, which is perhaps close to the mouth of that 
river — and Corycus,"^ more to the E., celebrated for its beds of saffron, 
and for a cave ^ with a remark al^le spring. In Campestris two im- 



■2 Ctqiie solel pariter totis se effundere signis 
Corycii pressura croci, sic omnia membra 
Emisere simul rutilum pro sanguine virus. Luc. ix. 808. 
Hoc ubi confusum sectis inferbuit lierbis, 

Corycioque croco sparsum stetit. Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 67. 

3 Deseritur Taurique nemus, Perseaque Tarsos, 
Coryciumque patens exesis rupibus antrum, 
Mallos, et externge resonant navalibus .Egae. — Lrc. iii. 225. 
Tbv yr]yevy] re KtAtACt'cur ot/crjropa 
"Aj/rptov l^Lov cu/cretpa. B6,lov Tepa<; 
^EicaToyKa.pr}vov -pbs /3tav x^'-po^V-"'°'^ 
Tv(fion'a Oovpov, -acriv o? avTiarr] OeoU, 

^/xepSi^aicrt yafJi(f)r)kaLO-L ovpi^iMV ^ovov, .EscH. Prom. 3ol. 



Chap. Vlll. 



MOUXTAIX-PASSES. 



133 




134 



CILICIA. 



Book II 



portant bays penetrate inland, divided from each other by the pro- 
montory of Megarsus, Karadash : the western of the two is wide 
and open, and received no specific name; the eastern is the Sinus 
Issicus, Gr, of Iskanderun, v*^hich runs up in a N.E. direction for 47 
miles, with a general width of 25. The coast between the river 
Lamus and Prom. Megarsus is a low sandy beach : this is followed 
by a slightly elevated plain in the neighbourhood of ^^g^B, and this 
again by a shelving coast at the head of the bay. 

§ 20. The chief rivers are — the Calycadnus, Ghiuk-sii, which rises 
in the western part of Trachea, and pursues an easterly course 
through a wide and long valley to the sea near Prom. Sarpedon — 
the Cydnus, Tersoos Chaij which rises in Taurus near the Cilician 
Gates, and in a southerly course traverses the fertile plain of Tarsus 
to the sea ; its water, like that of the other streams which flow from 
Taurus, is cold, and nearly proved fatal to Alexander after bathing 
in it — the Sarus, Sihun, which in its lower course crosses the rich 
Aleian plain — and the Pyramus, Jyhun, which holds a parallel 
course more to the eastward : the two latter rivers have been already 
noticed in the introductory section (p. 87). 

§ 21. The Cilicians were an Aramaic race, and, according to Greek 
tradition, derived their name from Cilix, the son of Agenor, a Phoe- 
nician. They occupied the whole of the country until the days of 
Alexander the Great, when the Greeks, who had previously made 
some few settlements on the coast, gradually drove the Cilicians 
from the plains into the mountains, where they maintained them- 
selves in independence under the name of " Free Cilicians.'* The 
inhabitants of Trachea belonged to neither of these parties, but were 
connected with the Pisidians and Isaurians, whom they resembled 
in their freebooting habits. 

§ 22. The towns of Cilicia belonged to various historical eras. 
Tarsus was undoubtedly a Syrian town, and the other towns of 
Campestris had probably a similar origin, though no evidence can be 
adduced to that effect. Greek colonies were reputed to have settled 
at the most favourable points, as Tarsus, Soli, Mallus, ^gfe, and 
Celenderis. The Seleucida3 founded several new towns, as Seleucia 
on the Calycadnus, Antiochia ad Cragiim, and Arsinoe. Lastly, the 
Romans revived many of the old to^vns, and gave them Roman 
names, such as C^esarea, Pompeiopolis, Claudiopolis, and Trajano- 
pohs. Six cities are noticed as " free " under the Roman dominion, 
viz. Tarsus, Anazarbus, Seleucia (which formed the capitals of the 
three divisions of Cilicia in Constantine's arrangement), Corycus, 
Mopsuestia, and JEg^. "With regard to the position of the Cilician 
towns, those in Trachea are for the most part on the coast, which 
offered numerous strong and secure sites on the cliffs ; Seleucia on 
the Caljxadnus is the most marked exception. In Campestris, on 



Chap. VIII. 



TOWXS. 



135 




Coin of Celenderis. 



the Other hand, where the coast is low, they are on the rivers : 
Tarsus on the Cydnus, Adana on the Sarus, Mopsnestia and Ana- 
zarbus on the Py ramus. 

Commencing with the towns on the coast from W. to E. — Coracesium, 

Alaya, on the border of Pamphylia, was a place of remarkable natm-ai 
strength, and had a good harbour : it was the only town that held out 
against Antiochus, and it became the head-quarters of the pirates. 
Selinus ^ was equally strong in position, being placed on a cliff jutting 
out into the sea: Trajan died there, ad. 117, after which event the 
name was changed to Trajanopolis : remains still exist of a mausoleum, 
agora, theatre, &c., at the mouth of the Selenti. Celenderis is also 
described as a strong fortress on the coast, with a small but sheltered 
port, now called G ulnar : 
originally a Phoenician 
town, it received a Sa- 
mian colony : its coins 
were remarkably fine. 
Seleucia, on the west 
bank of the Calycadnus, 
a few miles from its 
mouth, was founded by 
Seleucus Kicator, and 
attained a speedy emi- 
nence, rivalling even 
Tarsus : it was much frequented on account of the annual celebration 
of the Olympia, and for an oracle of Juno : it was the bhth -place of the 
Peripatetic philosophers Athenseus and Xenarchus : the town still 
exists under the name of Selefkieli, and has remains of an ancient 
theatre, temples, and porticoes. Soli was a highly flomishing mari- 
time town in the western part of Campestris, founded by Ai'gives : it 
was destroyed by Tigranes, king of Armenia, but restored by Pompey, 
and thenceforth named Pompeiopolis : the philosopher Chrysippus 
and the poets Philemon and Ai^atus were born there: the town derives 
its chief notoriety, however, from the term ^'solecism,'" originally 
descriptive of the corrupt Greek spoken by the Solians : its remains 
at Mezetlu consist of a beautiful artificial harbour, an avenue of 200 
columns, of which 42 still stand, and numerous tombs. Tarsus, 
Tersoos, stood on both sides of the Cydnus, about 8 miles from its 
mouth, where a lagoon served as its port : its situation was most 
favourable, being central 
in regard to the means 
of communication in 
Cilicia, and surrounded 
by a fertile and beauti- 
ful plain : originally a 
Syrian town, it was early 
colonized by Greeks, and 
was in the days of Cyrus 
the Younger the capital 
of the country: it was 
visited by Alexander : 
in the civil wars it sided with Csesar, and was hence named Julio- 
polis: Antony received Cleopatra there, and Augustus constituted 

4 Quo portu mittitque rates recipitque Selinus. — Lrc. viii. 260, 




Coin of Tarsus. 



136 



CILICIA. 



Book II. 



it a '^libera civitas." It was a seat of philosophy, and produced 
many eminent men, particularly the Apostle St. Paul. Mallus 
was situated on an eminence near the mouth of the Pyramus, and 
was visited by Alexander: its port was named Megarsa. Mgdd stood 
on the N. coast of the Issicus Sinus at Kalassy : in Strabo's time it 
was but a small city, with a port, Issus stood near the head of the 
Issicus Sinus, and is memorable for the great battle fought here between 
Alexander and Darius, B.C. 333: the precise position of the to^^Tl ia 
uncertain, being by some fixed S. of the river Pinarus (9), but probably 
being to the N (See Map, p. 133). Epiphania was probably near the 
head of the bay ; Baise was Rt Bayas {S), on the eastern shore : Alexandria 
ad Issum and*^ Myriandnis were probably the same place, the latter 
being the earlier name ; they stood at or ne?iv Isl-enderun {i5). In the 
interior, Mopsucrene, on the southern slope of Mount Taums, was the 
place where the Emperor Constantius died, a.d. 361. Adana was 
situated on the military road from Tarsus to Issus, and on the W. 
side of the Sarus. Mopsuestia, Messis, was on the same high road, 
at the point where it crossed the Pj'ramus. Anazarbus, or Caesarea, was 
higher up the Pyramus, near a mountain of the same name: its site is 
now named Anawasy. 

History. — The early annals of Cilicia are lost to us : we know that 
it formed a part of the great Assyrian empire, and that, after the f?Jl 
of Nine V eh, its king Syennesis was sufficiently powerful to act as 
mediator between Croesus and the Medes. It remained independent 
until the rise of the Persian empire, and even under that it enjoyed 
its own princes. It was traversed and subdued by Alexander the 
Crreat, and after his death it fell to the Seleucidae. .As the power of 
the Syrian monarchy decayed, the Cilicians rose to independence, and 
carried on a nefarious system of piracy and- slave-hunting over the 
whole of the neighbouring coasts. War was prosecuted by the Roman 
generals, M. Antonius, B.C. 103, Sulla, 92, Dolabella, 80-79, P. Ser- 
vilius Isauricus, 78-75, and finally Pompey, 67, with a view to 
extirpate these pirates, and under Pompey the eastern part of the 
country was organized as a Roman province. The western district 
remained independent until the time of Vespasian. In the period after 
Constantine, Cilicia was divided into three parts. Prima, the southern 
portion of Campestris, Secunda, the northern portion, and Isauria 
embracing Trachea. 

St. Paul's Travels. — St. Paul ^dsited Cilicia very shortly after his 
conversion (Acts ix. 30), entering it probably by wayof Antioch (comp. 
Gal. i. 21): he went to Tarsus^ and is supposed to have founded the 
churches in Cilicia. In his second journey he visited these churches, 
entering again from Syi'ia, probably following the coast-road by Issus 
to Mopsuestia and Tarsus, and thence crossing Taurus by the Cilician 
Gates into Lycaonia (Acts xv. 41). 

§ 23. The important island of Cyprus lies midway between the 
coasts of Cilicia and Phoenicia, nearer to the former in point of 
actual distance, but more connected w^th the latter in regard to 
race, history, and the character of its civilization. The length of 
the island from W. to E. is about 150 miles : its greatest breadth 
about 40 : the principal or S.W. portion has the form of an irre- 
gular parallelogram, which terminates in a long narrow peninsula 
running in a IST.E. direction. The surface of the countiy is almost 



Chap. VIII. 



ISLAND OF CYPRUS. 



137 



entirely occupied by the elevated range of Mount Olympus, which 
descends on each si'lu in Ijr.ld and rugged masses, divided from each 
other by deep picturesque valleys. The island joroduced copper 
(a3.s Cypriuni), as well as gold and silver and precious stones. The 
lower tracts were eminently fertile, and are described as flowing 
v\-ith wine, oil, and honey, Avhile from the abundance of its flowers 
it received the epithet of evco-dris. The whole island was regarded 
a5 sacred to Venus.^ 

§ 24. The range of Olympus runs from AY. to E., and attains an 
elevation of 7000 feet. Xumerous promontories run out into the 
sea, of which the most important are Acamas, ffaghios Ejji/ Jc'-.rnws, 
ill the AY. ; Crommyon, Cormachifi, in tlie X. ; Dinaretum, St. A ndre, 
ill the E., with the small group of islands named Cleides, " the Keys," 
just off it ; Pedaliiim, TJeUa Grega, at the S.E., above which rose a 
hill named Idaliuin, with a temple sacred to Yenus f and Curias, 
iJelle Gatte, at the extreme S. The chief river is the Pediaeus, which 
has an easterly course, and waters the plain of Salamis ; the other 
numerous streams are unimportant. The chief plains were those of 
Salamis and Citium. 



§ 25. The oldest to^ms of Cyprus (Citium, Amatlius, and Paphos) 
were colonies from Phoenicia : the two former bear Phoenician names, 
while the latter was the chief sanctuary for the worship of the Phoe- 
nician Yenus. The Greek colonies hold the next rank in point of 
age, and a higher rank in point of importance : Salamis, on the S.E. 
shore, was the most flourishiag commercial city in the island; Soloe, 
on the northern coast, was well situated for the Cilician trade ; New 
Paphos became a frequented port, and at one time the seat of govem- 



5 AlSoL-qv xpvao(jri6(xvov K.akrjv 'A^dpodCr-qv 
*A<xo/xa6, r/ rracn]? Kvrrpov Kp-qtefxya Xekoyx^v 
Etva/Vi.'-/]?, 69i jjiiv ^edvpov p.evo? vypov aeVro? 
"Hi^et/cev Kara. Kvixa 7roAv<;!>A.otVjSot,o Qakdaa-q^, 
'A(/)pcu kv\ ixaXa<^' HoM. Hymn, in Ve)i. ii. 

O, quae beatam, Diva, tenes Cyprum. — Hor. Carm, iii. 26, 9. 
Yenus, regina Ciiidi Papliique, 

Sperne dilectani Cypron. Id. i. 30, 1. 



Tunc Cilicum liquere solum, Cyi^roque citatas 
Immisere rates, nullas cui pnietulit aras 
Unclee diva memor Paphiee, si numina nasci 
Credimus, aut quenquam fas est coepisse deorum. 



Luc. viii. 456. 




Theocr. Idyl. XT. 101. 



Hunc ego sopitum sonmo, super alta Cythera, 

Aut super Idalium, sacrata sede recondani. — Vikg. .En. i. 680. 

Qualis Idalium colens 
Venit ad Phrygiuni Venus 

Judicem. Catull. Ixi. 17. 



CYPEUS. 



Book II. 



ment. Tlie Egyptian monarchs added some towns, to three of which, 
they gave the name of Arsinoe. Little is known of the history of 
the towns of Cyprus : they owe their chief celebrity to the worship 
of Venus. We shall describe them from W. to E. aloDg the northern 
shore, and from E. to W. along the southern. 

Arsinoe stood on the N. coast, near the western promontory Acainas; 
it was destroyed by Ptolemy Soter. Soli or Soloe was the most im- 
portant port on the northern coast, and had valuable mines in its 
neighbourhood; it was said to be an Athenian settlement. Salamis 
stood at the mouth of the Pediseus on the E. coast ; it was an im- 
portant town in the 6th century B.C., and imder an independent 
dynast}^: a famous sea-fight took place off its harbour between 
Menelaus and Demetrius Poliorcetes, B.C. 306 ; it was partially 
destroyed in Trajan's reign and wholly by a subsequent earthquake ; 
it was rebuilt by a Christian emperor, with the name of Constantia. 
On the S. coast the principal town was Citium, the remains of which 
are still visible near Larnika, consisting of a theatre, tombs, and the 
foundations of the walls : the death of Cimon the Athenian, B.C. 449, 
and the birth of the philosopher Zeno, are the chief events of interest 
•connected with it. Amathus stood more to the W., and was celebrated 
for the worship of Venus, ^ Adonis, and the Phoenician Hercules or 
Melkart, as well as for its wheat and mineral^ productions. Paphos 
was the name of two towns on the S.W. coast: the older one, named 
Palaepaphus by geographers, but simply Paphos by the poets, stood on 
a hill ^ about 1^ miles from the sea, on which it had a roadstead : it 
was the most celebrated seat of the worship of Venus, ^ whose fane 
there is mentioned even by Homer. The foundations of the later 
temple erected by Vespasian are still discernible, and its form is 
delineated on the coins of some of the Roman emperors. New Paphos, 
Ba fa, was on the coast, about 7 J miles N.W. of the old town, and 
took a prominent part in the reverence paid to the goddess Venus : 
it was the residence of the Roman governor in St. Paul's time ; the 
harbour is now almost blocked up. Of the less important towns we 
may notice— Lapetliiis, on the northern coast — Golgi, w^hose position is 
unknown, also famous for the worship of Venus- — Marium, between 

7 Est Amatliiis, est celsa mihi Paphos, atque Cythera, 

Idaliaeque clomus. Yjrg. JEn. x. 51. 

Culte puer, puerique parens Amatliusia culti ; 

Aurea de campo vellite signa meo. — Ov. Amor. iii. 15, 15. 

^ Fecundam Amathunta metalli. Ov. Jfe^. x. 220. 

9 Ceha Paphos. Tirg. ^En. x. 51, 

1 'H 5' apa KvTrpoP' i/care (^lAojajaeiSrj? 'A(f)po8LTri, 
'Es Ild(j)OV' ev9a 6e ot re/xet'O? jSto/ao? re ^vryet?. 

HoM. Od. viii. 362. 
Ipsa Paphum sublimis adit, sedesque revisit 
Laeta suas : ubi templum illi, centumque Sabaeo 
Thure calent arae, sertisque recentibus halant. — Yirg. ^ti. i. 415. 
Quae Cnidon 
Fulgentesque tenet Cycladas, et Paphon 
Junctis visit oloribus. Hor. Carm. iii. 28, 13. 

2 Nunc, o cseruleo creata ponto, 

Quae sanctum Idalium, Syrosque apertos, 
Quaeque Ancona, Cnidumque arundinosam 

Colis, quaeque Amathunta, quaeque Golgos. — Catull. xxxvi. 11. 



CiiAP. A^Ili. 



HISTORY OF CYPEUS. 



139 



Amathus and Citiiim — and Tamassus, on the northern slope of 
Olympus, supposed to be identical with Homer's Temesa.^ 

History. — Cyprus appears to have been subject to tlie Syinans as 
early as the time of Solomon. Under Amasis it became attached to 
the Egyptian kingdom. On the invasion of Egypt by Cambyses it 
surrendered to the Persians. It took part in the Ionian revolt, Vjut 
was subdued by Darius. After the battle of Salamis the Athenians 
reduced the greater part of it. The brilliant period of its history 
belongs to the times of Evagoras, king of Salamis. It again fell under 
the Persians until Alexander's time. In the division of the Macedonian 
empire, it was assigned to the Egyptian Ptolemy, and it remained the 
most valuable appendage of the Egyptian kingdom until it was annexed 
to the Roman empire in B.C. 58. 

St, Paul's Travels. — Cyprus was visited by the Apostle in his first 
missionary tour. He crossed the sea from Seleucia in Syria to Salamis, 
and then probably followed the Roman road to Paphos, whence he set 
sail for Pamphylia (Acts xiii. 4-13). In his voyage to Rome he " sailed 
under Cyprus," i. e, kept under the X. coast of the island (Acts 
xxvii. 4). 



3 Nuv 6' SiSe ^vv vrjt Ka-njkvOov r/S' erapoKTL, 

HKi(^iv cttI olVoTra ttovtov e~' a\ko9p6ov<; ai^SpojTrov? ; 
'Es TcjaecTTjv fJ-era. ;^aAKdt', ayoj d' alOoiva. aCSrjpov. 

HoM. Od. i. 182. 
Est ager, indigenae Tamaseum nomine dicunt ; 
Telluris Cypriae pars optima : qiiem mihi prisci 
Sacravere senes, templisque accedere dotem 
Hanc jussere meis. Ox. Met. x. 644. 




Copper Coin of Cyprus under the Emperor Claudius. 



Mount Argfeus, Cappadocia (From Texier). 



CHAP TEE IX. 

Asia Mixoe, continued, 

VII. Cappadocia. § 1. Boundaries. § 2. Natural features. § 3. 
Inhabitants; divisions. § 4. Towns; history. VIII. Lycaonia 
and IsAURiA. § 5. Boundaries : natural features. § 6. Inhabitants; 
towns ; history, IX. Pisidia. § 7. Boundaries ; natural features. 
§ 8. Inhabitants ; towns ; histor\'. X. Phrygia. § 9. Boundaries. 
§ 10. Xatural features. § 11. Inhabitants ; divisions. § 12. 
Towns ; history. XI. Galatia. § 13. Boundaries ; natural 
features. § 1-1-. Inhabitants. § 15. Towns ; history. XII. Bithy- 
NiA= § 16. Boundaries, &c. § 17. Mountains ; promontories. 
§ 18. Rivers. § 19. Inhabitant?: towns; history. XIII. Paph- 
LAGONIA. § 20. Boundaries. § 21. Xatural features. § 22. In- 
habitants ; towns ; history. XIV. Pontus. § 23. Boundaries. 
§ 24. Xatural features. § 25. Inhabitants ; towns ; history. 

VII. Cappadocia. 

§ 1. Cappadocia was an extensive province in the eastern part of 
Asia Minor, bounded on the E. by the Euphrates, on the S. by 
Tam'us, on the W. by Lycaonia, and on the X. by Galatia and 
Pontus, from the latter of which it was separated by the upper part 



Chap. IX. 



CAPPADOCIA. 



141 



of the range of Antitaurus. These limits include the district named 
Armenia Minor, but exclude the extensive province of Pontus, which 
form.ed a portion of Cappadocia in the time of Herodotus (p. 36). 
The northern part of the province is moimtainous ; the central and 
southern parts consist of extensive plains lying at a high elevation, 
bare of wood, in some places fertile in wheat and wine, and else- 
where affording fine pastures for cattle and horses. Among the 
mineral products we ma}^ notice a species of crystal, onyxes, a white 
stone used for sword-handles, and a translucent stone adapted for 
windows. There are extensive salt-beds near the Halys. 

§ 2. The chief mountain-range is Antitaurus, which intersects the 
country in a north-easterly direction, and attains its highest eleva- 
tion in the outlying peak of Argaeus (p. 86). The chief river is the 
Halys (p. 87), Avhose middle course falls within the limits of this 
province, and which receives the tributary streams of the Melas, 
Kara-su, flowing by the roots of Argteus ; and of the Cappadox, sup- 
posed to be the small river of Kir-SJiehr, on the border of Galatia, 
The Carmalas in Cataonia is a tributary of the Cilician Pyramus, 
while a second Melas, Koramas, in the eastern ^^art of the province, 
seeks the Euphrates. The great salt lake of Tatta falls partly within 
the limits of Cappadocia. 

§ 3. The inhabitants of this district were regarded by the Greeks 
as a Syrian race, and were distinctively named " White Syrians." 
The name "Cappadox" is probably of Persian origin; and some 
ethnologists regard the Cappadocians as an Arian and not a Semitic 
race. The Cataonians were deemed a distinct people. The political 
divisions varied at different eras : the eastern district, between Anti- 
taurus and the Euphrates, was divided into three parts — Armenia 
Minor, Melitene, and Cataonia ; the western was divided into six 
portions in the time of the native dynasty. Under the Romans 
Cataonia was subdivided into four, and Armenia Minor into five 
districts, the names of which need not be specified. The emperor 
Yalens (about a.d. 371) divided Cappadocia into two provinces named 
Prima and Sectmda, to Avliich Justinian subsequently added Tertia. 

§ 4. 'Jlie towns of Cappadocia offer few toj^ics of interest in con- 
nexion with classical literature. The country was so shut out from 
the great paths of communication that the Greeks were wholly 
unacquainted with it ; and it Avas only in the century preceding the 
Christian era that the Romans had occiision to cross its boundaries. 
The infonnation which we have respecting its towns belongs almost 
wholly to the period of the Roman empire, when the provincial orga- 
nization was introduced. AVe may assume that in most instances 
the sites of the towns which the Romans built had been previously * 
occupied by the Cappadocians, as we know to have been the case in 
some instances, where the change of name indicates the change of 



142 



CAPPADOCIA. 



Book II. 



masters. Tlius the old capital, Mazaca, in the valley of the Halvs, 
became C^esarea ; Mocissus, Justmiauopolis ; and Halala, Faustino- 
polis. The chief towns were Cassarea in the N., Tyana in the S., 
and Melitene in the E. The latter was situated on the great mili- 
tary road which led from Asia Minor to Armenia and Mesopotamia. 
Many of the towns were of importance as military positions : this 
was particularly the case with Melitene, which commanded the 
passage of the Euphrates ; Ciaca and Dascusa, which were on the 
same river ; and Satala, which was the key of Pontus. All these 
were stations of Eoman legions. 

Commencing in the western part of Cappadocia Proper, we meet first 
with Mocissus, on the borders of Galatia, which was enlarged by the 
emperor Justinian, and made the capital of Cappadocia Tertia, with the 
name Justinianopolifi. Masaca was situated at the foot of Mount 
ArgEeus, and was the residence of the old Cappadocian kings : it was 
taken by Tigranes, and again by Sapor in the reign of Valerian. The 
emperor Tiberius enlarged it, constituted it the capital of the province, 
and changed its name to Caesarea. The to\vii is still important, and 
retains its ancient name in the form Kaisariyeh. Archelais was situ- 
ated on the borders of Lycaonia, probably on the site of the o':der 
Garsaura ; and owed its name to its founder, Archelaus, the last king. 
It was made a Roman colony by the emperor Claudius. The chief town 
of the southern district was Tyana, N. of the Cilician Gates, and thus, 
from its position in reference to that pass, as well as from its natural 
strength, a place of great importance. It became a Roman colony under 
Caracalla : afterwards, having been incorporated with the empire of 
Palmyra, it was conquered by Aurelian, a.d. 272, and was raised by 
Valens to the position of capital of Cappadocia Secunda, The famous 
impostor Apollonius was born there. There are considerable ruins of 
the town at Kiz-ldssar, particularly an aqueduct of granite about 8 miles 
long. Cybistra, S.^Y. of Tyana, was once ^dsited by Cicero when he 
was proconsul of Cilicia. Nora, on the borders of Lycaonia, was a 
strong fortress in which Eumenes was besieged by Antigonus for a 
whole 'v^inter. Faustinopolis, S. of Tyana, derived its name from 
Faustina, the wife of the emperor M. Aurelius, who died there, and 
was deified, a temple being built to her honour. In Cataonia, the chief 
town was Comana Aurea, at the eastern base of Autitaums, famed for 
the worship of Enyo, which was traced back to Orestes : it was made a 
colony by Cara^calla : a considerable town, Al-Bostan, occupies its site. 
Melitene was the most important town in the district of the same name : 
it stood not far from the junction of the Melas with the Euphrates, at 
Malatiyeli : it owed its first rise to Trajan: it was afterwards embel- 
lished by the emperors Anastasius and Justinian, and it became the 
capital of Armenia Secunda : it was the station of the famous Christian 
Legio XII. Fulminata : the Romans defeated Chosroes I. near it, a.d. 
577. In Armenia Minor, in addition to the border-fortresses of Ciaca, 
Dascusa, and Satala, already noticed, Nicopolis must be mentioned, as 
founded on the spot where Pompey conquered Mithridates : its site is 
probably at Derrihi. The fortress of Sinoria; built by Mithridates, was 
somewhere on the frontier between Armenia Major and Minor. Though 
Cappadocia only receives passing notices in the Bible (Acts ii. 9 ; 1 Pet. 
i. 1), it is famous in ecclesiastical history from its having given birth 



Chap. IX. 



LYCAOXTA AND ISAURIA. 



143^ 



to Gregory of Nazianzus, in the western part of the province, of which 
place he afterwards became bishop, and to Basi], who became bishop of 
his native town Csesarea. Nysa, in the IST.W., was equally famous as 
the see of Gregory. 

History. — Cappadocia formed a portion of the Assyrian, Median, and 
Persian empires. Under the latter it was governed by satraps, who 
had the title of kings. After the death of Alexander it was annexed to 
the Syrian empire, but still retained a native d^niasty, in which the 
names of Ariarathes and Ariamnes alone occur, until about B.C. 93, 
when the royal family became extinct. A nev/ dynasty, in which the 
name of Ariobarzanes is most frequent, was then seated on the throne 
under the patronage of the Romans : this terminated with Archelaus, 
A.D. 17, at whose death Cappadocia was made a Roman province. 

Armenia Minor is first noticed as a separate district after the defeat 
of Antiochus by the Romans. It was then under its own kings, who 
extended their sway at one time over Pontus. The last of them sur- 
rendered to Mithridates; and it afterwards passed into the power of 
the Romans, who transferred it from one king to another, and finally 
united it to Cappadocia in the reign of Trajan. 

YIII. Lycaokia and Tsauria. 

§ 5. Lycaonia was bounded on the E. by Cappadocia, on the S. by 
Cilicia, on the W. by Plirygia and Pisidia, and on the X. by Galatia. 
Its limits, in reference to the adjacent provinces, were very fluctu- 
ating, particularly under the Romans, who handed over portions of 
Lycaonia sometimes to one, sometimes to another sovereign, and in- 
corporated a large portion of it at one time with Galatia, at another 
with Cappadocia. Isauria was regarded sometimes as a separate dis- 
trict, sometimes as belonging to Lycaonia : it was the mountainous 
district on the S.AV. border of the latter country, adjacent to Pi- 
sidia. Lycaonia is generally a level country, high, and bleak, badly 
watered, but well adapted for sheep-feeding. The central plain 
about Iconium is the largest in Asia Minor. The soil is strongly 
impregnated wdth salt. Lofty mountains rise both in the northern 
and southern districts, none of which, however, received specific 
names in ancient times. The lakes of Tatta on the. border of Cappa- 
docia, Coralis and Trogitis in Isauria, are the only physical objects 
worthy of notice. 

§ 6. The Lycaonians were undoubtedly an aboriginal population, 
and the tradition w^hich connected them with the Arcadian Lycaon 
is void of all foundation. They were a hardy and warlike race, 
living by plunder and war. The Isaurians had a similar character, 
but appear to have been rather connected with the Pisidians in point 
of race. The towns were both few and small : Derbe was the early, 
and Iconium the later capital of Lycaonia, as Isaura was of Isauria : 
Laodicea owed its existence to Seleucus I. 

leomuni was situated in the midst of an extensive plain in the western 
part of the province . Xenophon assigns it to Phrygia : Strabo describes 



144 



PISIDIA. 



Book II. 



it as a small place, but it soon rose to importance, and both Pliny and 
the Acts of the Apostles represent it as very populous : it became the 
metropolis under the Byzantine emperors, and is still a large place 
under the name of Koriiyeh. Laodicea lay to the X.W. of Iccnium, 
and received the surname of Combusta, probably from having been 
burnt down : numerous remains at LadiJ:, consisting of altars, columns, 
capitals, kc. show that it was a fine and large town. Derbe was a foiti- 
fied town in the S. of the province, probably at or near Divle. and not 
far from the base of Taurus : it was the residence of the robber Anti- 
pater, and subsequently of Amyntas. Lystra was near Derbe, but its 
position is Cjuite undecided: i: maybe slI Bin-bir-Kilisseli. on the X, 
of the mountain called Karadagh, where there are extensive ruins of 
churches. Laranda, in the S.W., is known only for its destruction by 
Perdiccas, and as a subsequent resort of the Isaurian robbers. Isaura 
was a laree t'lwn at the foot of Tam^us, which was twice rumed, 
firstly by Perdiccas, and afterwards by Ser villus, when it was rebuilt 
by Amynta.? of Galatia : the new town became the residence of the rival 
emperor Trebellianus. 

Eistonj. — The Lycaonians never submitted to the Persians, but 
they yielded to Alexander the Great, and passed successively to the 
Seleucidte, Eumenes of Pergamus, and the Romans : the only period 
when they became at all powerful was under the rule of Amyntas, just 
before their annexation to Cappadocia. The Isaurians offered a pro- 
longed resistance to the Romans, to whom their marauding habits 
made them particularly obnoxious. SerAdlius (b.c. 7S) attacked them 
with success ; and subsec|uently the Romans found it necessary to sur- 
rounrl them with a cordon of forts, but they repeatedly broke out, and 
remained the terror of the surrounding countries down to a late period. 

St. Paul's Trai'eU. — Lycaonia was visited by St. Paul in his first and 
second missionary tours. In the former he entered it from Pisidia, 
and first visited Iconium, then much frequented by Jews ; and after- 
wards Lystra and Derbe, whence he retraced his footsteps to Pisidia 
(Acts xiv 1-21). On the second occa.^ion he entered it on the side of 
Cilicia, and passed through Derbe and Lystra to Iconium, and thence 
continued his course probably to Antioch in Pisidia 'xvi. 1-5 ,. On the 
latter occasion he took away with liim Timothy, whose birth -place was 
probably Lystra, though it may have been Derbe. 

IX. Pisidia. 

§ 7. Pisidia bordered in the E. on Isaiiria and Cilicia, in the S. 
on Pamphylia, in the W. on Lycia, Caria, and Phrygia, and in the 
X". on Phrygia. The limits vrith regard to these provinces were 
fluctuating, particularly the northern portion, which was sometimes 
attached to Phrygia, with the title of Phrygia Pisidica. The country 
is rough and mountainous, but contains several fertile valleys and 
plains. The mountain-ranges of Pisidia emanate from Mount Taurus, 
and generally rim from X. to S. : the only one to which a specific 
name was assigned was Sardemisus in the S.W. The upper courses 
of the Catarrhactes, Cestnis, and Eurymedon, fall within the limits of 
Pisidia, and flow through the heart of the Taurian range into the 
Pamphylian plain. These rivers are fed by numerous mountain 



Chap. IX. 



IXKABITAXTS — TOWNS. 



145 



torrents, wliicli after rain rush dvwa the ravines with extraordinary 
violence. The districts cf Milyas and Cabalia, which we have ah'eady 

noticed in C'jnnexiun Avitli Lycia, extended over the south-western 
jjortions of Pisidia. 

§ 8. The Pisidians were a branch of the great Phrygian stock, 
intermixed with Cihcians and Isaurians, tliO letter of whom they 
resembled in their iawkss and marauduig halits of Hfe. The towns 
were situated either <jn or amid inaccessil>Ie clifls, and were so many 
natural lortres^e- : >uch was the pn-iti^-n of Termessus, Avhich 
alarmed even the skilled warriors of Alexaii«;ler"s host : L'f >elge and 
Sazalassus, which playerl a C';aisydcuj:ai>^ part in the Keaiiiai v\-ar.s with 
Antioclius the Great ; and of Cremna. as its name (" the precipice") 
implies. Antioch, which in accordance with Scripttiral nC'tices 
(Acts xiii. 14) we shall regard as a Pisidian t'jwn, tliough assigned 
by Strabo to Phrygia Parorios, Avas sititatel in the northern j^dain, 
and was a Greek rather than a ipure Pisidian t-jwn, having been 
founded i:'V Seleuciis Xicator. jLjst c^f tliese t'jwns survived to a 
late period, as the character of their remains proves. Antioch and 
Cremna became Poman C'jLjuies. _ 

Antioch was situated on the S. side of a mountain range on the 
border of Phrygia; origuially it belonged to Syria, but after the battle 
of Magnesia, e.g. 19ij, it \vas annexed to Pergarnus : it afterwards be- 
came the capital of the Roman province : Its remains at Yaloho.tch are 
numer'i'us, consisting of a temple of Di-jnysu^, a theatre, and a chmx-h. 
Seleucia, surnamed Sidera, pr-bably from ir-iivrr.rks in its vicinity, 
stood SAV. of Antioch, at Ejtrdir : it was perhaps f :amded by Seleucu? 
Xicat.u\ Sagalassus, in the X.W.. was situated on a terrace on the 
side of a lofty moinitain, witli a fertile plain stretching away below 
it : Alexander took it by assault ; Manhiis reduced it by ravaging 
the plain- the ruins at Arilasoun are very hue, C'^nsisting of a theatre, 
a portico, &c., with innnmeiable tombs hevoi out of the perpendi- 
cular face of the cliff. Cremna. S.E. of SHgalassus, occupied the sum- 
mit of a mountain, tliree sides ijf which were terrific i^recipices : it 
Avas taken by the Galatian king Amyntas . there are remains of a 
theatre, temples, Sec. at Gc-r/.ie. Selge was situated near the Eury- 
medoD, in the S. of the province, -n a lofty projection surroun-.led 
by precipices and defiles: it was s:> populous a place that its sfiuiers 
jiiunbered -J'j.' . n ^y^s besiejt-d and taken by Acha^us ; the supposed 
ruin- 01 Sci_'e. near Boujal-:. are magnificent, and extend for more than 
b miles : about 5" teniples, with innumerable tombs and other build- 
ings, have been noticed. Termessus was situated on a precij^itous 
heiglit near the Catarrhactes, at Karal'i^ i.<rr Kyii^ . and commanded the 
ordinary road between Lycia and Pc... Cibyi'a was the chief 

towu in Cabalia. and the liead of a c- u i:.-. of which Bubon, Bab- 
bura, and CEnr.anda were the C'ther confederates: it stood on a tri- 
butary of the Cnlbis, and overh:.L,ked a wide and feii:ile plain : it was 
visited by Manliiis, and became subsequently a place of great trade, 
particularly in wood amd iron:' the ruins at Horzoom consist of a 
theatre and some temples. The exact positions of Cretopolis and of 



1 Ne Cibrratica, ne Bithyna iiegotia perdas. — Hor. £p. i. 6, 33. 
A^C. GEOG. H 



PHEYGTA. 



Book II. 



Isionda are unknown : they were somewhere in the S.AV._, on the bor- 
ders of Paniphylia. 

JJistoi-'/. — The Pisidians resisted all attempts at permanent subjection. 
Even the Romans failed: for though they conquered the inhabitant:^, 
and handed over theproyiuce to Eumenes of Pergamus, and afterwards 
adjoined it to their province of Pamphylia, yet they never really re- 
pressed its lawless inhabitants, nor did they ever introduce a provincial 
or2'aniz:ition. 

'St. F'AuTs Travels— ^t. Paul visited Pisidia in his first journey, 
crossin^^ Taurus from Pamphylia to Antioch, where the Jews appear to 
have been numerous, and returning by the same route after' having 
visited Lycaonia Acts xih. 14: xiv. 21 : he probably visited Antioch 
again in his second journey, though the place is not specified (xvi. -j-^.. 




Hierapolis in Phrygia (Laborde). 



X. Pheygia. 

§ 9. The important province of Fhrygia, or^ as it was more fully 
termed, P. Major, to distin2;nish it from P. Minor in Mysia, bordered 
in the E. on Galatia and Lycaonia, in the S. on Pisidia, in the 
AV. on Caria, Lydia. and ]\rysia, and in the X. on Galatia. Its 

Ijonndaries cannot be fixed wntli any degree of precision, as they 
varied at different historical eras : it may be described generally as 
the western parr of the central plateau, and as coextensive with the 
limits of the plateau itself. Tlie country is mountainous and well 



Chap. IX. 



XATUKAL FEATURES. 



147 



wiitered : some portions, particularly the valleys of the Hernius aiir] 
j\Leander, were very fertile and produced the vine :^ the other parts 
were adapted to sheep-feeding. The chief productions were wool, which 
was of a very superior quality, and marble, especially the species found 
near Synnada. The western district was much exposed to earthquakes : 
and the presence of volcanic ai^ency is attested by hot springs. 

§ 10. The mountains of Phrygia consist of irregular offsets from 
the border ranges of Olympus in the X., Taurus in the S., and 
Cadmus in the S.W. Tlie only name applied specifically to any (>{' 
the Phrygian bills is Dindynium, wbicb ap]^)ears to have been equally 
given to a hill about the sources of tlie Hermus, and to a second near 
Pessinus.^ Phrygia contains tbe upper courses of the Hermus and 
Mseander, which seek the ^g£ean, and the Sangarius, wliicli flows 
northward to the Euxine : tlie Thymbres and Alauder, tributaries of 
the latter, belong wholly to Phrygia, as also do the Marsyas and the 
Lycus, tributaries of the Marauder : the ]\Iarsyas joined the Marauder 
almost immediately after its rise :^ it was connected in mythology 
^with the victory of Apollo over Marsyas.^' Several large salt lakes 
occur in the southern part of the province, of which Anana has been 
identified with Chcirdak, and Ascania with Biddiir to the S.E., 
tliough not improbably it may be only another name for Anana. 

§ 11. The inhabitants of this province came of the same stock as 
the Thracian tribes, and were in early times the masters of the 
Avhole western part of Asia Minor. The affinities that existed be- 
tween them and the surrounding nations have been already pointed 
out (p. 89). They were deprived of portions of their territory by 
the advance of the Semitic races in the S. and W., of the CajDpa- 
docians in the E., and finally of the Galatians in the X. From 
being; a warlike race, they became, after the conquest of their 
country by Persia, purely agricultural, and were regarded with con- 

2 HSrj fcal ^pvyiriv elcrqkvOov a.^JT^\.6e(T(Tav. HoM. II. iii. 184. 
3 The latter of the two -svas the mountain known to the poets as being sacred 
to Cybele, who is hence called Dindymene : — 

vere Phrygife, neque enim Phryges I ite per alta 
Dindyma, ubi assuetis biforem dat tibia cantum. 

YiRG. ^n. ix. 617. 

Non Dind^^nene, non adytis quatit 
Mentem sacerdotum incola Pythius, 

Non Liber aeque. Hor. Carm, i. 16, 5. 

Agite, ite ad alta, Gallae, Cybeles nemora simul ; 
Simul ite, Dindymenee dominae vaga pecora. 

Catull. Ixiii. 12. 

* Icarium peiagus Mycalseaqiie littora jimcti 

Marsya Mieanderque petunt : sed Marsya vclox, 
Dum snus est, flexuque carens, jam flumine mixtus, 
Mollitur, Maeandre, tuo. Claidiax. in Eutrop. ii. 265. 

5 Quiqiie colunt Pitanen, et quee tiia munera, Pallas, 

Lugent damnatee Phoebo victore Cel-cente. Luc. iii. 205. 

H 2 



148 



PHRYGIA. 



Book 11. 



tempt, the PlirYgian names of ISIidas and Manes being given to 
slaves. Phrygia was divided into four portions — Salutaris, the 
central and largest ; Pacatiana, on the borders of Caria ; Epictetus 
(?'. e. acquired") in the X. ; and Parorios, the mountainous region 
in the S. Epictetus was so named as having been transferred from 
the Bithynian to the Pergamenian kings about B.C. 190 : the two first 
designations did not come into vogue until the 4th century a.d. 

§ 12. The foundation of many of the Phrygian to^Tis was car- 
ried back to the mythical ages : such was the case with Celania?, 
Hierapolis, and Metropolis. CehTu^e appears to have ranked as the 
capital in the time of Cyrus the Younger, and ColossfiB was then an 
important place. These to^vns waned with the rise of those founded 
by the Syrian monarchs, viz. Apamea and Laodicea. Many of 
the Phrygian towns were places of extensive trade under the Eomans, 
particularly the two just mentioned. Some important roads passed 
through Phrygia : the great lines of commimication between Ephesus 
and the East centred at Synnada, whence roads led to Cilicia, to 
C^esarea in Cappadocia, and thence to Armenia, and again northwards 
to Dorylanmi and Bithynia. 

Commencing in the N.E. of the province, Dorylaeum, Esld-Shelir, 
was centrally situated on a small stream which flows into the Thym- 
bres, with hot baths in the neighbourhood ; Lysimachus made an in- 
trenched camp there. Synnada stood on a plain in the centre of the 
province, and was particular!}' famous for its marble, which was 
streaked with purple veins :^ ruins of the town exist at Eski-Kara-IIissar. 
Ipsus lay S.E. of Synnada, and is only famous for the great battle 
fought there in B.C. 301, between Antigonus and Demetrius on the one 
side, and Cassander, Lysimaclms, Ptolemy, and Seleucus on the other. 
Philomelium was on the high road between Synnada and Iconium, not 
far from the Pisidian Antioch : its ruins are at Ak-Shehr. Celaenae was 
situated at the source of the Meeander, with an acropolis on a hill to 
the X.E. : Cyrus the Younger had a palace and park there, and the 
sources of the M?eander are said to have been in the palace : the 
Catarrhactes, which Xenophon describes as rising in the agora, was the 
same as the Marsyas : the inhabitants, and probably the materials, of 
Celsense, were removed to the neighbouring Apamea, and the place dis- 
appeared. Apamea, surnamed Cibotus, was founded by Antiochus 
Soter, and named after his mother Apama : it stood a little lower down 
the ]\Ia}ander at Denair, where are the ruins of a theatre and other 
buildings; the name Cibotus" (from /fijScDTos, a coffer ") may have 
referred to its wealth as a commercial emporium, for which its posi- 
tion on the great high road adapted it : it was much damaged by earth- 
quakes, particularly in the reign of Claudius, but it continued a flou- 
rishing place to a late period. Colossae, on the Lycus, was an important 



6 Sola nitet flavis Nomadum decisa metallis 

Purpura, sola earo Phrygiae quam SjTinados antro 

Ipse cruentavit maculis lucentibus Attys. — Stat. SUv. i. 5, 36. 

Prctiosaque picto 
Marmorc, purpureis cedit cui Synnada venis. 

Clavd. in Eutr. 11. 272. 



Chap. IX. 



TOWNS. 



149 



place at the time when Xerxes visited it in B.C. 481, and Cyrus in 
B.C. 401; but it fell as the neighbouring city of Laudicea rose, and 
was but a small place in Strabo's time; it was finally su])planted by 
a town called Chonse, about 3 miles to the S., which still exists as 
Chonos: at Colossae the Lycus is said by Herodotus to have disappeared 
in a chasm for about half a mile : a gorge still exists, which is probably 
the chasm referred to, the upper surface having fallen in -J Colossee was 
one of the early Churches of Asia, to which St. Paul wrote an Epistle. 
Laodicea, lower down the Lycus, was so named after Laodice, the wife 
of Antiochus Theos, its reputed founder : it suffered severely in the 
^lithridatic war, but soon revived, and became one of the greatest com- 
mercial towns of Asia ]\[iuor, especially as a mart for wool : it was also 
the seat of one of the Seven Chm^ches, to which St. Paul addressed an 
Epistle (Col. iv. 16) : it was then a very wealthy town, and continued to 
flourish down to the middle ages : the ruins of it at Eski-Hissar consist 
of a stadium, gymnasium, theatres, and aqueduct, erected for the most 
part during the Roman period. Hierapolis was 5 miles X. of Laodicea 
on the road to Sardis ; it was famous for its hot springs, and for a cave 
whence issued mephitic vapours : a Christian Church was planted there 
(Col, iv. 13), and at a later period it claimed to be the metropolis- of 
Phrygia : it was the birthplace of Epictetus : extensive ruins of it exist 
at Pantbiih-mlessi. 




Azani (Texier's ' Asia :\Lmeure J. 

Amono; the less important towns we may briefly notice— Midaiuni, 
m the X.E., on the road between Dorylseum and Pessmus, where 
Sextus Pompems was captured by the generals of M. Antony— Metro- 
poUs, N. of Synnada, at Fismesli Kalasi, the capital of the ancient kmgs 



' Sic ulii terreno Lycus est epotus hiatii, 
Kxsistit procul hinc, alioque renascitur ore. — Ov. Met. xv. 27 3. 



150 



GALATIA. 



Book II. 



of Phrygia^ and the place where Midas was buried — Peltae, near t];e 
source of the M(?eander. but of uncertain position^ visiled by Cyrus the 
Younger — Ceramon Agora, on the borders of Mysia, probably at Ushah — 
Cay stri Campus, a place noticed by Xenophon on Cyrus's route, not coii- 
uected with the well-known river Cayster, but on the E. border of 
Phrygia. near the lake ne.med EJ)er GhieuJ — Eumenia, XAV. of Apamea, 
so named by Attains II. after his brother Eumenes — Blaundus, pro- 
b:ibly the ancient name of a town the ruins of which are seen at 
Siderinanll, consisting of an acropolis, theatre, gateway, and a beautiful 
temple — Ancyra, a small town in the X.W. angle, near the lake of 
Simaitl, near which also stood Synaus — and Azani, a place on the 
Pthyndacus, historically unknown, but from its remains evidently an 
important place : a beautiful Ionic temple, theatre, and other buildings 
at Tciiavdour-Hissar, mark its site. 

History. — Phrygia was the seat of a very ancient dynasty, in which 
the names of Gordius and .Midas are prominent. This was terminated 
in B.C. 5(30 by Croesus, who incoi'porated Phrygia with his kingdom. 
Thenceforward its history is merged in that of the surrounding coun- 
tries, as it never afterwards attained an independent position. The 
Romans indeed declared it a free country after the death of Mithri- 
(lates v., in B.C. 120, but soon afterwards they divided it into juris- 
dictiones, and in B.C. 88 they assigned the districts of Laodicea, 
Apamea, and Synnada, to Cilicia, from vrhich they were at length 
permanently transferred to the province of Asia in B.C. 49. In the 
new divi>ion of the empire in the 4th century a.d., Parorios was added 
to Phryo:ia, and a district on the Mceander to Caria : the rest was 
divided into Salutaris and Pacatiana. 

St. PauVs Travels. — St. Paul visited Phrygia in his second journey 
as he passed from Lycaonia into Galatia (Acts xvi. 6) : the route he 
followed is purely conjectural, as no particulars are given in reference 
to it : he probably followed the course of the Roman road which 
diverp^ed from Synnada to Cilicia, and passed through the towns of 
Laodicea in Pisidia and Pliilomelium, whence perhaps he diverged to 
Antioch, and struck into the high road again near Synnada : thence he 
took the high road to Ancyra in Galatia. On his return from Galatia 
he probably traversed the northern district by Cotyseum and Azani to 
3Iysia. In his third journey he again visited Phrygia (Acts xviii. 23); 
on this occasion he passed out of the province to Ephesus, probably by 
the valley of the Hermus. 

XI. Galatia. 

§ 13. Galatia, or Gallo-Graecia, bordered in the W. on Phrygia, in 
the X. on Bitliynia and Paphla2;onia, in the E. on Pontus, and in 
the S. on Lycaonia find Cappadocia. The northern portion of the 
jivovincj is rough and mountainous : the southern is also uneven, 
bur has extensive and fertile plains, adapted for sheep-feeding. 
The eastern district was regarded in ancient times as the most 
fertile, The chief mountain ranges of Galatia are Olympus in the 
X. and Dindymus in the W., both of which have been preA'iously 
noticed. A range named Magaba rises in the central district near 
Ancyra, and another, named Adoreus, ElmaJi Bagh, on the border 
of Phrygia. The river Halys in its middle course bisects Galatia 



Chap. iX. 



INHABIT AXIS 



— TOWNS. 



151 



from S. to X., and then skirts its northern border for some distance, 
receiving several unimportant feeders. Galatia also contains the 
upper course of the Sangarius, v\-ith its tributaries the Siberis, which 
rises W. of Ancyra, and joins the main stream near Juliopohs, and 
the Scopas, Aladan, which has a parallel course more to the W. 

§ 14. The inhabitants of Galatia were a Celtic race, who migrated 
westward from their settlements in Gaul,^ and entered Asia Minor 
under the chieftainship of Leonorius and Lutarius in three bands 
named Tolistoboii, Tectosages, and Trocmi. They were engaged by 
Xicomedes I. king of Bithynia, B.C. 278, to act as mercenaries in his 
army against his brother Zyboetes. Having succeeded in this war, 
and having received some land as a reward, they divided into three 
bands, and ravaged the whole of the surrounding districts. They 
were resisted and defeated by Antiochus Soter in the first instance, 
then by Attains of Pergamum in B.C. 238, afterwards by Prusias T, 
of Bithynia in 216, again by the Koman consul Manlius in 189, 
and finally by Eumenes of Pergamum in 167, after which they 
settled quietly down in the district to which they gave their name. 
This had been previously occupied by Phrygians, Paphlagonians, 
and Greeks, of whom the latter were predominant in influence at 
the time the Gauls entered, as their language was usually spoken, 
and was adopted even by the invaders for literary purposes. The 
three tribes ot the Gauls divided the country between them, the 
Tolistoboii occupying the W., the Tectosages the centre, and the 
Trocmi the E. Each tribe was divided into four parts, named 
tetrarchies. The twelve tetrarchs formed a senate, and were assisted 
by a council of 300 deputies, who met at Dryna?metum. The 
Gauls adopted the Phrygian and Greek superstitions, and became 
thoroughly Greecised, as their name Gallo-Graeci implies : but they 
appear to have retained their native tongae down to the 4th 
century a.d. 

§ 15. The only important towns in Galatia were Pessmus the 
capital of the Tolistoboii, and Ancjra the capital of the Tectosages ; 
these were situated on the great high road of the Romans from 
Ephesus to the E., and were places of great commercial importance : 
at Ancyra the road from Ephesus fell in with that leading from 
Byzantium. Tavium, the capital of the Trocmi, in the E. of the 
province, was also a considerable place. The only Eoman colony 
v\\as Germe. 

Pessiniis was situated on the S. side of Mount Dindymus, and owed 
its chief celebrity to the worship of Agdistis, or Cybele, whose temple 
was magDificently adorned by the kings of Pergamum, and was visited 
from all parts of the world : the ruins of a theatre and other builcliugs. 



8 GalatfB and Keltce are but different forms of the same word : and Galatiie and 
Galli are respectively the Greek and Latin designations of the name race. 



BITHYXIA. 



Book II. 



about 10 miles S.E. of St'Ti-Hisscu', show that Pessiniis was a remark- 
ahlv fine tov.-ii. Ancyra wa? centrally situated to the X.E. of PessiDus, 
and aprears in histoiy as the place where Manlius defeated the Tecto- 
sages in B.C. 1S9 : the most famous building was a temple of Augustus, 
with an inscription, named Marnior Ancyi^anum, containing a record 
jf h:- achievements : this is still in existence, as also are various 

- : red remains of the citadel: Angora is still a very important 
^ Taviuni was chiefly celebrated for its temple of Jupiter: the 
position of the town is probably marked by the ruins of Boghaz Kieui, 
at some distance from the E. bank of the Halys. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Germa. Yorma, between 
Pessinus and Ancyra. a Poman colony — Bluciiiin, belonging to the 
Tj':=<t^''; ::. ' ^ ' " — Corbeus, S.E. of Ancyra — 

:.n 1 Daii?.l:i. ; ".^rre Cn. Pompeius and Lucullus 

had an :■ > ^ l.avt names of a more or less Celtic 

charactci I'ig^ Dryntemetum. 

History. — i - r iiistoiy of Galatia commences with the time when one 
of the tetrai'chs, Deiotams, was invested by the Romans with the 
r'iht^ of >':»vereig"nty. n't only over the Tolistoboii, but also over 
P Armeuia Mi : 1 , He was succeeded by his son Deiotarus, 

. - 1. i-iid. and he ._y Ai: yntas, who received from M. Antony 
I'isidia in B.C. 39, and Galatia \^dth other distdcts in 36. Amyntas died 
B.C. and his territories were formed into a province by Augustus. 

>Y. FauJ s Travels. — St. Paul visited Galatia in his second missionary 
■iov.rney : hi? route thi'ough the province is piu'ely conjectural, no town 

- ' -y : specified in the narrative ' Acts xvi. 6) : he probably 

side of Phrygia at Pessinus, and visited Ancyra, 
rc:u:-.:n_ l v t:.c same route. He again visited Galatia on his thii'd 
journey, probably enteiing it from Cappadocia. and leaving it by way 
of 1 Inwgia (x\iii. 23). He afterwai'ds addressed an Epistle to the 
Galatian Church. 

XII. BiTHYNIA. 

§ 16. Bithynia was bounded on the X. by the Euxine, on the 
X.^V. by the Propontis, on the S.W. by Mysia, on the S. by 
Phrygia, on the S.E. by Galatia, and on the X.E. by Paphlagonia : 
the limit in the latter direction was generally fixed at the river 
Pvi'r It is thr-jii^-lioiit a moimtainons district, but fertile, 

- :;:::au v:-v tlie part AV, the Sangarius, which contains some fine 
plains ; wood was abundant, and extensive forests stiU exist in the 
disrrict E. of the Sangarins. The scenery of the western district 

- - " -hores of the Propontis is magnificent. Among the special 
: ; lor which Bithynia was famed, we may notice the cheese 
01 >alona near Bithyninm, aconite (so named from Acona% where it 
was found\ marble, and crystal. 

§ 17. The chief mountain range is Olympus, of which there are 
two great divisions — one on the border of Mysia near Prusa, and 
another on the border of Galatia : the former is capped with snow 
to t::e ^v-^^ :f March. AVe have also to notice the lesser ranges of 
Arganthonius. between the bays of Astacns and Cius, in the W. ; 
and Orminium, in the X.E. of the province. The coast of the Pro- 



Chap. IX. 



RIVEES — 



IXHABITAXTS. 



153 



pontis is irregular : two bays jjenetrate far into the interior, sepa- 
rated from each other by Ai-aaiithonius : they were named Sinus 
Cianus, and Sin. Astacenus, after the towns of Cius and Astacus : 
the mountain range terminates in Prom. Posidium, C. Bozburun : a 
second promontory named Acritas, C. Akrtta, stands at the northern 
entrance of the Bay of Astacus. The northern coast runs nearly 
due E. from the mouth of the Bosporus to some distance beyond 
the Sangarius, the only marked features being the promontories of 
Melaena, C. Tshili, near the Bosporus, and Calpe, with an adjacent 
port, now Kirpe Liman, AV. of the Sangarius. 

§ 18. The chief rivers of Bitliynia are — the Sangarius, which 
bisects the province from S to X., in an extremely devious course — 
the BillsBus, Filyas, more to the E., which divides into two branches 
in its upper course — and the Partiienius, Bartan-Su, on the eastern 
frontier. Of the smaller streams we may notice — the Ehebas, which 
joins the Euxine near the Bosporus, commemorat-ed in the story of 
the Argonauts^ — the Psilis, more to the E. — the Hypius, E. of the 
Sangarius, at the mouth of which the fleet of Mithridates wintered 
— and the Cales or Calex, near Heraclea, the sudden rise of which 
destroyed the ships of Lamachus, as they were lying off its mouth. 
A large lake named Ascania, about 10 miles long by 4 wide, lies E. 
of the Bay of Cius. 

§ 19. The inhabitants of the western part of Bith}'nia were an 
immigrant race from Thrace, who displaced the previous occupants, 
the Mysians, Phrygians, and others. They were divided into two 
tribes, named Thyni ^ and Bithyni, the former on the sea-coast, the 
latter in the interior. The coast E. of the Sangarius was held by 
the Mariandyni. The chief towns in Bithynia were situated either 
on or adjacent to the shores of the Propontis. The Greeks occupied 
with their colonies the most eligible spots on the coasts : thus the 
Megarians settled at Chalcedon and Astacus, and at Heraclea 
Pontica on the Euxine ; the Milesians at Cius ; the Colophonians 
at Myrlea. The successors of Alexander founded the flourishing 
town of XicaBa, and the Bith^mian kings the future capital, 



9 *Hi/ 6e 4)-uyi]Te 

SvvSpOjUa TTerpaoiv acTK-qOeeg evSoOt Uovrov, 
AvTt/ca BlOvvojv cttI Se^ta yalav exovre? 
nAtuere, priyjj.lva<; Tre^vkayp.ivoL, etaoKev avre 
'Prj/Saj/ (x>Kvp6-qv TTorafxov, aK.pr\v re 'yiikawav 
PrajLcii/ai/re?, vrjaov @vv7]l6os opixov i<y](i9e. 

Apoil. Argon, ii. 319. 
Xec prhis obsessmii scopuiis respexit ad eequor, 
Aut sociis teiitata quies, nigrantia quam jam 
Littora, longinqiiique exirent fliimina Kliebse. 

Val. Flacc. iv. 696. 

1 Thyui Thraces arant, quae nunc Bitliynia fertur. 

Clavdiax. in Eiitmp. ii. 247. 



154 



BITHYNIA. 



Book II. 



Nicomedia. The Eoinan emperors did mucli for the enlargement 
and adornment of these towns, attracted partly by the beauty of the 
scenery, and partly by the convenience of the locality in respect to 
their Eastern possessions : they also constructed an important road 
from Byzantium to Ancyra, where it fell into the grand route from 
Elphesus to Armenia. Hadrian particularly favoured this province. 
The towns continued to flourish to the latest ages of the empire. 




Gate of Nicasa (Texier's ' Asia Mineure '). 



Prusa, s-cirnamed ^^ad Ol^^mpum," stood at the northern base of 
Olympus, and is said to have been named after King Prusias^ who 
founded it by the advice of Hannibal : it was celebrated for its warm 
baths : it is now, under the name of Brusa, one of the most flourishing 
towns of Asia Minor. Nicaea was situated at the E. end of Lake 
Ascania, on the edge of a wide and fertile plain : it was built by Anti- 
gonus on the site of an earlier town, probably after his victory over 
Eumenes in B.C. 316, and it received the name of Antigonia, for which 
Lysimachus substituted that of Mcgea in honour of his wife : it soon 
rose to eminence, and the Bithynian kings often resided there : it vied 
with Nicomedia for the title of metropolis : it is chiefly famous for the 
Council held there, a.d. 325, in which the Mcene creed was drawn up: 
having sufieredfrom earthquakes, it was restored by Valens in a.d. 368: 
the remains of its walls are still visible at Isnik. Cius stood at the 
head of the inlet named after it, and on a river of the same name,^ 

2 Tr)jao? ap oi y a.(^LKOvro KiavCSo^ i^Qea yaCr)^, 
'A(it<^' 'ApyavO(ov€LOV opo?, irpoxods re Ktoio- 

Apoll, Argon, i 1178. 



Chap. IX. 



TOWXS — 



HISTOKY. 



155 



which communicated with Lake Ascania : the town was taken by the 
Persians, B.C. 499^ and again by Philip, son of Demetrius, who de- 
stroyed it : it was soon after rebuilt by Prusias, who gave it his own 
name. Nicomedia, on the N. coast of the Bay of Astacus, was founded 
by Xicomedes I., B.C. 264, and peopled with the inhabitants of Astacus; 
under the native kings it became the capital of Bithynia: the Roman 
emperors frequently resided there, especially during their eastern wars : 
it was a Roman colony, the birthplace of Ai'rian the historian, and the 
place where Hannibal died:^ the modern Ismkl, which occupies its 
site, contains many ancient remains. Chalcedon stood near the junction 
of the Bosporus with the Propontis, and nearly opposite to Byzantium : 
it was founded by Megarians, about B.C. 674, and was a place of con- 
siderable trade : it was taken by the Persians after the Scythian expedi- 
tion of Darius, and in the Peloponnesian AVar appears to have sided at 
one time with the Athenians, at another with the Lacedsemonians : in 
the Mithridatic War it was occupied by the Romans, but was taken by 
Mithridates; it afterwards became a free city: on its site the village of 
Kadi-Kioi now stands. The Megarian colony of Heraclea Pontica was 
the most important place in the E, of Bithynia, possessing two good 
harbours, and exercising a supremacy over the whole adjacent coast: 
it sunk, however, under the kings of Bithynia, and received its death- 
blow in the Mithridatic War, Avhen it was plundered by the Romans 
under Cotta. In the interior, to the S. of fieraclea, stood Bithynium 
or Claudiopolis, as it was probably named in the time of Tiberius ; it was 
reputed to have been founded by Greeks, and noted for the rich pastures 
about it : it w^as the birthplace of Hadrian's favourite, Antinous. Still 
more to the S. w^as the ancient town of Gordium, the residence of the 
Phrygian kings, and well known as the place where Alexander severed 
the Gordian knot: " it was rebuilt in the time of Augustus, with the 
name of Juliopolis. 

Among the less important towns of - Bithynia we may briefly notice 
— Dascylium, on the border of Mysia, w^here, in the time of Xenophon, 
the Persian satraps had a residence and park — Myrlea, on the shore of 
the Bay of Cius, presented by Philip of Macedonia to his ally Prusias, 
who changed its name to Apamea ; it was afterwards a Roman colony 
— Drepane, on the S. coast of the Bay of Astacus, the birthplace of 
Helena, the mother of Constantine, by whom it was enlarged and 
named Helenopolis — Astacus, at the head of the bay named after it, 
a Megarian colony, destroyed by Lysimachus in his war with Zipoetes 
— Libyssa, between Xicomedia and Chalcedon, the burial - place of 
Hannibal — Chrysopolis, Scutari, opposite to Byzantium, the spot where 
the Athenians, b}" the advice of Alcibiades, levied toll on all vessels 
passing in or out of the Euxine, and the scene of the defeat of Licinius 
by Constantine the Great, a d. 328. 

History. — The history of Bithynia commences with the accession of . 
Doedalsus to the sovereignty about B.C. 435, and terminates with 



Post Itala bella 
Assyrio famulus regi, falsusque cupiti 
Ausonige motu*, dubio petet aequora velo ; 
Donee, Prusiacas delatus segniter oras. 
Altera servitia imbelli patietur in aevo, 
Et latebram, munus regni. Perstantibus inde 
JEneadis, reddique sibi poscentibus hostem, 
Poeula furtivo rapiet properata veneno, 

Ac tandem terras longa formidine solvet. — Sil. Ital. xiii. 885. 



156 



paphlago:n'ia. 



tOOK II. 



Xicomedes III., ^Yllo bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, B.C. 74. 
Of the eight kings who intervene between these, the most illustrious 
were Xicomedes I.^ who founded the capital; Prusias I., who received 
and betrayed Hannibal; and his son Prusias II.. who carried on war 
with the king of Pergamus. After the death of Xicomedes III. the 
Romans reduced Bithynia to a province, and, after the death of 
Mithridates, annexed to it the western part of the Pontic kingdom. 
Under Augustus Bithynia was assigned to the senate ; but Hadrian 
gave Pamphylia in exchange for it. 

In the Bible Bithynia is casually mentioned in two passages (Acts 
xvi. 7 ; 1 Pet. i. 1), from the first of which we learn that ^t. Paul 
designed to enter it, but failed to do so. It derives an interest from 
the correspondence of its governor Pliny with Trajan, in relation to 
the persecution of the Christians, as well as from the great council of 
Xicasa, to which we have already adverted. 

XIII. Paphlagonia. 

§ 20. Paphlagonia was bounded on the W. by Bithynia, on the 
X. by tlie Euxine, on the E. by Pontus, and on the S. by Galatia ; 
it thus occupied the cnast-district between the rivers Partheniiis 
and Halys, and extended inland to the range of Olympus. At one 
time the Paphlagonians appear to have advanced beyond tlie Halys. 
Paphlagonia is on the whole a rough and mountainous country, but 
contains in its northern parts some extensive and fertile plains, on 
which even the olive flourished. Its hills were well clothed with fo- 
rests, and the boxwood of Mount Cytorus was particularly celebrated.* 
Paphlagonia was especially noted for its horses, mules, and antelopes. 
A kind of red chalk was found there in abundance. 

§ 21. The chief mountain range, named Olgassys, UIgaz, extends 
from the Halys toAvards the S.W., and sends its ramifications some- 
times to the very shores of the Euxine ; of these, Cyt5rus was the 
one best known to the ancients. The coast protrudes northwards 
in a curved form, and has two proniontories, Carambis, C. Kerem'pe^ 
and Syrias, C, Indje^ more to the E. The only important rivers 
are the border - streams Halys and Parthenius, which have been 
already noticed : numerous small rivers intervene, of which we may 
enumerate, from AV. to E., the Sesamus, Amastris, Ochosbanes, 
Evarclius, and Zalecus. The Amnias, a tributary of the Halys, is 
noted for the engagement that took place on its banks, in which 
Xicomedes was defeated by the generals of Mithridates, B.C. 88. 

§ 22. The Paphla2;oniai]s, who are noticed even in the Homeric 
poems,^ appear to have l>een allied in race to the Cappadocians. 
They are described as a superstitious and coarse peop»le, but brave, 

■* Et jurat imdantem buxo spectare Cytormn, 

>'arycioeque picis lucos. Yirg. Georg. ii. 437. 

Saepe Cytoriaco dediicit pectine crines. Ov. Met. iv. 311. 
Amastri Fontica et Cytore buxifer. Cati'll. iv. 13. 

5 na(^)Aa76i'cai^ ixeya6vy.ix>v acnrLa-rdoov. U . V. 577. 



Chap. IX. 



TOWNS— HISTORY. 



167 



and particularly noted for tlieir cavalry. In addition to the Paph- 
lagonians, the more ancient races of the HenSti and Caucones con- 
tinued to occupy certain districts. The towns lined the coast, and 
Avere for the most part Greek colonies, such as Amastris and Sinope, 
the latter of which was by far the most important in the country, 
together with 'the lesser towns Cromna, Cytorus, Aboniteichos, and 
Cariisa. In the interior Gangra and Pompeiopolis were at different 
eras leading towns. 

Amastris, in the W.^ occupied a peninsula, on each side of which 
was a harbour : its name was originally Sesamus, which was changed in 
honour of Amastris, niece of the last Persian king Darius, and vrhich 
appears to have extended beyond the old town of Sesamus to a tetra- 
polis of which Teium, Cytorus, and Cromna were the other members. 
Amastris was a handsome city, and flourished until the 7th century of 
our era. Sinope^ was situated on a peninsula E. of Prom. Syrias: its 
foundation was attributed to the Argonauts : it was colonized by the 
Milesians, seized from them by the Cimmerians, and recovered by the 
Ephesians, b.c. 632 : in the time of Xenophon it possessed a fine fleet, 
and was mistress of the Euxine: it was unsuccessfully besieged by 
Mithridates IV. in B.C. 220, but successfully by Pharuaces in 183: 
thenceforth it was the residence of the kings of Pontus, and gave bnth 
to Mithridates the Great : Lucullus captured it, and restored its inde- 
pendence : it became a Roman colony in the time of Julius Caesar. It 
is further known as the birthplace of Diogenes the C} nic : the modern 
Sinuh is still an important place, and contains a few relics of the old 
town. Pompeiopolis, on the Amnias, probably owed its name and exist- 
ence to Pompey the Great. Gangra was S. of Mount Olgassys, and was 
the residence of Deiotarus the last king of Paphlagonia : it was made, 
after the 4th century a.d., the capital of the province, with the name 
Germanicopolis. We may farther briefly notice — Aboniteichos, the 
birthplace of the impostor Alexander, at whose request the name was 
changed to lonopolis — and the small harbom's of Cimolis, Stephane, 
Potami, Armene which the 10,000 visited, and Carusa: all these were 
trading stations. 

History. — Until the time of Croesus, Paphlagonia was under its 
native princes : it was then annexed to the Lydian empire, and passed 
with the rest of it to the Persians, under whom the native princes 
regained their independence. After Alexander's death Paphlagonia 
fell to the share of Eumenes, but again reverted to its princes, imtil it 
was incorporated with Pontus by ]\Iithridates. Under the Romans it 
was united first to Bithynia, and afterwards to Galatia, but in the 4th 
century a.d. was made a separate province. 

XIT. Po^'TUS. 

§ 23. Pontus bordered in the W. on Paphlagonia, in the S. on 
Cappadocia, in the E. on Armenia and Colchis, and in the X. on 

® Mox etiam Cromnoe juga, pallentemque Cytoron, 
Teque cita penitus condant, Erythea, carina. 
Jamque reducebat iioctem polus : alta Carambis 
Raditur, et magnge pelago tremit umbra Sinopes. 
Assyrios complexa sinus stat opima Sinope. 

Val. Flacc. v. 106. 



PONTUS. 



Book 11. 



the Euxine : the Halys, the ranges of Antitaurus and Paiyadres, 
and the Phasis, formed its natural boundaries in the three former 
directions. It derived its name from the " Pontus," i.e. the Euxine, 
on which it bordered. Though this district is surrounded with 
lofty mountains, which send their ramifications to the very shores 
of the Euxine, yet the plains on the coast, especially those in the 
western parts, were extremely fertile, and produced, in addition to 
grain, excellent fruit. Honey, wax, and iron were among its most 
valuable productions. 

§ 24. The chief mountain ranges are Paryadres in the N., and 
Scosdises in the E., which have been already noticed. The former 
sends out two branches, Lithrus and OpMimus, to the N., which 
form the eastern boundary of the fruitful plain of Phanaroea : the 
position of Theches cannot be fixed with certainty ; it must have 
been considerably E. of Trapezus, as no distant view of the Euxine 
can be obtained from any point due S. of that place. The most 
important headlands from W. to E. are — Heracleum, which bounds 
the bay of Amisus on the E. ; Jasonium, near Side ; Zephyrium, 
near Tripolis ; Coralla, near Cersasus ; and Hieron, more to the E. 
Two bays occur on this coast, the Sinus Amisenus, G. of Samsim, 
between the mouth of the Halys and Prom. Heracleum ; and Sin. 
Cotyoraeus, betv/een the promontories of Jasonium and Coralla. The 
most important rivers are — the Halys, Avhich both rises and 
terminates in this province — the Iris, Kasalmak, wdiich rises in Anti- 
taurus in the S. of Pontus, and flows at first to the N.W. as far as 
Comana ; then to the W. until it receives the Lycus, Kulei Hissar, 
a stream almost as large as itself, from the mountains of Armenia 
Minor ; and finally to the N., in which direction it traverses the 
plain of Themiscyra to the sea — the Thermodon, Thermeh^ which 
rises near Phanoroea, and joins the sea near Themiscyra, famed for 
its connexion with the Amazons^ — the Acampsis or Apsarus, 
Tclioruh, which rises in Armenia, and joins the sea at its S.E. point 
— and the Phasis, on the border of Colchis. The less important 

^ Qualis Amazonidum nudatis bellica mammis 

Thermodontiacis turma vagatur agris. — Propert. iii. 14, 15. 
Et tu, feminese Thermodon cogiTite turmse. 

Ov. ex Pont. iv. 10, 51. 
'AcrrpoyetTOva? 5e XPI 
Kopv<|)a5 virep^oiXXovaav, e? fxeayjix^pivr\v 
Brji/at KekevOou, evO' 'A/aa^oVtoi/ arparov 
''I^et (TTvya.vop\ at €>€ixC(TKvpdv ttotg , 

KaTOLKLOVCTiU OLfXifH ®€pfJi(x)8ov6% IVa 

Tpa^eta ttovtov 'Xakp-vbiqaLa yvdOo? 

''Ex^po^ei'og vavTaicrL, fxriTpvta v^Qiv. jEsch.. Prom. 72L, 

Quales ThreiciEe cum flumina Thermodontis 
Pulsant, et pictis bellantur Amazones armis. 

ViEG. ^n. xi. 659. 



Chap. IX. 



INHABITANTS — TOWNS. 



159 



streams from W. to E. are — the Lycastus, near Amisiis; the 
Chasidias, near Themiscyra ; the Sidenus, near Side ; the Trip5iis, 
near the town of the same name ; and the Hyssus, more to the E. 

§ 25. The population of Pontus consisted of a number of tribes, 
whose mutual relations are very obscure. Among the more promi- 
nent names appear the Leucosyri, who were the same as the 
Cappadocians ; the Tibareni, identical with the Tubal of Scripture ; 
the Chalybes,^ who occupied the iron districts of Paryadres ; the 
Colchi, about Trapezus, allied to the proper Colchians ; the Macrones 
or Sanni, who lived S.E. of Trapezus ; and the Bechires, on the 
sea-coast in the same neighbourhood. The chief towns were of two 
classes — the commercial ports on the coast, in most of which the 
Greeks settled, such as Amisus, Trapezus, Cotyora, and others of 
less importance ; and the towns of the interior, which were either 
strongholds of the Pontic kings, or entrepots of trade with Central 
Asia : these were in many instances enlarged by the Eomans. In 
the latter class we have Amasia and Comana in the valley of the 
Iris, Cabira on the Lycus, and Sebastia in the upper valley of the 
Halys. The period at w^hich the coast-towns became known dates 
from the return of the 10,000 : the interior was first opened to the 
world by the Mithridatic wars. The history of the towns is com- 
paratively uninteresting, and they do not appear to have possessed 
much architectural beauty. 

Amisus stood on the W. side of the bay named after it, on a pro- 
montory about 1^ miles N.W. of the still flourishing town of Samsun: 
its origin is uncertain, but it became, next to Sinope, the most 
flourishing of the Greek settlements, and was occasionally the residence 
of Mithridates Eupator : it was captured by Lucullus, B.C. 71, and 
again by Pharnaces, but restored to freedom by Csesar after the battle 
of Zela : remains of the ancient pier, and of Hellenic walls at Eski 
Samsun, mark its site. Polemonium was placed at the mouth of the 
Sidenus, and probably owed its name and existence to Polemon, king 
of those parts, who made it his capital. Phamacia was founded by 
Pharnaces, grandfather of Mithridates VI., and peopled with the 
Cotyorasans : it was prosperous from its commerce, and from the 
neighbouring iron-works : it is now named Kerasunt, from the idea that 
it occupied the site of Cerasus. Trapezus, a Sinopian colony, was built 
on the slope of a hill near the coast, with a port named Daphnus, 
formed by a jutting rock on wliich the acropolis stood. Even in 
Xenophon's time it was an important place, but it reached its highest 
prosperity under the emperors Hadrian and Trajan, the latter of whom 



OIkov<ti XdXv^eq, ou? (f)vKd^aaOaC ere XPV- 
'AvqfxepoL yap, ovSe TTpoa-kaaToi $dvoL<;. — ^^IscH. From. 714. 
Striduntque cavernis 
Strieturae dialybmn, et fovnacibus ignis anhelat 

A'lRG. .En. viii. 420. 

Jupiter ! ut Clialybon omne genus pereat, 
Et qui principio sub terra quserere venas 

Institit, ac ferri fingere duritie:n ! Catull. Ixvi. 48. 



160 



POXTUS. 



Book II. 



made it the capital of Pontus Cappadocicus ; it is still, as Trehizond, 
one of the most flourishing cities of Asia Minor. Phasis stood on the 
S. side of the river of the same name, and thus within the limits of 
Pontus ; it was a Milesian colony^ and a place of considerable trade : - 
it possessed a temple of Cybele. In the interior — Amasia, once the 
residence of the kings of Pontus, stood on the river Iris; it gave birth 
to Mithridates the Great and to the geographer Strabo : it still retains 
its ancient name, and is a considerable town. Comana Pontica stood 
in the upper va.lley of the same river, and was a commercial entrepot 
for the Armenian trade : it was the chief seat of the worship of Enyo, 
whose priests exercised an authority second only to that of the kings : 
a few remains of the place have been discovered at GumeneJc. Cabira 
was situated on the Lycus, some distance above its jimction with the 
Iris : Mithridates the Great had a palace and treasiu-y there, which 
Cn. Pompeius succeeded in capturing : Neocaesarea was probably a 
later name for the same place, assigned to it in the reign of Tiberius, 
a place of ecclesiastical importance as the seat of a coimcil in a.d. 31 4, 
and the birthplace of Gregory Thaumaturgus. Sebastia was on the N. 
bank of the Upper Halys, and was enlarged by Pompey, under the 
name of Megalopolis ; the old name, however, returned to it, and still 
exists under the form Sheas: it was a flourishing place under the 
Byzantine emperors. 

Of the less important places we may notice — (1.) on the sea-coast from 
W. to E. Ancon, a small port at the mouth of the Iris — Themiscyra, 
at the mouth of the Thermodon, said to have been built by the 
Amazons; destroyed by Lucullus — Cotyora, a colony from Sinope, 
vdth. a port whence the 10j;>';m;) took ship — Argyria, with silver mines — 
Cerasus, a colony from Sinope, visited by the l»>,' >i.Mj; the place whence 
Lucullus introduced the cherry into Italy — and Apsanis, a place of 
some importance at the mouth of the Acampsis, the reputed burial- ' 
place of Absyrtus. (2.) In the interior — Gaziura on the Iiis, the 
ancient residence of the kings of Pontus — Phazemon, X. of Amasia, 
^vith hot mineral spriuiTS, made a Roman colon/ by Pompey, with the 
name Xeapolis — and Zela, on the left bank of the Iris, rendered illus- 
trious by the victory of Mithridates over the Romans, and still more 
by that of Cccsar over Pharnaces, reported in the brief despatch, 

Teni, Yidi, Yici." 

History. — The history of Pontus commences in B.C. 363, with the 
foimdation of a sovereignty over many of the Pontic tribes by Aiio- 
bai'zanes. His successor, Mithridates IL, extended and consolidated 
his kingdord, and it prospered under the succeeding sovereigns, tmtil 
it reached its greatest extent under Mithridates VL, who reigned fi'om 
B.C. 120 to 63. But the wars which he carried on vdth. the Romans 
proved fatal to his empire : the western portion was annexed by Pom- 
pey to Bithynia, B.C. 65 ; the district between the Iris and Halys was 
given to the Galatian Deiotarus, and hence named Pontus Galaticus : 
that between the Iris and Pharnacia wa.s subsequently handed over by 
M. Antonius to Polemon, and hence named Polemoniacus : and the 
eastern portion fell shortly after into the hands of Archelaus, king of 
Cappadocia, and wa-s distinguished as Cappadocicus. Pontus was made 
a Roman pi-ovince. a.d. 63: and under Constantine was divided into 
Helenopontus in the S.W., and Polemoniacus in the centre and E. 

Pontus is but seldom noticed in the Bible : Jews from that province 
were present at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 9); the 
Jewish Christians were addressed by St. Peter (1 Pet. i. 1); andAquila 
was a nati^-e of that country (Acts xviii. 2). 



Libaiiiis, or Lebanon. 



CHAPTER X. 

SYRIA PHCENICIA — ARABIA. 

T. Syria. § 1. Boundaries and natural divisions. § 2. Mountains. 
§ 3. Rivers. § 4. Political divisions. § 5. Towns ; history. II. 
Phcenicia. § 6. Boundaries, &c. § 7. Geographical position. § 8. 
Mountains and rivers. §9. Inhabitants; towns: history. §10. 
Colonies. III. Arabia. § 11. Boundaries and natural divisions. 
§ 12. Mountains. § 13. Inhabitants. § 14. Divisions; towTis ; 
islands ; history. 

I. Syria. 

§ 1. Syria, in its widest extent, comprised the whole of the 
eastern coast of the Mediterranean sea from Cilicia in the N. to the 
Arabian desert in the S., and extended eastward to the Euphrates. 
From this, however, we must except the southern region of Pales- 
tine, and the strip of coast occupied by Phoenicia ; its boundaries 
may then be more accurately defined thus : in the W. the Mediter- 
ranean Sea down to near Aradus, and thenceforward the range of 
Libanus ; on the S. an imaginary line, leaving Libanus opposite 
Sidon, and stretching across the desert somewhat S. of Damascus 
and Palmyra, to the Euphrates near Thapsacus ; on the N.W. the 
range of Amanus ; on the N. Taurus, separating it from Cappadocia ; 
and on the E. the Euphrates, separating it from ^Mesopotamia. It 



162 



SYEIA. 



Book II. 



is naturally divided into the following three parts— (I.) the coast 
district ; (2.) the upper valley of the Orontes between the ranges of 
Libanus and Antilibanns, to which the name of Coele-Syria, i. e. 
" hollow Syria," was properly applied ; and (3.) the extensive desert 
which intervenes between these ranges and the Euphrates. These 
districts differ widely in climate, character, and productions ; thickly- 
wooded mountains and well-watered plains characterise the two 
former ; while the third consists of a series of plateaus rising to 
about 1500 feet above the sea, and traversed by undulating hills, 
devoid of interest, and, in the absence of artificial irrigation, unpro- 
ductive. The inhabitants were a Semitic race, allied to the Phoe- 
nicians, Hebrews, and Assyrians. 

§ 2. The mountain system of Syria is very distinctly marked : 
the range of Amanus, after skirting the Mediterranean coast closely 
in the neighbourhood of Issus, sinks at the spot where the road 
leaves the coast and crosses by the Portjs Syria?, but rises again in 
the heights of Pieria, Avhich take a westerly direction and form a 
considerable promontory. S. of this, the range is broken by the 
plain of the Orontes, but is resumed in the maritime range of 
Casius (which culminates in a conical ]^eak 5000 ft. high completely 
clothed with forest), as well as in the more inland range of Bargylus, 
Nusairyeth^ which is carried on to the border of Phoenicia. Here 
the chain is again broken by the valley of the Eleutherus, to the S. 
of which the range of Libanus rises, and mns in a long unbroken 
line to the border of Palestine. The parallel ridge of Antilibanns 
is separated from it by the river Leontes, and forms the connecting 
link with the ranges which traverse the whole length of Palestine. 
Of all the Syrian mountains, Libanus, more familiar to us under the 
Scriptural name of Lebanon, is the most magnificent. It derives its 
name from its whitened appearance, arising partly from the snoAv 
which lingers in some spots all the year round, and partly from the 
natural colour of the rock. Its greatest elevation is about 10,000 
feet. In former times it was clothed with forests of cedar and fir, 
which supplied the materials for the Temple at Jerusalem ; a single 
grove, containing about 400 trees, of which 12 bear marks of great 
antiquity, is generally regarded as the representative of the " cedars of 
Lebanon this grove is situated in the high slopes of the mountain 
near Tripoli ; the tree still exists, however, in other parts. Antili- 
banns terminates southwards in the well-known peak of Hermon at 
an elevation of about 10,000 feet ; this will be described in a future 
chapter. 

§ 3. The most important river in Syria is the Orontes,^ which rises 



1 Juvenal uses tlie name of the Orontes as equivalent to Syria ; 
In Tiberim defiuxit Orontes. — Sat. iii. 62. 



Chap. X. RIVERS — DIVISIONS — TOWNS. 



163 



between the ranges of Libanns and Antilibanus, not far from the 
Leontes, and takes a N. course until it reaches the neighbourhood 
of Antioch ; there it sweeps round to the VV., and again to the S.W. 
until it joins the sea ; its modern name, el-Asy, " the rebellious," 
may have reference to these sudden alterations in its course. The 
scenery of the lower course of the river is not unlike that of our ov^n 
Wye. lire upper course of the Litany also falls within the limits 
of Syria. There are numerous coast-streams of but little import- 
ance. In the interior the rivers of Damascus — the well-known 
" Abana and Pharpar " of the Bible (2 K. v. 12), though small, are 
ver}^ valuable ; the first was named Chrysorrhoas, " golden-flowing," 
by the Greeks, and is now the Barada ; the second was of less im- 
portance, and is now named NaJir el-Awaj ; the former rises in Anti- 
libanus, the latter in Hermon ; they flow in an easterly direction 
across the plain of Damascus, communicating to it its extraordinary 
fertility and beauty, and fall into two lakes to the E. of the town. 

§ 4. Syria was divided into the following 10 districts — Comma- 
gene, in the extreme N. betw^een Taurus and the Euphrates ; Cyr- 
rhestice, between Amanus and the Euphrates ; Pieria, about the 
mountain of the same name ; Seleucis, about Antioch ; Chalybonitis, 
thence to the Euphrates ; Clialdicice to the S.V\^. ; Apamene, stretch- 
ing away from Apamea towards the S.E. ; Palmyrene, along the 
southern frontier about Palmyra ; Laodicene, westward about Lao- 
dicea in Coele-Syria ; and Casiotis, on the sea-coast about Mount 
Casius. In addition to these we must notice the Biblical Abilene, 
a district on the eastern slopes of Antilibanus about the town Abila, 
which, at the time of our Saviour's birth, belonged partly to Pliilip, 
and partly to Lysanias (Luke iii. 1), and which was handed over to 
Herod Agrippa by Caligula. 

§ 5. The towns of Syria were of two classes — (1.) the ancient 
Biblical towns, which owed their importance partly to military and 
partly to commercial considerations, such as Damascus, Tadmor, 
Ham^ath, and the towns commanding the passages of the Eu- 
phrates — Samosata and Thapsacus ; and (2.) the towns which were 
called into existence by the Syrian monarchs, such as Antioch, Se- 
leucia, Apamea, Zeugma. Occasionally the old towns ^rere entirely 
rebuilt, at all events highly adorned, either by the Seleucidas, as was 
the case with Epiphania (the ancient Hamath), Beroea (Chalybon), 
and HeUopolis (Bambyce), or at a later period by the Eoman em- 
perors or governors, as was the case with Heliopolis and Palmyra. 
The towns of the first class are situated in the south, those of the 
second class for the most part in the north of the country. Da- 
mascus was the chief town of the former class ; but Antioch was 
the capital of the country after it was raised to an indei>endent 
position. 



164: 



SYRIA. 



Book II. 




AntiocMa was situated at the western extremit}' of a fine alluvial plain 
on the left bank of the Orontes, near the spot where that river enters 
the defile that conducts it to the sea. Its i^osition was well chosen for 
a great capital. It had easy access to the sea by the defile just noticed, 
to Lower Syria and Egypt by the valley of the Orontes, to Cilicia by 
the pass commanded by the Portae Syriae, and to Mesopotamia by 
various routes across the desert. It was founded B.C. oOO by Seleucus 
Xicfitor, and named after his father Antiochus. It was regularly laid 
out in streets intersecting each other at right angles, and adorned with 
temples and public buildings by successive kings, particularly by Anti- 
ochus Soter. A new quai-ter was added by Seleucus Callinicus on an 
island in the river, which Avas jomed to the shore by five bridges ; and 
another by Antiochus Epiphanes on the side adjacent to the mountain. 
It was subsequently much adorned by the Roman emperors. Antioch 
is chiefly interesting from its associations with early Christian history. 
A church was founded there by fugitive disciples from Jerusalem (Acts 
xi. 19^. and there the honoiu^ed name of '^Christian" first came into 
use. It was for some time the head-qtiarters of St. Paul, whence he 
started on his two first apostolic journeys. Afterwards it became the 
seat of a patriarchate which ranked with Constantinople and Alex- 
andria, Its capture by the Persians under Sapor, a.d. 260. is other- 
wise the most prominent event in its liistory. Seleucia, Seleflcieli, sur- 
named Pieria. Avas an important maritime city, situated on a plain be- 
tween Mount Pieria and the sea, about six miles X. of the mouth of 
the Orontes. It was built by Seleucus Xicator, and served as the port 
of Antioch. The harbour was excavated out of the plain, and con- 
nected with the sea by a canal. St. Paul sailed from here to Cyprus 
(Acts xiii. An immense tunnel led from the upper part of the city 
to the sea, Laodicea, Ladiluyeli. surnamed ad Mare, stood on the sea- 



Chap. X. 



TOWNS. 



165 



coast S. of Seleucia, with an excellent harbour, and surrounded by a 
rich vine-growing country : it Avas built by Seleucus Nicator, and fur- 
nished with an aqueduct by Herod the Great, of which a fragment still 
remains; it was partly destroyed by Cassius, B.C. 4:], in his war witli 
Dolabella. Apamea, in the valley of the Orontes, owed its prosperity 
to Seleucus Xicator, who named it after his wife Apama, and established 
a commissariat station there ; its ruins testify to its former magnificence. 
Epiphania was the name given probably by Antiochus Epiphanes to 
the ancient Hamath, on the Orontes. Emesa, Hums, was situated near 
the Orontes, on a large and fertile plain, and was celebrated for a temph 
of the Sun. Heliopoiis, Baalbek, in Coele-Syria, must have been one of 
the chief towns of Syria, although unmentioned in early history. It 
stood at the neck of the elevated ground whence the Orontes and Litany 
flow in different directions ; and, as the high road of commerce followed 
these rivers, it was undoubtedly an important place of trade. In what 
age the worship of the Sim, to which the town owes its name, was first 
introduced we know not. The magnificent edifices, so beautiful even 
in their ruins, were probably erected in the age of the Antonines, but 
the platform on which the great temple stands is of older date, and 
probably of Phoenician origin. The chief buildings remaining are three 
temples, distinguished as the Great Temple," the Temple 
Jupiter," and the Circular Temple." Julius Cfesar made Heliopoiis 
a colony, and Trajan consulted its oracle before entering on his Pai^thian 
expedition. Damascus stands on a plain, about a mile and a half from 
the lowest ridge of Antilibanus, at an elevation of about 2200 feet above 
the sea. This plain, watered by the rivers Abana and Pharpar, is well 
clothed ^^^th vegetation and foliage. The town now stands on both 
banks of the Abana, but it w^as formerly confined to tlie south bank. 
Damascus is frequently noticed, in the Bible, and its histoiy may be 
almost said to be the early history of Syria itself. It derives a special 
interest, however, from its connexion with St. Paul's life. Near it he 
Avas converted, and in its s^magogues he first preached; the street 
called Straight," in which he lodged, is still the princi|)al one in Da- 
mascus. Palmyra, ''the city of palms," lies about llo miles N.E. of 
Damascus, in the heart of the desert, where it served as an entrepot for 
the caravan trade. Its position is somewhat elevated above the plain, 
and the supply of water is comparatively scanty. The history of this 
place from the days of Solomon to the Christian era is a blank. Appian 
tells us that M. Antony designed an attack upon it; and it is noticed 
by Pliny. About a.d. 130 it submitted to Eome, and was made a colony 
with the name Adrianopolis by Hadrian, who adorned it with the beauti- 
ful buildings the remains of which still strike the traveller with wonder. 
Under Odenatlius and his widow Zenobia, Palmyra attained an imperial 
dignity ; but after the defeat of Zenobia and the capture of Palmyra by 
Aurelian, a.d. 273, it fell into decay, in spite of the attempt at resto- 
ration made hj Diocletian. Of the ruins the Temple of the Sun is the 
finest; the Great Colonnade is also a striking object, 150 out of the 
1500 columns originally erected still remaining. The tombs of this 
phice are also peculiar — lofty towers divided into stories. 

Of the less important towns we may briefly notice — Chalcis, the 
capital of Chalcidice, S.E. of Antioch; Chalybon, or Beroea (as it 
was named by Seleucus after the Macedonian town), representing 
the modern Aleppo, on the road between Hierapolis and Antioch ; 
Hierapolis, the "Holy City," so named from its being a seat of the 
worship of Astarte. an emporium between Antioch and the Euphrates ; 



166 SYETA. Book 11. 




Damabcus. 



its earlier name, Bambyce, was changed to the Greek name by Seleucus 
Nicator : Thapsacus, sometimes considered as a Syrian, sometimes as 
an Arabian town; as its position attached it rather to the former coun- 
try we shall notice it here ; the most frequented passage of the Euphrates 
was opposite Thapsacus, probably near Deir ; it was here that the 
armies of Cyrus the younger, of Darius, and his competitor Alexander 
the Great, crossed the river; Zeugma, deriving its name from the 
bridge of boats across the Euphrates at this point; the town was founded 
by Seleucus Nicator to secure the passage of the river from the capital, 
Antioch; it stood opposite Apamea or Bir ; and lastly, Samosata, in 
Commagene, which commanded the most northern passage between 
Cappadocia and Mesopotamia. 

History . — The history of Syria, as an independent country, com- 
mences with the establishment of the dynasty of the Seleucidee, B.C. 
312. Seleucus Nicator, the first of that dynasty, acquired nearly all 
the provinces of the old Persian empire. His successors gradually lost 
these vast possessions : his son, Antiochus Soter (280-261) lost a great 
part of Asia Minor by the establishment of the sovereignties of Bithynia 
and Pergamus. Under Antiochus Theos (261-246 } Parthia and Bactria 
revolted. Seleucus IL (246-226) in vain attempted to recover these 
possessions. Antiochus the Great (223-187) was not more successful 
against those remote countries, and suffered a further loss of Palestine 
and Coele-Syria : in addition to this he was defeated by the Romans at 
Magnesia (b.c. 190), and was obliged to yield up all the provinces 



Chap. X. PH(EXICIA : — 130UXDAEIES — XAME. 



167 



within Taurus to the king of Pergamus. Thenceforward the empire of 
Syria rapidly sank, and was gradually reduced to the limits of Syria 
Proper and Phoenicia. It became a Roman province in B.C. 65. 

II. Phcexicia. 

§ 6. The limits of Phoenicia are clearly defined on the W. and E. 
by the natural boundaries of the Mediterranean Sea and Mount 
Lebanon ; on the N. and S. they are not so decided ; in the latter 
direction it intruded for a considerable distance into Palestine, 
terminating below^ Mount Carmel, about nddway between Ca^sarea 
and Dora ; in the former direction the boundary touched the sea 
somewhere N. of Aradus. It had a length of 120 and an average 
breadth of 12 miles. The country, though not extensive, was fertile 
and varied in its productions. While the lowlands yielded corn 
and fruit, the sides of Lebanon vrere an inexhaustible storehouse of 
timber for ship-building. The purple shell-fish and the materials 
for the manufacture of glass were sources of great wealth. 

Name. — The name '^Phoenicia" is probably derived from the Greek 
word (poivL^ — ^'palm-tree" — which grew abundantly on its soil, and 
was the emblem of some of its towns. It has also been connected with 
(/)oiVi^ — the red dye" — which formed one of its most important pro- 
ductions. 

§ 7. The causes which combined to render this country the earliest 
seat of extended commerce are connected partly with its position 
relatively to other nations, and partly with the internal capacities of 
the country itself. Phoenicia was well adapted to become the en- 
trepot of European and Asiatic commerce. Centrally situated on 
the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, it was the point which 
the trade of Palmyra, Babylon, the Persian Gulf and India, Bactria, 
and China, would naturally seek. The shores of Europe were easily 
accessible from it. Cyprus, Crete, Ehodes, the Cyclades, were so 
many stepping-stones to Greece, as were Chios, Lesbos, and Lemnos, 
to the Euxine ; Sicily and Sardinia were stages on the route to 
Spain and the Pillars of Hercules ; the open Atlantic thence 
invited to the shores of northern Europe. Equally favourable was 
its position relatively to Africa. Egypt and the Red Sea were 
easily accessible ; Cyrene and Carthage answered to the peninsulas 
of Greece and Italy ; and from the Pillars of Hercules the shores of 
Western Africa were open to them. But these advantages in the 
position of Phoenicia would probably have been lost if the country 
itself had not possessed peculiar advantages for the prosecution of 
trade. It may be observed then, that it was protected from intru- 
sion at its rear by the lofty barrier of Lebanon intervening between 
it and the open plains of Asia, and at its sides by the spurs which 
that chain sends forth to the immediate neighbourhood of the sea. 



168 



PHCEXICIA. 



Book II. 



TlioiTgli easily accessible from tlie north and south, Phcenicia was 
still no thoronghfare. The high-road from Egypt to Antioch, ^vhich 
followed the sea-coast as far as Tyre, turned inland from that point, 
and followed the valleys of the Leontes and Orontes between the 
ranges of Libanus and Antilibanus. Lastly, the coast is sufhciently 
broken to supply several harbours amply large enough for the re- 
quirements of early commerce. 

§ 8. The physical features of Phoenicia are easily described ; the 
Tange of Lebanon or Libanus runs parallel to the coast, throwing out a 
number of spurs in that direction, which break up the whole country 
into a succession of valleys. Some of these spurs run into the sea 
and form promontories, of which the most important are — Tbeu-Pro- 
sopon, Bas-es- Shell ah, Prom. Album, Iias-el-Ahiad, S. of Tyre, and 
Carmelum, Carmel : the latter will be hereafter described; Album 
rises to a height of 300 ft., and intercepts the coast road, which was 
originally carried over it by a series of steps, hence called Climax 
Tyriorum, " the Tyrian Staircase ;" a roadway was afterwards cut 
through the solid rock. Another Climax of a similar character 
existed in the north, about 25 miles beloAv Theu-Prosopon. The 
rivers are necessarily short ; the principal streams from X. to S. 
are — the Eleutberus, Xahr-d-Kehir, whiQli drains the p)lain between 
Bargylus and Libanus — and the Leontes, Kasimieh oy Lit ani, which 
rises between the ranges of Libanus and Antilibanus, and flowing 
for the greater part of its cotn-se towards the S.W., turns sharply 
round towards the W. and gains the sea near Tyre. The small 
stream Adonis, Xahr el Ihrahim, which joins the sea near Byblus, 
derives an interest from its connexion with the legend of the death 
of Adonis, who is said to have been killed b}' a wild boar on Libanus. 
The blood-red hue of the water in time of flood may have given 
origin to the story. - 

§ 9. The Phoenicians of historical times were undoubtedly a 
Semitic nation. Their language bears remarkable affinity to the 
Hebrew, as evidenced by an inscription discovered at JIarstiUes in 
1845, of which 7-i words out of 94 are to be found in the Bible. 
The Mosaic table, however, describes Canaan as the son of Ham 
(Gen. X. 15), and connects that race with the Egyptians and other 
Hamitic nations. We must therefore assume, either that there was 
a later immigration, or that the Phoenicians left their original seats 
at a time when the difference between the Hamitic and Semitic 
races were not so strongly marked as they were in later ages. Their 



2 Milton alludes to this legend in the lines — ■ 

" While smooth Adonis from his native rock 
Ran purple to the sea, supposed with hlood 
Of Thammuz vearlv wounded." — Paradise Lost, viii. 18. 



Chap. X. 



SIDOX — 



TYItUS, 



169 



first settlements were on the sliores of tl:ie Persian Gulf. I'races of 
tlieir presence there survive even to the present day in the names 
Arr/rJ^ Sidodonci, and Szur or T///-, the prototypes of Aradus, Sidon, 
and Tyre. The towns of Phoenicia were situated either on or adja- 
cent to the sea-coast, and owed their importance partly to their 
manufactures, hut still more to the trade wdiick passed through them 
from Asia to F.urope. Sidon appears to have heen the original capital, 
hut Tyre subsequently surpassed it both in beauty and celebrity, 
and had the further advantage of being a strong military position. 
Aradus and Berytus enjoyed a certain amount of commercial pros- 
perity. Ptolemais did not acquire in early times the reputation 
which it now possesses, under the familiar name of Acre. 

Sidon, Saida, was situated on a small promontory about two miles S. 
of the river Bostrenus. Its harbour was naturally formed by a low 
ridge of rocks running out from the promontory, parallel to the line of 
coast. It was famed in early times for its embroidered robes,-^ its metal 
work, its dyes, '5 and its manufacture of glass; but it was (obliged to 
yield to the gi^owing prosperity of Tyre. It derives an interest to tlie 
Christian from St. Paul's visit there. Tyrus, Sur, stood more to the S., 
and consisted of two separate cities — Palse-Tyrus '•'■'Old T}Te'"' , which 
was on the mainland — and Xew Tyre, subsequently built upon an 
island about half a mile from the cuast, which now rises about twelve 
feet above the sea, and is three-quarters of a mile long by half a mile 
broad, but which was probably larger in ancient times. A ntck 
of sand about half a mile broad now connects the rock with the main- 
land: this, however, has been wholly formed by the sand which has 
accumulated about the causeway made by Alexander. The harbour 
was formed at the X.E. end of the island, and there was a double road- 
stead between the island and the mainland; one the Sidonian facing 
the X., the other the Eeryptian) facing the S. It was famed for its 
purple dye, ^ which was extracted from shell -fish found on the coa^st. 
The origin of Tyre, and the periods in which the Xew and Old Towns 
were respectively built, are unknown. Its subsequent history is, in 
short, the history of Phoenicia itself. The present town contains about 
4000 inhabitants, and is in a state of gTcat decay, its commerce giving 
employment only to a few crazy fishing-boats. For a graphic descrip- 



3 Ev9' ecrav ot TreVAot Tra/x—otK'Aot, epya yvvatKcui/ 

"H-yaye li^ovL-qQ^v, Hom. II. vi. 2S9. 

' 'Apyvpeoi' Kp-qrr]pa rervyixevov' iS 5' apa jxerpa 
'S.dvSavev. aiirap /ca./^'Aec evL<a rracrav err' alav 
TLoXXov, e77et ISi.Sdi'e? TToXyBai^akoL ev rjCTKiqcrav, 
^OLVLKe<; 8' ayov ai'Speg ct' rjepoeiSda ~6vrov — HoM. II. xxiii. 741. 

^ pretiosaque murice Sidon. — Lve. iii. 217. 

Quare ne tibi sit tanti Sidonia vestis, 

rt timeas. quoties nubilus Au>ter erit. — Propekt, ii. 16, bh 
Xon qui Sidonio contendere callidus ostro 

Xescit Aquinateni potantia vellera fucum. — IIor. Ej). i. 10, 2G. 

6 lUe caput flavum lauro Parnasside vinctus 
Yerrit humum, Tyrio satiirata murice palla. — Ov. Met. xi. 1G5. 
ANC. GEOG. i 



170 



PHCEXICIA. 



Book II. 



tion of what Tyre was and what it now is compare the 27 th and 26th 
chapters of Ezekiel. 

The less important towns were — Aradus, in the iST., also built on an 
island rock, about two miles from the coast, a colony of Sidon, and 
still a place of importance under the name of i?Ma(:? ; Antaradus, on 
the mainland opposite Aradus, as its name implies; Tripolis, on a small 
promontory, deriving its name from being the metropolis of the tliree 
confederate towns, Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus; Byblus, the chief seat of 
the worship of Adonis, or Thammuz, who was held to have been born 
there; the modern name Juheil is derived from the biblical name 
Gebal, the residence of the Giblites ; Berytus, Beirut, the seat of a 
famous Greek university from the third to the sixth century of our era, 
and now the most important commercial town in Sj'iia ; and Ptolemais, 
the biblical Accho, whence its modern name Acre, at the northern ex- 
tremity of the bay formed by Prom. Carmel. It was named Ptolemais 
after Ptolemy Soter. 

History. — The history of Phoenicia is well-nigh a blank, from the loss 
of its archives and literature. The few particulars we have are gathered 
chiefly from the Bible, Josephus, and the Assyrian Inscriptions. The 
country appears to have been parcelled out into several small indepen- 
dent kingdoms, which confederated together as occasion required, and 
over which, at such periods, the leading town naturally exercised a 
supremacy. Sidon held the post of honour until about B.C. 1200, when 
it was attacked by the king of Ascalon (who probably headed the 
Pentapolis of the Philistines), and was reduced to the second rank. Tyre 
henceforth becoming the metropolis. We know little of Tyre until the 
time of Solomon's alliance with Hiram, the mutual advantages of 
which were great; Solomon dra\\'ing from Phoenicia his supplies of 
wood and stone for the erection of the Temple, as well as shipbuilders 
and seamen for carrying on his commerce, and Hiram gaining in return 
supplies of corn and oil, and a territory in Galilee containing 20 towns 
(1 Ivings, V. 6-12, ix. 11). After the death of Hiram a series of revolu- 
tions and usurpations followed, during which the only names of interest 
are Pygmalion ' whose sister Elisa, or Dido, founded Troy) and Ithobalus, 
or Eth-baal, the father of Jezebel (I Kings, xvi. 31), a priest of Astaii:e, 
who gained the throne by assassinating Phales. In his reign the 
Assyrians, under Sardanapalus L, first invaded the country, and ex- 
acted tribute from Tyre, Sidon, Byblus, and Ai-adus. From the 
intimations of the early prophets, Joel and Amos, we infer that the 
Phoenicians carried on a vexatious warfare on the borders of Palestine. 
Phoenicia was from henceforth subjected to constant invasions from the 
Assyrian kings. On the fall of Nineveh Xabopolassar asserted his 
authority over Phoenicia, and his son Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre for 
13 years, after having previously captured Sidon. The result of the 
Tyrian siege is uncertain : from Ez. xxix. 17, we may almost infer that it 
was unsuccessful — a conclusion which is supported by the fact that the 
line of kings was not then disturbed. Shortly after this Cyprus was 
seized by Amasis, king of Egypt. Phoenicia seems to have declined from 
this time, and to have gradually succumbed to the preponderatiug in- 
fluence of the Persian empire without any actual conquest. It formed 
along with Palestine and Cyprus the fifth Persian satrapy, and contributed 
a contingent to the fleet of Darius in the Greek war. In B.C. oo2 a vain 
attempt was made to shake off the Persian yoke. Sidon, which was 
again the chief city of Phoenicia, was taken, and her population almost 
destroyed by Artaxerxes Ochus. At the approach of Alexander the 



Chap. X. 



HISTORY— COLOXIES. 



171 



Great, Araclus, Byblus, and Sidon, received him, but Tyre held out, 
and was not taken until after a laborious siege of seven months, 
when its inhabitants were utterly destroyed, and a Carian colony intro- 
duced in their place. Alexander formed Phoenicia, with Syria and 
Cilicia, into a province. In the subsequent arrangement of his domi- 
nions Phoenicia fell to the lot of I'tolemy of Egypt, but was shortly 
after (B.C. 315; seized by Antigonus. and from this time formed a bone 
of contention between the Egyptian and Syrian kings. In the year 
B.C. 83, the Phoenicians obtained the aid of Tigranes. king of Armenia, 
against the latter, and he held it for fourteen years. Ultimately it 
fell^ along with Syria, into the hands of the Romans. 

§ 10. The commerce of PliLenicia Avas prosecuted on a most exten- 
sive scale. The chief routes in the continent of Asia have been 
already described ; it remains for us to give a brief account of their 
maritime colonies on the coasts of Europe and Africa. 

Their colonies lined the shores of the [Mediterranean to its western 
extremity. We can trace their progress to Cyprus, where they founded 
Citium and Paphos ; thence to Crete (the sceiie of the myth of Europa, 
and tlie Cyclades, which were chiefly colonised by them; thence to 
Eubcea, where they once dwelt at Calchis, and to Greece, where 
Thebes claimed connexion Avith them. Chios. Samos, and Tenedos, 
were united to Phoenicia by ancient rites and myths, as also Imbros 
and Lemnos. The mines of Thasos and of Mount Panggeus, on the 
opposite coast of Thrace, had been worked by them. They had settled 
in greater or less force on the southern and western coasts of Asia 
^Linor, and on the coast of Bithynia,. where they founded Pronectus 
and Bithynium, which were doubtless but stations for carrying on 
trade v>-ith the shures of the Euxiue Sea. Proceeding yet farther to 
the west, Ave find them stretching across to Sicily, Sardinia, ^Ebusus 
{hiC'i , and Spain the Tarshish of Scripture;, where they founded 
Gadeira [C'-diz) and numerous other colonies. The northern coast of 
Africa was thickly sown witli their colonies, of which Utica, Hippo, 
Hadrumetum, Leptis, and more especially Carthage — the centre of an 
independent system of colonies —were the most important. Outside 
the Pillars of Hercules, they possessed, according to Strabo 'xvii. p. 
826), as many as 300 colonies on the western coast of Africa. They 
are supposed to have traded to the Sell'.:! Isles and the coasts of Eng- 
land fur tin, and even beyond this to the shores of Cirnbria for amber ; 
and thus, as Humboldt [Kosmos, ii. 132, remarks, "^'the Tyrian flag 
waved at the same time in Britain and the Indian Ocean.'' How far 
their knowledge of the world extended beyond these limits we have no 
means of ascertaining. It is stated that tliey circumnavigated Africa 
under the direction of Xecho, king of Egypt Herod, iv. 42). The 
truth of this has been Cjuestioned ; Herodotus himself disbelieved it, 
but the reason he gives for his disbelief, viz. that the navigators alleged 
that the sun was on their right hand, is a strong argument in favour of 
its truth. 

in. — Arabia. 

§ 11. The peninsula of Arabia is bounded on three sides by 
water, viz. on the X.E. by the Persian Gulf and the Sinus Omana, 
Gulf of Oman; on the S.E. and S. by the Erythrjeum Mare, or 
Indian Ocean ; and on the AV. bv the Arabicus Sinus. In the X. 

I 2 



172 



ARABIA. 



Book 11. 



its boundary is not well defined. The peninsula itself may be 
regarded as terminating at a line drawn .between the heads of the 
Persian and JElanitic gulfs, distant from one another about 800 
miles ; but it was usual to include in Arabia two outlying districts, 
viz. the triangular block of desert ' to the X. of this line, interven- 
ing between Palestine and Babylonia, and the peninsula of Sinai, 
between the arms of the Red Sea. Arabia w^as, therefore, contigu- 
ous to Egypt in the AV., Palestine in the N.W., Syria in the X., 
and Mesopotamia in the N.E. Its physical character is strongly 
marked : it consists of a plateau of considerable elevation, sur- 
rounded by a low belt ^ of coast-land, varying in width according 
as the mountains which support the plateau approach to or recede 
from the sea. In modern geography these portions are distinguished 
as the Ntjd, " highlands," and the Tehama, " lowlands," but no cor- 
responding terms occur among ancient writers. The country, 
though generally arid and unlit for cultivation, nevertheless 
abounded in productions of great commercial value,^ such as 
spices,^ myrrh,2 frankincense,^ silk,^ precious stones, and certain 
kinds of fruits. An extensive trade was carried on between the 
southern coasts of Arabia and the shores of India and southern 
Africa, and hence various productions were assigned to it by 
ancient writers which really belonged to those latter countries. 

§ 12. The physical features of Arabia were but httle known to 
the ancients. The ranges of Palestine may be traced down to the 
head of the ^lanitic arm of the Red Sea, on either side of the 
remarkable depressed plain named Akaha, The high ground on 

' The name as used in St. Paul's Ep. to the Gal. i. 17 has reference exclusively 
to this northern district. 

8 This belt appears to have been once covered by the sea, and has been gradu« 
ally elevated : the process of elevation is still going on, and the increase of land 
on the W. coast is very observable Tvithin historical times. Muza, "which Arrian 
describes as on the sea-coast, is now several miles inland. 

9 Hence the wealth of the Arabs passed into a proverb among the Romans : 

. Plenas aut Arabum domes. Hor. Carm. ii. 12, 24 
Intactis opulentior 

Thesauris Arabum. Id. iii. 2 4, 1. 

1 Sit diTes amomo, 
Cinnamaque, costumque suam, sudataque ligno 
Thura ferat, floresque alios Panchaia tellus ; 

Dum ferat et Myrrham. Tanti nova non fuit arbos. 

Ov. 2Iet X. 307. 

2 Xon Arabo noster rore capillus olet. Ov. IIe7\ xv. 7 6. 
Et gravidfe maduere comte, quas rore Sabteo 

Nutrierat. Yal. Elacc. vi. 709. 

^ Urantur pia tura focis : urantur odores 

Quos tener e terra divite mittit Arabs. Tibvll. ii. 2, 3. 

India mittit ebur, moUes sua tura Sabsei. Virg. Georg. i. 57. 

Totaque thuriferis Panchaia pinguis arenis. Id. ii. 139. 
^ Nee si qua Arabic lucet bombyce puella. Propert. ii. 3, 15. 



Chap. X. PHYSICAL FEATURES — IXIIABITAXTS. 



17.] 



the W. side gradually rises towards the S., and terminates in a 
confused knotty mass of lofty mountains, near the point where the 
two arms of the Red Sea separate. The general name for these 
mountains in classical geography was Nigri Montes ; they are now 
called El Tor, the most conspicuous heights in the group being 
named Um Shomer (8850 feet high), Jebel Catharine (8705), Jehel 
Mousa, " Moses' Hill," a little to the E. of Jebel Catharine, the 
reputed scene of the delivery of the law, and Jehel Serial (6759 
feet), which stands apart from the central group, near the W. arm 
of the Red Sea. On the E. side of the Akaba are the mountains of 
Idum^a, or Edom, composed of red sandstone, the most conspicuous 
height of which is the Mount Hor of the Bible, near Petra, the 
scene of Aaron's death. Of the other chains in Arabia we have 
notice in Ptolemy of Zamethus, Jebel Aared, in the interior; the 
Marithi Montes, near the Persian Gulf ; and the Nigri Montes, near 
the Gulf of Oman. 

§ 13. The Arabians were mainly a Semitic race, though there 
appears to have been a Hamitic element mixed with it. The most 
important tribes known to ancient geographers were, the Scenita?,^ 
" dwellers in tents," the progenitors of the modern Bedouins ; the 
ISTabathsei,^ in Arabia Petra^a, about Petra and the vElanitic Gulf : 
the Thamydeni, or Thamydit^, more to the S. ; the Miucei, in the 
S. of Eedjaz ; the Saba3i^and Homeritse, in the S.W. angle; the 
Chatramotitfe and Adramita^, in Hadramaut ; the Omanit^e on the 
shores of the Gulf of Oman ; the Attsei and Gerrhaei, on the Per- 
sian Gulf. 

§ 14. Arabia was originally divided into two parts : Deserta, the 
northern^ extension, to which we have already adverted, and Felix,® 
which comprised the whole of the proper peninsula. To these a 



^ The name Saraceni ^as afterwards applied to them, though originally re- 
stricted to a tribe on the borders of Petraea. 

6 The Nabathgei were well known to the Romans in consequence of their 
proximity to the Red Sea and their piratical habits : the name is used as equiva- 
lent to Arabian. 

Et quos deposait Xabathceo bellua saltu 

Jam nimios capitique graves. Juv. Sat. xi 126. 

Eurus ad Auroram Xabathoeaque regna recessit. Ov. Jlct. i. 61. 
' The Sabaeans were the chief traders in frankincence : 
Thuris odoratge cumulis et messe Sabcea 

Pacem conciliant arse. Clal-dian. de Laud Stil. i. 58. 
ubi tempium illi centumque Sabteo 

Thure calcnt aree, sertisque recentibus halant. Yirg. .i'/i. i. 416. 
The title of Felix, " happy," tliough not inappropriate to certain parts of 
Arabia, and particularly to the S.W. angle, may have originated in a mistaken 
interpretation of the Semitic Yemen, which signifies primarily the ripht hand, and 
secondarily the south, but which the Greeks understood in the secondary sense of 
fortunate, just as the Latins used dexter. Certainly the title of Felix is a perfect 
misnomer for a great portion of the peninsula. 



174 



AEABIA. 



Book II. 



third was subsequently added, of which the earliest notice occurs in 
rtoleniY, named Petraea, applying to the district surrounding the 
town of Petva. The towns of ancient Arabia possess few topics of 
interest. They occupied the sites of the modem towns, and corre- 
spond with them in great measure in name : thus, in Macoraba we 
recognise Mehka Eabha, the great Mecca f in Jombia, Yemho ; 
in Mariaba, Mareh ; in Adana, the modern Ade?}, at present a Bri- 
tish possession, and serving the same purpose to which it owed its 
ancient celebrity, as a station for Indian commerce ; in Jathrippa, 
Jathret, the earlier name of Medina. The modern Jeddah is sup- 
posed to be represented by the ancient .Theba3 ; Mohka, however, 
stands on ground which was not in existence in ancient times, and 
has supi)lanted Muza as the chief port of that part. The only 
towns of which we have any special knowledge were situated in the 
N. of the country, such as Petra, iElana, and a few others. 

Petra, the capital of the Xabathsei, was by far the most important 
town in northern Arabia. It was situated between the head of the 
^Elanitic Gulf and the Dead Sea, and was the central point whence the 
caravan-routes radiated to Egypt, the Persian gulf, Syria, and southern 
Arabia. Its position is remarkable : a ravine ( Wady Musa) of about a 
mile in length, about 150 feet wide at its entrance, and only 12 feet at 
its narrowest point, conducts to i plain about a square mile in extent: 
on this plain stood the town, while the ravine itself served as a necro- 
polis, the tombs being excavated out of the sides of the cliiTs, and adorned 
with sculptured //^'Yc/c's, which are still in a high state of preservation. 
The remains of a theatre, hewn out of the rock, are also a remarkable 
object. These buildings were probably erected during the period that 
the town was held by the Romans, commencing in the reign of Trajau, 
in whose reign it was subdued, and lasting for about a couple of cen- 
turies, ^lana, which we have already noticed under the Biblical name 
of Elath, remained a port of commercial importance under the Romans. 
The names of the other important ports on the Red Sea from to S. 
were — Jambia, Yemho, Zabram, Badeo, and Muza : the last was iden- 
tical with MousMd. Sapphar was an important town in the interior, E. 
of Muza, probably at a spot named Dlmfar. Saba ranked as the capital 
of the south, but its position is quite uncertain ; it was probably iden- 
tical with Mariaba in the interior, anri is further noticed under the 
names Sabotha or Sabtha. Mariaba was famed for its enormous reser- 
voir, which received the water of no less than 70 streams for the pur- 
pose of irrigation : the bursting of the great dam was regarded as so 
great a catastrophe that it became an era in Arabic history ; it occurred 
probably about the time of Alexander the Great. The remains of this 
reservoir have been discovered at March. Adana was the chief port on 
the southern coast, and hence received the name of Arabia Felix; it 
was the emporium of the trade between Egypt, Arabia, and India, 
^lius Gallus destroyed it, but it soon revived. On the Persian Gulf 
Rhegma and Gherra may be noticed as places of importance in con- 
nexion v/ith Indian trade. 

Islands. — Off the Arabian coast were the islands Dioscoridis, Socotra, 
and Sarapidis, JIassera, in the Arabian Sea ; and Tylus, or Tyrus, Bah- 
reira, and Aradus, Arad, in the Persian Gulf. The two latter are of 



Chap. X. 



HISTOEY. 



175 



interest in connexion with the history of the Phoenicians. Tylus is 
also described as abounding in pearls. 

History. — The history of Arabia in ancient times is well nigh a blank. 
No conqueror has ever penetrated the interior to any distance. Anti- 
gonus made some unsuccessful attempts to conquer the Nabatha^i in 
the years 312, 311 B.C. The next expedition was undertaken by ^lius 
Gallus in the reign of Augustus, B.C. 24. Starting from Myus Ilormus 
he la.nded at Leuce Come, and proceeded by an overland route to a 
place named Marsyabse,^ whence he returned under pressure of the 
extreme heat and drought. In a.d. 105 the district adjacent to Pales- 
tine was formed into a Roman province by A. Cornelius Palma under 
the name of Arabia. 



° The scene of this expedition -was probably quite in the north of the peninsula : 
as Leuce Come was only two or three days' sail from Myus Hormus, it could not 
have been S. of Moilah : Marsyabae cannot possibly be identified with the southern 
Mariaba of the Sabeei, but was perhaps on the site of Merah, at the eastern base 
of the Nedjd mountains. The following passages relate to this expedition : 
Icci beatis nunc Arabum invides 
Gazis, et acrem militiam paras 
Non ante de^i.ctis Sabsese 

Kegibus. Hon. Carm. i. 29, 1. 

India quin, Auguste, tuo dat colla triumpho, 

Et domus intactae te tremit Arabiae. Propert. ii. 10, 19. 




Mount Hor. 



Jerusalem. 



CHAPTER XI. 

PALESTINE. 

§ 1. Boundaries; names. § 2. Position and general character. § 3. 
Mountains. §4. Plains. §5. Rivers and lakes. §6. Inhabitants. 
§ 7. Territorial divisions. I. Judaea. § 8. Physical character of 
Judeea. § 9. Simeon. § 10. Judah. § 11. The maritime plain; 
Philistia. § 12. Dan. § 13. Benjamin. § 14. Jerusalem. II. 
Samaria. § 15. Boundaries and character of Samaria. § 16. 
Ephraim and Manasseh. Ill, Galilee. § 17. Boundaries and 
character of Galilee. § 18. Issachar ; the plain of Esdraelon. 
§ 19. Zebukm ; the Sea of Galilee. § 20. Xaphthali. § 21. Asher. 
ly. Per.ea. § 22. Pbj'sical features of Per^ea; Reuben, Gad, and 
half Manasseh. § 23. Moab. § 24. Batanaea, Trachouitis, and Ituraea. 
§ 25. Towns. § 26. History. 

§ 1. Palestine was bounded on the W. by the Mediterranean or 
great" sea ; on the S. and E. by the desert of Arabia, and on the 
N. by Syria. Its boundary in the latter direction is not vrell de- 
fined : it ran somewhere N. of Sidon (Jiidg. i. 31), and along the 
southern extremity of Hermon (Deut. iii. 8;, or Hor (Xum. xxxiv. 
7, 8) : on the S. a range of heights extends from the southern end 
of the Dead Sea to the Mediterranean : on the E. the limit is again 
undefined ; in the northern part it extends as far as Salcah (Josh, 
xiii. 11) in nearh^ the 37° of long., and thence returns to a range 



Chap. XI. GENERAL CHARACTER — JS^AMES. 



177 



of hills skirting the desert, which it follows towards the S. to 
the junction of the two branches of the Jahhok, and thence to the 
Arnon. The surface of Palestine is greatly varied. The greater 
part of the interior is a highland district, diversified in some places 
with hills, in others with broad undulations. Low plains intervene 
betv>^een this district and the sea, and a remarkable sunken plain, 
in some parts below the level of the sea, cleaves the highlands from 
N. to S., along the course of the Jordan. The temperature varies 
with the varying altitude. While the plains suffer from a tropical 
heat, the highlands, in which the bulk of the population has in all 
ages been settled, enjoy a tolerably moderate and equable climate. 
The productions are consequently equally varied. The palm-tree 
and the walnut, the balsam and the cedar, find temperatures adapted 
to their several natures. That the soil, under the most careful 
cultivation, w^as pre-eminently fertile,^ not only the glowing descrip- 
tions of the Bible, but the statements of classical writers also 
inform us. In addition to wheat, barley, and other cereals, a pro- 
fusion of fruits — the vine, olive, fig, pomegranate, date, almond, &c. 
— ripened in great perfection. In the highlands, particularly in 
those on the other side of Jordan, the finest pastures abound. 

Names. — Palestine formed a portion of the "land of Canaan," which 
extended, as we have already shown^ beyond the borders of Phoenicia : 
this, therefore, was its earliest designation in Scripture i Gen, xi. 31). 
It did not, however, apply to the Trans-Jordanic region, this being 
styled in contradistinction Gilead (Josh. xxii. 9-11). Before the 
Exodus it was styled the "land of the Hebrews" (Gen. xl. 15). and 
after the Exodus the "land of Israel*' (Judg. xix. 29;, and occa- 
sionally the "land of Jehovah" (Hos. ix. 3-, compare Lev. xxv. 23; 
Ps. Ixxxv. 1). The expression "Holy Land" which we have adopted 
occurs but once in Scripture fZech. ii. 12). Palestine is derived from 
the Greeks, who described this portion of Syria under the specific title 
of " Syria Pali3estina/' i. e. " Syria of the Philistines " ^ (Herod, i. 105). 
After the return from the Babylonian captivity, the name of Judah, 
which had previously applied only to the tribe of that name and after- 
wards to the kingdom, was extended over the whole country, and the 
people were named Judffians or Jews. 

§ 2. The geographical position and physical character of Palestine 
adapted it in many respects for its special office in the world's 
history. (1.) Its boundaries were well defined: the wilderness 
encompassed it on the E. and S., while on the N. the moimtainous 
district of Lebanon, and on the W. the Mediterranean Sea closed it 



^ The present condition of Palestine presents in this respect a most melancholy 
contrast. The change may be traced to various causes : — the destruction of the 
terraces and water-channels — the extirpation of the forests — and the constant 
wars that have desolated the count)-y. 

- This was the name by which it Avas known to the Komans : 

Alba Palaestino sancta columba Svro. — Tibvll. i. 7, 18. 

I 3 



178 PALESTINE. Book II. 

in. Thus the Jews were distinctly separated from all other nations. 
(2.) It was well situated with regard to the early seats of empire 
and civilization, having Egypt on the one side and Mesopotamia on 
the other. All intercourse between these countries was necessarily 
conducted through Palestine : in a military point of view especially 
Palestine was the gate of Egypt. From these causes both the 
Egyptians and Assyiians must have become well acquainted with its 
institutions and religion. (3). It possessed no facilities for extended 
commerce ; the coast-line is regular, and offers no harbourage, except 
at the small port of Joppa ; the country was not gifted with any 
]3eculiar productions w^hich called forth a spirit of inventive genius. 
(4.) The varied character of its soil yielded all the productions 
requisite for the necessities and even the luxuries of its inhabit- 
ants, and made them comparatively independent of other countries. 

§ 3. The mountain system of Palestine is connected with the 
great range of Taurus by the intervening chains of Amanus, 
Bargylus, and Libanus or Lebanon. From the latter of these a 
high mountainous district emanates which runs parallel to, but at 
some distance from the Mediterranean coast through the whole 
length of the land, broken only at one point by the plain of Esdraelon, 
and the valley of the river Kishon. The mountains S.of Esdraelon 
are subdivided into two sections by a depression, which occurs in 
the neighbourhood of Jerusalem: the southern of these sections 
comprised the *' hill country of Jud»a," the northern the " moun- 
tains of Ephraim : " the elevation of this district gradually increases 
towards the S., and attains a height of 3250 feet above the level of 
the sea in the neighbourhood of Hebron. The regularit}^ of the 
coast-line is broken by the protrusion of a lofty spur that bounds 
the plain of Esdraelon on the S., terminating in the promontory of 
Carmel. The district on the eastern side of Jordan may be regarded 
as a prolongation of the range of Antilibanus, which is continued in 
the ranges of el-Heisli and el-Faras to the head of the Sea of Galilee, 
and then subsides into the table-land of Hauran. On the southern 
side of the Hieromax the ground rises again, and attains its greatest 
elevation in Mount GUead S. of the Jabbok. The plateau which 
succeeds towards the S. rises abruptly from the valley of the 
Jordan, and falls off gradually eastward to the desert of Arabia. 
The most remarkable height in the whole of Palestine is the northern 
peak of Hermon at the extremity of Antilibanus : it received various 
names, Sirion, Senir, and occasionally Sion (Deut. iv. 48), the two 
former signifying " breastplate," and suggested by the glittering 
appearance of the summit under the influence of the sun's rays : it 
is now called Jebel-esli-SJieihh, the old man's mountain," or 
the chief mountain;" its height is about 10,000 feet, and its 
summit is streaked with snow even in the middle of summer. 



Chap. XI. 



PLAINS — RIVER JORDAN. 



179 



§ 4. Next to the mountains, the plains demand our notice, from 
the strong contrast which they present in point of elevation and cha- 
racter. These plains extend on each side of the hill-country of 
Western Palestine : on the W. a rich district stretches from Carmel 
along the coast of the Mediterranean to the borders of the desert, 
divided into tvro portions, Sharon, " the smooth," forming the northern 
division, and Shepliela, " the low," the southern, while X. of Carmel 
follows the beautiful plain that surrounds Acre. On the E. lies the 
plain of the Jordan, deeply sunk below the level of the sea, and 
presenting in almost every res23ect a remarkable contrast to the hill- 
country : it was described by the Hebrews as the desert," by the 
Greeks as Anion, "the channel," and by the modern Arabs as 
el-Ghor, " the sunken plain." The difference in point of elevation of 
these closely contiguous districts is best shown by a reference to 
the accompanying diagram. Jerusalem stands about 3500 feet 
above the Dead Sea, about the same elevation at which a spec- 
tator overlooks the sea at Carnarvon from the top of Snowdon.^ 




1. Jerusalem. 2, Dead Sea. 3, Mountains of Moab. 



§ 5. The only river of importance in Palestine is the Jordan, 
which rises at the base of Hermon, and flows with a rapid stream 
(whence its name, meaning the swiftly descending") through the 
lakes of Merom and Galilee into the Dead Sea, its valley sinking far 
below the level of the Mediterranean. The Arabs name it Slieriat- 
el-Khehir,'''the watering place." 

Its early course lies along a level and swampy plain to the Lake of 
jlerom : at this point the depression of its bed commences, and it 
descends 300 feet to the Sea of Galilee. Emerging from this it descends 
ao-ain 1000 feet by a series of rapids to the Dead Sea, receiving on its 
left bank the tributary streams of the Hieromax and the Jabbok. This 
last stage of its com^se lies along a deep valley, about eight miles broad, 
enclosed between two parallel mountaiji walls. As the river flows in 
the lowest part of this valley, it is incapable of fructifying it, and hence 
it was specially termed "the desert " (Ha-arahah) by the Hebrews. In 
the midst of this barrenness, the uanks of the river are fringed with a 
prolific growth of trees and grass. It is crossed by fords at four points. 



3 This contrast of mountain and plain exercises an influence on the political 
arrangements, and even on the language of the country. From it arises the bro^id 
division of the population into the Amorites, " dwellers in the mountains," and 
the Canaanites, " dwellers in the plain." Hence also the expressions so frequent 
in Scripture, "going down," e.g. to Jericho, " going up" to Jerusalem. To the 
>;ame feature we may also attribute the extensive views which are to he obtained 
from various points of the hill-country. 



180 



PALESTINE. 



Book 11. 



viz. below the Sea of Galilee^ below the confluence of the Jabbok, and 
at two points opposite Jericho. In the latter part of its course the 
bed of the river is depressed about 50 to 80 feet below the level of the 
plain: its breadth varies from So to 100 feet^ and its depth from 10 to 
12 feet. At the time the Israelites crossed it^ it was full up to its banks 
— an occurrence still occasionally witnessed in the beginning of May. 
The Jordan with its singularly depressed valley formed a natm^al divi- 
sion of Palestine into two portions^ described in Scripture as ^'this 
side" and "the other side Jordan." 

The Jordan was connected with a system of lakes, which were 
fed by it ; they were named — the first Merom, now Ard-el-HuIeh ; 
the second, by the several names of the Sea of Chinneretli or CMnne- 
roth, perhaps from its oval, " harp-like " form, the Sea of Galilee from 
the province in which it lay, and the Lake of Gennesareth or Tiberias 
from places on its coast : the third, the " great " or " salt " sea of the 
Hebrews, thelacus Asphaltites of the Romans, the Bahr Lut, ''Lot's 
Sea," of the Arabs, and the " Dead Sea" of some classical writers 
and of modern geography. 

Merom is about 4^ miles long by 3 J broad, and is surrounded by an 
impenetrable mass of jungle : on the plain in its neighbourhood was 
fought the last battle between Joshua and the Canaanites. The Sea of 
Galilee is about -l o miles long by 6 wide ; it lies in a deeply sunk basin, 
surrounded by hills of great elevation. On the eastern shore these 
hills rise almost immediately from the edge of the lake : on the western 
shore a fertile strip of land intervenes, and at one point, about midway 
from the ends of the lake, there is a considerable plain about 5 miles 
wide by G broad, formed by the receding mountains. The lake still 
abounds with fish as in our Saviour's time. The Dead Sea is 40 miles 
long by 8 J broad, and lies at a depression of above 1300 feet below the 
level of the sea. The lower part of the sea is narrowed by the projec- 
tion of a broad promontory : a great alteration in the depth occurs' at 
this point, the northern portion being deep, the southern quite shallow. 
The whole is enclosed by a double mountain wall^ the continuation of 
that which bounds the Ghor. The saltness of the water is remarkable, 
the per-centage of salt being 2Gi, while that of the ocean is only 4. This 
arises from a barrier of fossil salt at the southern end of the lake, 
aided by the effects of evaporation. Masses of asphaltum are sometimes 
thrown up from the bottom. Along the shore are numerous salt 
marshes, on which pure sulphur is often found, and near the southern 
end are salt-pits. A number of springs pour into the lake, of which the 
most famous were En-eglaim, probably the Callirhoe in which Herod 
bathed, at the X.E. end, and En-gedi on the western coast, surrounded 
by a small oasis of verdure. The lake receives a further supply from 
some tributary streams on its eastern shore, of which the Amon'^is the 
most important. Changes have probably occurred in the condition of 
the lake within historical times: the description of Lot (Gen. xiii. 10) 
is now inappropriate, and the fact of a Pentapolis, or confederacy of 
five cities, viz., Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeb5im, and Lasha, having 
existed near the southern part of the lake renders it likely that the 
shallow part of the lake has been recently submerged, and was formerly 
a rich plain. The opinion formerly entertained, that the Jordan may 
formerly have found a channel b}^ the Arahah into the Red Sea, has 



Chap. XI. 



IXHABITAXTS. 



181 



been proved incorrect bv the discovery tliat the ground rises S. of the 
lake. 

§ 6. The population of ralestine was composed of numerous 
races, which succeeded one another in the possession of the country. 

i. Its earliest inhabitants probably belun,^ed to those Giant" 
races, of Avhich but a few isolated communities remained in his- 
torical times. They were most numerous in the Trans- Jordanic 
district, where we have notice of the Eephaims in Ashteroth- 
Karnaim, the Ziizims or Zamzummim in Ham, and the Emim 
in Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. xiv. 5). Og, the King of Bashan, was 
the last survivor of the race in that district (Deut. iii. 11). They 
were also found AV. of Jordan, viz. the Anakim about Hebron 
(Xum. xiii. 22 : Josh. xiv. 15) ; the Eephaim, Avho gave name to a 
valley to the S.AV. of Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 18) ; and perhaps the 
Avim in Philistia (Deut. ii. 23). The origin and history of these 
races is a matter of conjecture. 

ii. The Canaanites were, like the Plirenicians, a Semitic race. 
There is certainly some difficulty in reconciling the Biblical state- 
ment (according to Avhich Canaan was a son of Ham, Gen. x. 6) 
with the conclusions to be derived from language and other ethno- 
logical indications. It is clear that when Abraham first entered 
Canaan the language spoken by the inhabitants was the same as 
the later Hebrew : not only did Abraham converse with the Hittites 
without an interpreter (Gen. xxiii.), but the names Melchizedek, 
Salem, and others, are clearly of a Semitic origin. 

iii. The Philistines were a Hamitic race : according to Gen. x. 
11, they were connected with the Casluhim, and according to Jer. 
xlvii. 4, and Am. ix. 7, with the Caphthorim. As these two tribes 
were closely allied, it is possible that the Caphthorim immigrated 
into the country of the Casluhim at a later period. The Philistines 
were intimately connected with Egypt : the name Caphthor survived 
in Coptos, and Philistine perhaps in Pelusium ; the name Philistine 
is supposed to be of Coptic origin, betokening "strangers" (hence, 
in the LXX. they are termed dXXocpvXoL), indicating their immi- 
gration from Tapper to Lower Egypt. 

iv. The Hebrews were also a Semitic race, who immigrated at 
a later period from the northern part of Mesopotamia. AVhen they 
first appear in history they were a nomadic tribe, who merely fed 
their flocks and herds by the permission of the older occupants. 
Their growth as a people took place in Egypt, whence they issued 
as an invading host and took forcible possession of the laud of the 
Canaanites, in many instances exterminating the inhabitants, in 
others reducing them to the position of bondsmen. It is clear, 
however, that the Hebrews Avere at no period possessors of the 
whole of the country. The Philistines in the S. and the Phoeni- 



182 



PALESTINE. 



Book II. 



cians in tlie X. held tlieir ground permanently ; and for a long 
period the Canaanites occupied strongholds in the midst of the 
Hebrews (1 Sam. vii. 14 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 2, xxiv. 7). The population 
was thus of a mixed character, foreign races holding the extremities 
of the land, while in the central districts Canaanites vreve found 
even to the latest times of the monarchy (Ezr. ix. 12), much in the 
relative positions of the Spartans and Helots of Laconia (1 Kings, 
ix. 20, 21). 

V. The Samaritans were a mixed race of Hebrews and Baby- 
lonians. Their existence, as a people, dates from the period of the 
Israelitish captivity, when Shalmaneser introduced colonies of Baby- 
lonians into Samaria to supply the place of the inhabitants whom he 
had carried off. A certain portion of the latter a^r'pear to have 
remained behind, or perhaps they returned gradually from the place 
of their captivity. Religious teachers were supplied at their own 
request, and thus both the people and their religion assumed a hybrid 
character, which led to extreme jealousy on the part of the pure Jews, 
and ultimately to the estrangement indicated in John iv. 9. 

(vi.) AVe have, lastly, to notice some tribes which were connected 
with the Israelites by ties of relationsliip ; such as the Moabites and 
Ammonites, who were descended from Lot, and the Kenites, to 
whom Hobab. the father-in-law of Moses, belonged. 

§ 7. The divisions of Palestine varied in the different periods of 
its history. 

i. The earliest of these periods may be termed the Canaanitish, 
and lasted from the time when the country is first I^no^^-n to us 
dow]i to the entrance of the Hebrews. During this it Avas occupied 
mainly by the Canaanitish tribes, and partly by the Philistines and 
the descendants of Abraham and Lot. 

Thr C:rii:;:initish Pt^'^'V»7 —The CanaaDites were divided into the follow- 
ing tribes:—!. Hivites in the northern districts about the roots of 
Lebanon (Josh. xi. 3). and at one period about Slieehem Gen. xxxiv. 2 '. 

2. Girgashites, whose abode is not specified in the few passages in 
which the name occurs Deut. vii. 1; Josh, xxiv, 11: Xeh. ix. S). 

3. Jebusites. about Jerusalem Josh. xv. S: Jiidg. i. 2l\ 4. Hittites. 
more to the S.. in the neighbourhood of Hebron Gen. xxiii. 3". 5'. 
Amorites, about tlie western shores of the Dead Sea Gen. xiv. 7. 13) 
and across the valley of the Jordan to the opposite hiu-hlands. where^, 
at the time of the Exodus, they had two kingdom s,Vith Heshbon 
for the southern ^Xum. xxi. 13, 26 and Ashtaroth for the northern 
capital Deut. i. 4 ; Josh. ix. l':'\ t3. Canaanites properly so called , 
on the sea-shore X. of Philistia and in the plains of " the Jordan 
(Xum. xiii. 29 . the two branches being described as the Cauaanite 
on the east and on the west" (Josh. xi. 3). AVhether the Perizzites 
were a Canaanitish tribe or not is uncertain : they are not enumerated 
in Gen. x. 15-19. It has been surmised, however, that the name is 
significant, and that the Perizzites were the ' auriculturists ' ' in oppo- 
sition to the Canaanites, '-'the merchants,'"' and that thus Cauaanite 



Chap. XI. TEERITOPJAL DIVISION; S— JUDAEA. 



183 



and Perizzite formed the two great divisions of the people, according 
to their occupatious (Gen. xiii. 7, xxxiv. 30). Some of the above names 
are applied in an extended sense to the whole of Palestine, as the 
Hittites rJosh. i. 4) and the Amorites ^Gen. xv. 16 ; Josh. xxiv. 18). 

At the time of the Exodus the Moabites, who had previously occu- 
pied the district E. of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, had been expelled 
from it by the Amorites and were living S. of the Arnon (Xum. xxi. 
13, 26), The name ''field" or ''plains of Moab was, nevertheless, 
always applied to their former territory (Deut. i. 5; Josh. xiii. 32). 
The Ammonites lived originally to the X., in the highlands adjacent 
to the valley of the Jord.m, between the Arnon and Jabbok, but had 
been driven to the borders of the wilderness by the Amorites, east- 
ward of the Jabbok in its upper course (Deut. iii. 16). The Kenites 
roamed about the country, and are found at one period in the wilder- 
ness of Judah (Judg. i. 16), at another in northern Palestine ( Judg. iv. 
11), and again among the Amalekites (1 Sam. xv. 6). 

The Philistines were settled in the southern maritime plain of 
Judsea, where they had a confederacy of five cities — Ashdod, Gaza. 
Ekron, Gath, and Ascalc^. 

ii. The second period may be termed the Israelitish, lasting 
from the time of Joshua to the Babylonish captivity, wiien Palestine 
was divided among the twelve tribes, the earlier nations occupying 
certain positions. In the latter part of this period the vdiole country 
was divided into the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel — the former 
comprising the southern portion of western Palestine as far as the 
boundary of Benjamin and Ephraim, and the latter the whole 
remaining district, 

iii. The third period may be termed the Ptoman, and is con- 
temporaneous with the Xew Testament history. Western Palestine 
w^as then divided into three portions — Judrea, Samaria, and Galilee 
— while eastern Palestine was divided into several districts, of which 
Pera?a was the most important, extending from the southern frontier 
to the Sea of Galilee, the northern district being subdivided into 
Itnra?a, Gaulonitis, Auranitis, and Trachonitis. AVe shall adopt the 
divisions of this third period in the following detailed description of 
the country, retaining the tribes as subdivisions. 

iv. Einally, at the commencement of the otli century a.d., Pales- 
tine was divided into three provinces ; Pala^stioa Prima, consisting 
of the northern part of Judaea, Samaria, and Philistia ; P. Secunda, 
Galilee and Northern PercTa : and P. Tertia or Salutaris, the southern 
parts of Juda?a and Pera^a, with a part of Arabia Petrsea. 

I. JUD^A. 

§ 8. Judcea comprised the territories of the tribes of Simeon, 
Juclah, Dan, and Benjamin, together with the maritime district of 
Philistia. AVithin these limits were included districts differing 
widely from each other in physical character, climate, and produc- 
tions. There was first the " south country," consisting of an undu- 



184 



JUDJEA. 



Book II. 



lating plain between the mountains of Jndah and. the desert of 
et-Tih: secondly, the " hill country," the central district, which was 
highly elevated and richly ctiltivated : thirdly, the " desert," which 





J ericho. 



intervened between this and the Dead Sea ; and, lastly, the maritime 
plain, named Shephela, which was remarkably fertile. 

§ 9. The tribe of Simeon occupied the south country," which was 
unfavourably situated, being exposed to the attacks of the Amalek- 
ites and other desert tribes : it consequently possessed no towns of 
importance, but had several stations about wells, such as Beersheba, 
Laharoi, and others. 

Beersheba, ^^the well of the oath," is connected with many in- 
cidents of interest : the well was oiiginally dug by Abraham, and 
named after the treaty which he formed with Abimelech : here the 
patriarch planted a grove and received his order to slay Isaac ; and 
Jacob obtained the blessing from Esau, and offered up sacrifices before 
leaving his native country. Samuel here appointed his sons Judges, 
and it was visited by Elijah on his journey to Horeb : it was the most 
southerly town of Palestine. There are still at this spot two wells 
furnishing pure living water. 



Chap. XI. 



JUDAH- TOWNS. 



185 



§ 10. The " soutli country " was succeeded by tlie " hill country," 
occupied by the tribe of Judah, a broad district of hill and vale 

overlooking in one direction the Dead Sea, in the other the maritime 
plain of Philistia. Its fertility was great : it was (and even still is 
in spots) well covered with corn-fields and vineyards ; the ravines 
were clothed with forests, and the various mountain-tops afforded 
secure sites for fortified towns. The most elevated part is in the 
neighbourhood of Hebron, which stands 3000 feet above the level of 
the sea. The territory of Judah extended on each side of this 
mountain district into the j^lain that lies adjacent to it on the W., 
and over the wide plateau which extends eastward to the precipitous 
heights overhanging the Dead Sea, and which from its desolate cha- 
racter well deserves the title of the " wilderness " of Judah. 

The chief town in the hill country was Hebron,^ orig-inally Kirjath- 
arba, situated on a hill overlooking the fertile valley of Eshcol, which 
is still well clothed with orchards, oliveyards, and vineyards; it is first 
noticed as the abode of Ephron the Hittite, and afterwards as the place 
where Abraham settled; Caleb selected it as his portion at the con- 
quest of Canaan, and drove out Arba and his sons ; it was the central 
spot to which the tribe of Judah rallied under David and Absalom. 
Xear it was the cave of Machpelali, where the patriarchs were buried, 
now marked by a building called the Haram ; and a little X. of the 
town is Mamre, Rameh, beneath the shelter of whose grove plain" 
in the English translation, Gen. xiv. 13, xxiii. 15) Abraham pitched 
his tent. Bethlehem, '''the house of bread," surnamed of Judah, to dis- 
tinguish it from another in Zebulun, and also Ephratah, fruitful," 
stands a short distance E. of the road leading from Hebron to Jeru- 
salem, oa a narrow ridge Avhich protrudes eastward fr(»m the central 
range, and which descends steeply mto valleys on all sides but the W. 
It was here that Jacob buried Rachel — that Ruth gleaned in the fields 
of Boaz — that David spent his youth— and, above all, that the Saviour 
of the world was born, and in the adjacent fields the good news was first 
told from heaven to the shepherds. 

Of the other towns in this district we may notice — Maon, on the 
summit of a conical hill, overlooking the desert of Judah — Cannel, 
somewhat westward, the scene of the story of Abigail and David — 
Engedi. a spot on the western shore of the Dead Sea, which gave 
name to the surrounding wilderness — lachish, in the maritime plain 
just at the foot of the hills, an important military post commanding 
the south country; it was fortified by Rehoboam, and was besieged by 
Sennacherib — Libnah, to the X.W., also besieged by Sennacherib; it 
was an old Canaa^nitish town, and sufficiently strong to revolt from 
king J ehoram — Ethani, Vrtas, a little S. of Bethlehem, where are cer- 
tain reservoirs, now named " Solomon's Pools," with which the Temple 
at Jerusalem was supplied with water. On the heights overlooking 
the wilderness of Judah were situated the fortresses of Modin, Herodion, 
and Masada : the site of Herodion is identified with the Franh Moiin- 



^ The modern names of the to-v\-ns of Palestine are g-enerally identical -with the 
Biblical ones. Hence it is unnecessary to give them, except in cases where there 
is considerable variation, or for the purpose of identifying- the positions. 



186 



Book 11. 



tain, E. of Bethlehem: Masada was above Engedi: the position of 
Modin is unknown. 

§ 11. The district of PMlistia comprised the southern portion of 
the maritime plain of Palestine to E'kron in the X. This district is 
divided into two belts — one consisting of a sandy strip of coast, and 
the other of a cultivated district slightly elevated, and with occa- 
sional eminences, on which the strongholds of the country were 
built. This part of the country is remarkably fertile both in corn 
and in every kind of garden fruit. The five chief towns formed in 
the early period of Jewish history a confederacy^ of five cities, viz, 
Gaza, Ascalon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath : the last has not been 
identified, but the others are still in existence. 

G-aza, Ghuzzehj stands near the southern frontier, at present above 
3 miles from the sea, but formerly (as some suppose) within 2 miles of 
it. It ranked as one of the oldest towns of Palestine (Gen. x. 19): 
though nominally within the borders of Judah, and conquered by them, 
it was not retained : Samson's death took place there. The position of 
Gaza, as the ''key of Egypt," exposed it to various sieges : it was taken 
with difficulty by Alexander the Great, and was twice ruined in the 
1st century of our era: it now contains about 15,'i00 inhabitants. 
Ascalon. on the sea coast, was similarly captured but not retained bv 
the tribe of Judah, and was from an early period the seat of the wor- 
ship of Derceto, the Syrian Venus : the site is almost covered with sand, 
and ere long the words of Zephaniah (ii. 4) will be verified that '' Ash- 
kelon shall be a desolation." Ashdod, Esdud, the Azotms of the Xew 
Testament, stands about -i miles from the sea, and was the scene of the 
fall of Dagon at the presence of the ark : it was strongly fortified, and 
was dismantled by Uzziah : Psammetichus of Egypt besieged it for 
29 years : here Philip was found after his interview with the eunuch 
(Acts viii.). Ekron, Akir, stood more inland, on the borders of Dan; 
thither the ark was sent from Gath, and thence forwarded to Bethshe- 
mesh (1 Sam. v.). Gath is supposed to have stood near the frontier of 
Judah, S.W. of Jerusalem. 

§ 12. The tribe of Dan occupied a small district between the Medi- 
terranean Sea and the hill country of Benjamin, about the point where 
the two portions of the maritime plain, Sharon and Shephela, meet. 

The chief town was Joppa, Yafa, which has in all ages served as the 
seaport of Jerusalem : its situation is remarkably beautiful, as the 
name itself, meaning ''beauty," implies — the surrounding district 
being remarkable for its fertility and the brilliancy of its verdure : the 
materials for the erection of the Temples under Solomon and Ezi^a were 
landed here, and it was here that Jonah took ship for Tarshish : it was 
visited b}' Peter, who received a remarkable vision there, and raised 
Tabitha to life. Lydda, the later Diospolis, was centrally situated at 
the point where the road from Jerusalem to Joppa crosses that which 
follows the plain from S. to X. : it was the scene of the healing of 
^neas. Nicopolis stood between Lydda and Jerusalem : it was a place 
of military importance under the Maccabees, and the adjacent plain 
was the scene of the remarkable victory of Judas Maccabaeus over the 
Syrians (I Mac. iv.) : it was regarded by early Christian writers as 



Chap. XI. 



TRIBE OF BEXJAMI^^ — TOWXS. 



187 



identical with the Einmaus (Luke xxiv. 13) whither the disciples were 
returning from Jerusalem, and the place is still named Amwas ; but 
as the latter place was only 60 stades, and Xicopolis 160 from Jeru- 
salem, the two places cannot be the same : the site of E^mmaus is i-eally 
unknown. On the borders of Dan and Benjamin was U[)per Beth- 
horon, Beit-ur-el-Folca, on the summit of a conical hill, commanding 
the pass leading down to the maritime plain, through wiiich Joshua 
passed in his pursuit of the Amorites : the Roman road to Csesarea 
passed this way, and down the same defile the Jews pursued the 
Romans under Cestius: a little to the S. was Ajalon, on a spur over- 
looking a plain — the valley over which Joshua bade the moon to stand 
stilh The modern Bamleli, near Lydda, has been traditionally iden- 
tified with the Arimathaea of the Xew Testament, where Joseph lived, 
as well as with the Ramathaim Zophim of the book of Samuel : the 
grounds for this are very insufficient: Eamlelt was probably not in 
existence before the 8th century a.d. 

§ 13. The tribe of Benjamin occupied that part of the moimtainons 
district which extends from Jerusalem in the S. to Bethel in the X., 
and from Bethhoron in the W. to Jordan in the E. Though this 
district was insignificant in point of extent, it was important 
through its central position, commanding the passes that lead down 
to Jericho in one direction, and to the maritime plain in another, as 
well as the great high-road that traverses central Palestine from X. 
to S. The numerous eminences ^ of this district offered almost 
impregnable positions for fortresses ; and the defiles leading down to 
the plains w^ere easily defensible. Hence the tribe of Benjamin 
acquired a warlike character, "ravening as a w^olf " (Gen. xlix. 27) 
in his mountain fastnesses. 

The towns of Benjamin possess much interest from their histoncal 
associations. Jerusalem stood within its boundaries, but deserves a 
separate notice as the capital of Palestine. The next in point of im- 
portance was Jericho, Riha, in the plain of Jordan, and at the entrance 
of the defile leading to Jerusalem. The road which connects it with 
the capital ascends a steep and narrow ravine, and from the head 
of this pass it traverses a remarkably savage and desolate region, 
where the traveller is still, as in our Saviour's time, in danger of 

falling among thieves." Jericho itself was the first city which the 
Israelites took after crossing the Jordan: it was then destroyed, but 
rebuilt about 500 years afterwards; it then became the seat of a school 
of prophets, and is illustrious from its connexion with the lives of 
Elijah and Elisha: the town fell into decay, and was rebuilt on a new 
site, about 1^ mile S. of the old town, by Herod the Great: this was the 
town which our Lord visited, and where Zacchseus lived. The sur- 
rounding plain was in early ages remarkable for its fertility — a " divine 
region " as Josephus terms it; and Jericho was known as the ''City of 
Palm-Trees" (Deut. xxxiv. 3), from the luxuriant palm-groves about 
it: this plain is now an utter wilderness. Between Jericho and the 
Jordan was Gilgal, w^here the Israelites first set up the tabernacle, 



5 The names of the towns of Benjamin are frequently significant of this feature ; 
as Gibeah, Geba, Gibeon, " hill ;" Mizpeh, " look out ;" Kamah, " eminence." 



188 



JUDiEA. 



Book 11. 



and where in the time of Samuel the people were wont to meet for 
purposes of public business. 

Returning to the hill country, we meet with a number of spots 
of interest in connexion ^\ith the religious and military events of 
Jewish history. In the N. was Bethel, the house of God/' the Luz 
of the Canaanites, now Beitin, a short distance off the great northern 
road ; it stood on a low ridge, between two converging valleys ; it was 
the spot where Abraham first pitched his tent, and where Jacob was 
favom^ed with his vision : in the time of the J udges it became a place 
of congress, and was selected by Jeroboam as one of his idolatrous 
sanctuaries, whence its name was changed into Bethaven, ' ' house of 
idols" (Hos. X. 5); Josiah pmufied it by the destruction of the altar 
and grove : it is now a heap of ruins, as predicted by Amos (v. 5;. 
Gibeon, El-Jih^ stood N. W. of Jerusalem on the way that goeth up 
to Bethhoron," posted on an isolated hill in the midst of a rich plain : 
it was originadly the chief town of the wily Gibeonites : near it was the 

great high place " where the tabernacle was set up after the destruc- 
tion of Nob : the defeat of Abner and the murder of Amasa occurred 
here ; and here Solomon was favoured with his ^dsion. Gibeah stood 
about 4 miles N. of Jerusalem at a spot now called Tuleil-el-Fid : it 
must not be confounded with the Gibeah, or more properly the Geba, of 
1 Sam. xiii. 15: Gibeah was the birth-place, and general abode of Saul, 
and on its hill the sons of Rizpah were himg. 

Places of less importance were — Nob, immediately N. of Jerusalem, 
the city of the priests whither David fled, and where the priests were 
in consequence massacred — Anathoth, further N., the birthplace of 
Jeremiah, and on the road by which Sennacherib advanced to Jeru- 
salem — Geba (also called " Gibeah" in A. V.\ Jeha, the scene of Jona- 
than's adventure against the Philistines — Micbmash, on the edge of a 
ravine leading down to the valley of the Jordan, named '^the passage 
of Michmash;" it was garrisoned by Saul against the Philistines, and 
the latter people were encamped close to it at the time of Jonathan's 
exploit: the hosts of Sennacherib selected it as the place to 'Hay up 
their baggage " on their advance to Jemsalem — Ai, between Michmash 
and Bethel, on a ridge overlooking the descent to Jordan, chiefly 
famous for its capture by Joshua; between it and Bethel was the 
elevated spot, whence Abraham and Lot surveyed the land and chose 
their respective quarters ; further on towards the IST. rise the white 
peak of Rimmon, where the 600 Benjamites took refuge (Judg. xx. 47), 
and the dark conical hill of Opbrali, Taiyiheli, whither the Philistines 
sent out one of their bands (1 Sam. xiii. 17), probably the same place as 
is afterwards called Epbraim in 2 Chron. xiii. 19 and John xi. 54 — 
Beeroth, S. of Bethel, one of the cities of the Gibeonites, and the place 
where the caravans from Jerusalem to the iST. generally make their 
first halt ; it is thus reputed the place where our Lord was sought by 
his parents — Ramah '^of Benjamin," er-Ram, between Beeroth and 
Gibeon, to which reference is probably made in Jer. xxxi. 15, the 
captives being carried this way b,y the Babylonians : the Ramah at 
which Samuel lived is a different place, and has not yet been identified 
— Mizpeh, on a hill (now named Nehy Samwil, from a tradition that 
Samuel was buried there), which rises conspicuously above the plain of 
Gibeon ; it was fortified by Asa, and was frequently used as a place of 
national congress — Kirjath-jearim, W. of Jerusalem, w^hither the ark 
was brought from Bethshemesh — lastly, Betbany, now called el- 
Azariyeh, ''the village of Lazarus,'* situated on the eastern slope of 



189 



JERUSALEM. 



Chap. XI. 



Olivet — a place consecrated to the mind of the Christian by the resi- 
dence of our blessed Lord during the last trying scenes of his life. 




Jerusalem from the South. 

§ 14. The chief town in Palestine was Jerusalem, tl^e Salem, " city 
of 7>e«c?/' of Ps. Ixxvi. 2, and probably of Gen. xiv. 18, the Jebus of 
the Canaanites, the Ariel, " Lion of CTod," of Is. xxix. 1, the Hiero- 
solyma of the Greeks, the ^lia Capitolina of the Piomans, and the El- 
Kuds, Holy Place," of the modern Arabs. Its situation is striking ; 
it is neither on a hill-top as most of the Jewish strongholds, nor yet 
in a valley, but on the edge of a rocky platform in the central ridge 
between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. On three sides this 
platform is severed from the adjacent high land ; viz., by the deep 
defile of Ge-ben-Hinnom, "the cleft of the son of Hinnom," cor- 
rupted into Gehenna by Greek writers, on the W. and S. ; and by the 
still deeper vale of Jehoshaphat on the E., along which the Kedron 
flowed, and which thence continues its course towards the Dead Sea. 
On the X. Jerusalem lay open to the country, and in this direction 
alone did the city admit of any extension. The elevation of its site 
above the sea amounts to 2200 feet, and it stands at the highest 
point of the ridge ; the ground rises towards the S., but in other direc- 
tions falls : towards the E., however, the Mount of Olives exceeds 
the height of Zion by about 180 feet, and it is to this range, and 
perhaps to the yet higher but more distant range of the hills of 
Moab on the other side of Jordan, that the Psalmist alludes in the 
well-known words, " The hills stand about Jerusalem (Ps. cxxv. 



190 



Book II. 



2). Looking at its position in a iDolitical point of view, it will be 
observed that it was situated centrally on the borders of the two 
most powerful southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin, and equally 
accessible to persons traversing the land in its length through the 
mountainous district, or in its breadth from the valley of the Jordan 
to the maritime plain. 

Hills of Jerusalem. — The site of Jerusalem itself was broken by 
various elevations: the most conspicuous of these was in the S.W., 
and is now known as Mount Zion. On the W. and S.Vv . it overlooks 
the valley of Hinnom at a height of 150 feet, and at tl:e S.E. the 
valley of Jelioshaphat at a height of oOO feet above the Kidron : on the 
E. and is", it was separated from the rest of the city by a valley called 
Tyropeeon, which joins those of Hinnom and Jehoshaphat at Enrogel, 
gradually deepening as it approaches this point. Whether this hill 
was identical with the Zion of the Old Testament, must be considered 
doubtful. Recent researches have made it probable that the ancient 
Zion was on Moriah. In this case the modern Zion was the site of the 
city of the Jebusites and of the Upper Market-Place of Josephus, while 
David's city and sepulchre would be on the op2:)Osite height. Moriah 
was the central portion of the eastern ridge, separated from Zion on 
the W. by the Tyropaeon, and overlooking the valley of Jehoshaphat on 
the E. at an elevation of about 150 feet. This was the spot where 
Abraham offered up Isaac, where in David's time Ornan had his 
threshing floor, and where Solomon erected the Temple ; the fortress 
of Antonia was erected at the X.W. angle of the Temple. The site of 
the Temple is now covered by the enclosure of the Mosque of Omar. 
A remarkable rock, now named Salcrah, rises in the centre of this space, 
and has been supposed to mark the place of the altar. The southern 
continuation of this ridge was named Ophel, which gradually came 
to a point at the junction of the valleys Tyropeeon and Jehoshaphat; 
and the northern, Bezetha, " the New City," first noticed by Josephus, 
which was separated from Moriah by an artificial ditch, and overlooked 
the valley of Kidron on the E. ; this hill was enclosed within the 
walls of Herod Agrippa. Lastly, Acra lay westward of Moriah and 
northward of Zion^ and formed the ^' Lower City" in the time of 
Josephus. In this portion of the town are the sites which tradition 
has connected with the most awful events of our Saviour's life — Gol- 
gotha, — and the sepulchre in which his body was laid. These events 
may, after all, have really taken place on the eastern hill, or Moriah. 

Pools and Fountains. — Among the objects of interest about Jerusalem 
the pools hold a conspicuous place. Outside the walls on the W. side 
were the L^pper and Lower Pools of Gihon, the latter close under Zion, 
the former more to the X.W. on the Jaffa road. At the junction of the 
valleys of Hmuom and Jehoshaphat was Enrogel, the Well of Job, in the 
midst of the king's gardens. Within tlie walls, immediately ]N". of Zion. 
was the Pool of Hezekiah." A large pool existing beneath the Temple 
(referred to in Ecclus. 1. 3), was probably supplied by some subter- 
ranean aqueduct. The King's Pool " was probably identical with 
the Fountain of the Virgin, 3it the southern angle of Moriah. It pos- 
sesses the peculiarit}^ that it rises and falls at irregular periods; it is 
supposed to be fed from the cistern below the Temple. From this a 
subterranean channel cut through the solid rock leads the water to the 
pool of Siloah., or Siloam, which has also acquired the character of 



Chap. XI. 



JERUSALEM. 




Plan of Jerusalem. 



1. Mount Zion. 2. Moriah. 3. The Templo. 4. Antonin. 5. Probable site ol (iolputha. 6. OvheJ, 
7. Rez. tha. 8. Church of the Holy Sepulchre. 9, 10. The Upptr and Lowt-r Puols of Gihon. l). 
Enro^el. 12. Pool of Ihztkiah. 13. Fountain of the Virgin. 14. Silonm. 15. Pelhesda. 16. 
Mount of Olives. 17. Gethsomane. 



192 



J UD^ A- SAMARIA. 



Book IJ 



being an intermittent fountain. The pool to which tradition has 
assigned the name of Bethesda is situated on the X. side of Moriah: 
it is now named Birhet Is rail, and appears from the character of the 
mason-work about it to have been originally designed for a reservoir. 

Burial Places. — Burial places were formed in the valleys smTounding 
Jerusalem ; in the valley of Hinnom, where is the reputed site of 
Aceldama — the field of blood :" in the valley of Jehoshaphat, where 
the ancient tombs were excavated out of the rock in tiers ; and on the 
Mount of Olives, where were the tombs of the prophets. 

History of Jem sale rn. — The earliest notice of Jerusalem in the Bible 
is as the capital of ^lelchizedek, the Salem there noticed being now 
recognized as identical it. It next appears as the stronghold of 

the Jebusites, who held out against the Israelites for above five cen- 
turies. David took it (about B.C. 1049), and established it as his 
capital. Solomon further enhanced its importance by erecting the 
Temple there. Under the Jewish kings it was taken by the Philistines 
and Arabs in the reign of J ehoram ; by the Israelites in the reign of 
Amaziah ; by Pharaoh Xecho, king of Egypt (b.c. 609); and by Nebu- 
chadnezzar on three occasions, in the years B.C. 607, 597, and 586 ; in 
the last of which it was utterly destroyed. Its restoration commenced 
under Cyrus (B.C. 538), and was completed under Art-axerxes I., who 
issued commissions for this purpose to Ezra ( B.C. 457) and Xehemiah 
(B.C. 445 \ In B.C. 332 it was captured by Alexander the Gi-eat. 
Under the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae the town was prosperous, until 
Antiochus Epiphanes sacked it 'B.C. 170). In consequence of his 
tp-anny the Jews rose under the Maccabees, and Jerusalem became 
again independent, and retained its position until its capture by the 
Romans under Pompey B.C. 63). The Temple was subsequently plun- 
dered by Crassus (B.C. 54), and the city by the Parthians (B.C. 40). 
Herod took up his residence there as soon as he was appointed sove- 
reign, and restored the Temple with gi^eat masrnificence. On the death 
of Herod it became the residence of the Roman procurators, who occu- 
pied the fortress of Antonia. The greatest siege that it sustained, how- 
ever, was at the hands of the Romans under Titus, when it held out 
nearly tive mouths, and when the town was completely destroyed (a.d. 
70). Hadrian restored it as a Roman c 'lony (a.d. 135), and among othe-r 
buildings erected a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the site of the 
Temple. The emperor Constantine established its Christian character 
by the erection of a church on the supposed site of the holy sepulclire 
(a.d. 33lV, and Justinian added several churches and hospitals ^about 
A.D. 532j. 

IT. Samaria. 

§ 15. Samaria embraced the central district of Palestine from the 
borders of Benjamin on the S. to the plain of Esdraelon on the X., 
and from the Mediterranean on the AV. to the Jordan on the E. 
It was co-extensive with the territories assigned to Ephraim and 
the half tribe of Manasseli. Like Jnda^a it consists of two districts 
^\'idely differing in character, the mountain region in the centre, 
with the plain of Sharon on the one side and the valley of Jordan 
on the other. The moimtainoiis region is more diversified than 
that of Judapa, broad plains and valleys frequently intervening. 
The maritime plain of Sharon lias in all ages supplied abundant 



TEIBE OF EPHRAIM. 



Chap. XI. 



193 



pasture for slieep, but possessed no towns of importance, probably 
from its exposure to the inroads of the desert tribes of the south. 




C^esarea. (From a Sketcli by Wm. Tipping, Esq.) 



§ 16. The tribe of Epliraim occupied the greater part of Samaria, 
and was one of the most powerful of the Jewish confederacy. Its 
prosperity was due partly to the fertility, and partly to the security 
of its district. The vales and plains are remarkably rich and well 
sheltered, and the olive, fig, and vine, still flourish there : Scripture 
speaks in glowing, yet not exaggerated, terms of the land which fell 
to the lot of Joseph's 3'ounger son (Gren. xlix. 22 ; Deut. xxxiii. 
1 3-16). Its security also was great : well protected on the X. by 
the difficult ravines which lead to the plain of Esdraelon, and on 
the E. by the deep valley of Jordan, it was only on the S. that it 
was easily assailable ; and in this direction its command of the 
high road through central Palestine gave it an advantage likely to 
secure peaceful relations with its neighbours. The tribe of Manasseh 
held a subordinate position to Ephraim, only half the tribe being 
located on this side of Jordan, in the district adjacent to the plain 
of Esdraelon. 

AXC. GEOG. K 



194 



GALILEE. 



Book 11. 



Toims of Samaria. — Sheclieni, the original capital of Samaria Tnow 
Nahlus, a corruption of the name Xeapolis given to it by Vespasian^ 
stood in a remarkably fertile valley, between the ranges of Gerizim and 
Ebal, and on the edge of a wide plain. It carries off the palm for beauty 
of situation from all the towns of Palestine, and is not behind any in 
historical interest. Abraham first pitched his tent under the tere- 
binths of Moreh. probably at the entrance of the glen. Jacob visited 
it on his return from Mesopotamia, and settled at Shalem, Salim, about 
two miles distant. He bought the ^'parcel of the field," and 
sunk the well, which passes by his name to the present day, about 
a mile and a half from the town — the scene of our Lord's con- 
versation with the woman of Samaria. The adjacent heights of Ebal 
and Gerizim witnessed the proclamations of the curses and blessings of 
the Law. It was next the scene of Abimelech's conspiracy and of the 
parable delivered by Jotham. At the di^dsion of the kingdoms Jero- 
boam established his government here, and after the return from 
Babylon it became the head-quarters of the sectarian worship of the 
Samaritans, who (about B.C. 420; erected a temple on the top of Geri- 
zim. Samaria, which succeeded Shechem as capital, was situated six 
miles X.E. of it, on a steep flat-topped hill, which stands in a basin 
encircled with hills ; the strength of its position was great, and it was 
well chosen by Omri as the site of his capital. It was besieged, but not 
taken, by the Syrians under Benhadad (1 Kings, xx.). It was, however, 
taken by the Assyrians (B.C. 72u). Augustus gave it to Herod the 
Great, who restored it with the name of Sebaste, still preserved in the 
modern Sehustieh. Philip preached there, and it was the a,bode of 
Simon the Sorcerer. Caesarea, the capital not only of Samaria but of 
Palestine under the Romans, stood on a rocky ledge running out into 
the Mediterranean, at a spot formerly known as Stratunis Turris. It 
was built by Herod the Great with a view to closer communication 
with Rome. It was successively visited by Philip, who took up his 
abode there — by Peter, at the time of Cornelius' baptism — aud by 
Paul, on his journey to Rome. The road to Jerusalem followed the 
line of the plain through Antipatris, Kefr Saha— also built by Herod 
the Great, and noticed in Acts xxiii. 31 — to Lydda, where it fell into 
the road from Joppa. The site of Tirzah, which preceded Samaria as 
a royal residence, is supposed to have been at Tulluzali, about seven 
miles E. of Samaria. The beauty of its situation was proverbial (Cant, 
vi. 4\ Shiloh, Seiliin, stood on a plain just X. of the border of Ben- 
jamin. Its site does not present any natural features of interest, 
but it is connected with many of the events of Scripture. The 
tabernacle was first set up there, and Eli died there ; it was also the 
abode of Ahij ah the prophet. Dothan, or Dothain, '''the two wells," 
near Kir hdtiyeh, the fertile valley where the sons of Jacob fed their 
flocks, and the place where Elisha was so wonderfully delivered from 
the Syrians, was in the northern part of Samaria. 



III. Galilee. 

§ 17. Galilee extended from the ridge of hills which bounds the 
plain of Esdraelon on the S. to the extreme X. of Palestine, and 
from the neighbom'hood of the Mediterranean Sea in the "W. to the 
Jordan and the Sea of Galilee in the E. : the sea-coast itself was 



Chap. XI. 



TRIBE OF ISSACHAE. 



195 



held by the Phoenicians. It was divided into two districts — Upper 
and Lower Galilee — the former to the N., about Lebanon and Tyre, 
distinguished as Galilee of the Nations," and the latter to the S. 
The name originally applied to a "circle" or "circuit" about 
Kadesh, in which were the 20 cities presented by Solomon to Hiram : 
it was thence extended to the whole district. It included the tribes 
of Issachar, Asher, Zebulun, and Naphthali. 




Sea of Galilee. (From a Sketch by Wm. Tipping, Esq.) 



§ 18. Issachar occupied the fertile plain of Esdraelon, and the 
adjacent parts from Carmel on the sea shore to the Jordan : it was 
a " pleasant land," for the quiet possession of which Issachar con- 
sented to forego political prominence, " bowing his shoulder to bear, 
and becoming a servant to tribute " (Gen. xlix. 14, 15). The dis- 
trict abounds in spots of great interest : foremost among these is 
Mount Carmel — a series of connected heights bounding for a distance 
of 18 miles the plain of Esdraelon on the S., and terminating in a 
bold promontory on the Mediterranean coast : its wooded dells and 
park-like appearance justify its appellation of Carmel, *'a 2:»ark 
the western extremity is now crowned with a fomous convent, and 
the cliffs abound with caves naturally formed in the limestone, 



196 



GALILEE. 



Book II. 



wliicli Lave been frequented by devotees in all ages, ^ne extreme 
eastern summit of the bill was tbe spot selected by Ebjab for 
the decisive trial between Jehovah and Baal, the memory of which 
is preserved in the name of the spot, el-MaharrakaJi, the burning." 
xVt the foot of Carmel runs the river Kishon, MuJciUta, which in 
summer derives its whole supply of water from the sides of the 
hill, but at other periods of the year flows throughout the whole 
length of the plain, and sometimes with so violent a stream as to be 
dangerous to ford : it was in this state when the hosts of Sisera 
were swept away by it. The plain of Esdraelon runs across Pales- 
tine fi'om the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan in a south-easterly 
direction, swelling out to the breadth of about 12 miles in its 
central part, but contracting towards either extremity, and ter- 
minated towards the E. by the isolated heights of Gilboa, the so- 
called Little Hermon, and Tabor : the valley of Jezreel, properly 
so called (for the name under the Greek form of Esdraelon extended 
over the whole plain), lies between the two former of these ridges, 
and leads down to the valley of the Jordan. The plain itself is 
remarkable for its fertility and for its adaptation to military move- 
ments, particularly those of cavalry and war-chariots ; for the latter 
reason it was the selected battle-field of the Canaanites under 
Sisera against the Israelites — of the Philistines in their victorious 
conflict with Saul — and of Josiah in his fatal engagement with 
Pharaoh Xecho. Its fertility led to frequent incursions from the 
Arabian tribes, who sometimes settled there with their flocks and 
herds : one such incursion is recorded in Judges vi. vii. in connexion 
with the exploits of Gideon. The tribe of Issachar appears from 
this cause to have been reduced to a semi-nomadic state, "rejoicing 
in their tents" (Deut. xxxiii. 18). Tabor, Ti/i\ rises at the X.E. 
angle of the plain to a height of 1400 feet above it — an isolated and 
picturesque hill, its sides well clothed with herbage and wood, and 
ils summit crowned with an ancient town, which was in existence 
in our Saviour's time — a circumstance subversive of the tradition 
which assigns this as the scene of our Lord's transfiguration. 
Mount Gilboa, Jehel FuJcua, bounds the plain of Esdraelon on the 
S. ; it presents a strong contrast to Tabor by being entirely devoid of 
wood. Between these two hills is a range, now named Jehel-ed-Vuhy^ 
which has been unnecessarily identified with the "little hill of Her- 
mon in Ps. Ixxxix. 12. 

The chief to^vn in this district was Jezreel, situated on a spur of 
Gilboa, and commanding the central passage — ''the valley of Jezreel" 
—which leads down to Jordan. Jezreel was, under Ahab, the capital 
of Samaria. Betbsbeaii stood eastward, on the edge of the Jordan 
valley, \\ix\\ its acropolis posted on an eminence. The Israelites never 
succeeded in wresting it from its Canaanitish occupants, and on its walls 
the bodies of Sau] and his sons were exposed after the battle of Gilboa. 



C-HAP. XI. 



TRIBE OF ZEBULUX 



— TOWXS. 



197 



Its name was changed to Scythopolis, perhaps in consequence of the 
Scythian incursion into Asia, which occurred in the reign of Josiah. 
This has been again superseded by the old name in the form Bef'san. 
On the northern slope of Eittle Ilermon stood the village of Nain, 
where our Saviour raised the young man to life ; and somewhat to the 
E. was Endor, the scene of Saul's interview with the witch. Megiddo 
stood in the western portion of the plain of Esdraelon, and. though 
within tiie limits of Issachar, was assigned to ^lanasseh. It was in this 
portion of the jAshi that Josiah was defeated, the place of his death 
being named Hadad-rimmon in that neighbourhood. The name of Me- 
giddo has been perpetuated in the form of Armageddon — the rnoim- 
tain of ^legiddo" — the prophetic scene of the final conilict betvreen the 
powers of good and evil (Rev. xvi. 16;. 

§ 19. The tril^e of Zebulun held the district a-Ijacent to the 
western shore of the Sea of Galilee, and skirting rlie northern edge 
of the plain of Esdraelon : thus he is said in Scripture to " suck of 
the abundance of the seas " in reference to the former, and to " re- 
joice in his £:oin2's out " in reference to the latter (Deut. xxxiii. 18, 
19). The hills of this district have a character distinct from the 
rest of Palestine : just below their summits they have not unfre- 
quently platforms or basins of size sufficient for the sites of towns ; 
and in such basins, and not on the very tops of the hills as else- 
where, most of the towns are found. The hills are well clothed 
with wood, and possess a fertile soil. In addition to this, the Sea oi 
Galilee itself was a valuable possession : its waters afforded an easy 
means of connmimication, and at the same time were well supplied 
with fish. The western shore, well watered and enjoying a tro- 
pical heat from the depression of the lake, had a prolific vegetation ; 
and the land of Gennesareth," i. e, the plain about the centre of 
the lake, was the richest spot in Palestine. But these natui*al 
features do not form the highest claim to our attention : these 
shores and Avaters are hallowed by their association with the 
ministry of our blessed Eord; and hence, although the scenery of 
the lake is uninviting from the monotonous and dreary appearance 
of the surrounding hills, the Sea of Galilee always has been and 
^vill be beautified in the imagination of the Christian. 

The chief town of this district in the Xew Testament period 
was Tiberias, situated at the southern extremity of the plain of 
Gennesareth, Avith some famous warm ba.ths in its immediate neigh- 
bourhood. It v>-as founded by Ilerod Antipas (about a.d. 16) and 
named after the emperor Tiberius : after the destmction of Jerusalem 
it became the* metropolis of the Jewish race. The next impoii:ant 
town was Julias, situated near the head of the lake on the left bank 
of the Jordan, and on the site of that Bethsaida near which our Lord 
fed the 5' '00: it was btiilt by Philip the tetrarch of Itunea, and named 
after Julia^ the daughter of Augtistus. Between these towns were 
several places of scriptural interest, the sites of which are not satis- 
factorily ascertained — Chorazin, Tell Hum, near the X.E. angle of the 
lake— Bethsaida, et-TdbigJiali, on a little bay farther do's\-n, the home 



198 



GALILEE. 



Book II. 



of the fishermen Peter and Andrew, Philip, James, and John, and the 
scene of the miraculous draught of fishes : it must be distinguished 
from the Bethsaida before mentioned — Capematun, perhaps near the 
fountain named Ain et-Tin^ at the northern extremity of the ''land 
of Gennesareth," the scene of numerous interesting gospel events, 
and the town in which our Lord dwelt, and hence called His own 
City ;" the identification of its site is more than usually uncertain — 
and Magdala, at present the only inhabited spot in the plain of 
Gennesareth, the abode of Mary Magdalene. A short distance from the 
lake, near Tiberias, is a low ridge, terminating in two points, and hence 
named Kiirun Hattin. " the horns of Hattin." It is the reputed scene 
of the delivery of the Sermon on the Mount, and is hence known as 
*'the Mount of Beatitudes." Nazareth, the early abode of our blessed 
Lord, is situated high up on a hill on the northern edge of the plain 
of Esdraelon, in one of those basins which we have already described. 
It is encircled by a series of rounded hills, one of which, on the N., 
rises to a height of some 400 feet, and is perhaps the hill whence the 
inliabitants threatened to precipitate our Saviour. Cana, associated 
with our Lord's first miracle, stands considerably to the X. of Xazareth 
at Kaaa eJ Jelil. Sepphoris, to the X.AV. of Xazareth, was the strongest 
city of Galilee in the homan age : its name was changed to Diocsesarea 
by Antoninus Pius, 

§ 20. The tribe of Naphthali occupied the western half of tlie 
valley of the Jordan from the Sea of Galilee to its source, together 
with a portion of the central hilly region : their district was remote, 
and little frequented, but rich, and remarkably well wooded, con- 
firming the prediction that Xaphthali should be "full with the 
blessing of the Lord" (Deut. xxxiii. 23). 

The places of interest in this district are — Safed, remai'kably situ- 
ated on an isolated peak, and reputed to be the *^ city set upon an 
hill" to which our Saviour alludes (Matt. v. 14); Zedesh-Naphthali, 
"\V. of Lake Merom, the city of refuge for the northern tribes, and the 
birthplace of Barak ; Dan, situated in the upper valley of the Jordan, 
and the most northerly town of Palestine; it was originally a Phceni- 
cian colony named Laish, but was seized by the Danites and its name 
changed : and, lastly, Caesarea Philippi, which, though perhaps not 
strictly within the limits of Xaphthali, must yet be regarded as a town 
of Galilee : it was most beautifully situated at the base of Hermon, near 
one of the sources of the Jordan. Herod the Great first erected a 
splendid temple here in honour of Ceeasar Augustus, and Philip the 
tetrarch enlarged the place, and named it, in honour of Tiberius, 
Caesarea, with the addition of Philippi to • distinguish it from the 
other on the Mediterranean coast. 

§ 21. The tribe of Aslier received the maritime district parallel to 
Xaphthali, commencing near Tyre and terminating at Camel. 
The whole of this was fertile, and some portions preeminently so : 
Aslier "dipped his foot in oil," and his "bread was fat" (Deut. 
xxxiii. 24 ; Gen. xlix. 20). The natural capacities of the region 
were thus great : its position, commanding all access to Palestine 
from the X., and possessing the only good harbour on the coast, 
gave it additional importance ; but Asher was unable to expel 



Chap. XI. 



PEPv^EA. 



199 



the Phoenicians from the 'eligible sites on the coast, and so fell 
back into a state of inglorious ease. The history of its towns 
wholly belongs to Phoenicia. 




Eabbath-Ammon (Philadelphia). 



lY. Per^a. 

§ 22. Peraeawas, as its name implies, the land ''on the other side 
of" Jordan, and sometimes included the whole district, but more 
proper!}" a portion of it, extending from the river Arnon in the S. 
to the Hieromax in the X., and from the Jordan to the edge of the 
Syrian desert. This region presents a striking contrast to v\'estern 
Palestine ; it consists of high undulating downs, which commence 
with the edge of the lofty ridge bounding the valley of the Jordan, 
and thence gradually slope oft' to the desert : in some places trees 
are but thinly scattered over the country, but in the northern dis- 
trict there are still extensive forests of oak and terebinth. The 
scenery of the district between Mount Gilead and the Jabbok is 
described as highly picturesque and park-like. Its extensive pas- 
ture-grounds have in all ages sustained a large quantity of sheep 
and cattle, and on this account Pveuben and Gad selected this 
as their abode. The country is well watered, but the only rivers of 



200 



PERJEA. 



Book II. 



importance are the Hieromax, SJieriat el-Mandliur, in tlie N., which 
rises in the mountains of Hauran, and joins the Jordan a little 
below the Sea of Galilee — the Jabbok, Zurka, which rises on the 
borders of the desert, where it receives the river of Ammon, and 
flows in a deeply-sunk channel into the Jordan, forming in ancient 
times the boundary between the territories of Sihon and Og, the 
two kings of the Amorites, and afterwards between Gad and 
Manasseh— and the Amon, Mojih, which separated at one time the 
kingdoms of the Moabites and Amorites, and afterwards formed tlie 
southern limit of Palestine in this part ; it is a stream of no great 
size, discharging itself into the Dead Sea through a deep cleft. 

This district was occupied by the tribes of Eeuben and Gad, and 
partly by the half-tribe of Manasseh. The precise limits of their 
various districts cannot be very well defined ; for these tribes led a 
pastoral, nomadic life, shifting their quarters from time to time, and 
intermixing probably with each other, and with the older inhabit- 
ants of the district : their positions may be generally described as 
follows :— Eeuben to the S. from the Arnon to the head of the 
Dead Sea : Gad, thence to the Jabbok : and half- Manasseh, X. of 
the Jabbok. 




Gadara. (From a Sketch by Wm. Tipping, Esq.) 



Chap. XI. 



TOAVXS. 



201 



The towns in Persea were neither numerous nor important. Heshbon 
ranked as the capital of Sihon, one of the kings of the Amorites. It 
stood E. of the head of the Dead Sea, on a slight elevation above the 
rest of the plateau; it is now an entire ruin. The remains of a 
reservoir may represent ^^the fishpools in Heshbon" wliich Solomon 
notices (Cant. vii. 4). Jazer, where Sihon was defeated, was some- 
where to the S.; and in the same direction was Baal-meon, '-the 
habitation of Baal," with a high peak near it, whence perhaps Balaam 
viewed the people of Israel. This may also have been the height 
whence Moses viewed the promised land. Eabbath-Ammon, the capital 
of the Ammonites, stood on both sides of a small stream tributary to 
the Jabbok, and is hence described as the " city of the two waters," in 
contradistinction to the citadel, which stood high up on an isolated 
hill : it was known as PMIadelpMa in the Roman era, having been 
rebuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphus in the 3rd century B.C. : on its site 
are remains that testify to its importance, particularly a ver}' large 
theatre; it is now the haunt of jackals and vultures (^comp. Ez. xxv. 
5). Eamoth-Gilead probably stood on the site of the modern es-Salt, 
on an isolated hill forming one of the heights of Mount Gilead: the 
modern name represents the ecclesiastical Saltan, and is also applied 
to the neighbouring mountain. Ramoth-Gilead was one of the cities 
of refuge : having been captured by the Syrians, it was unsuccessfully 
attacked by Ahab and Jehoshaphat, and again by Joram and Ahaziah. 
Gerasa was an important town X. of the Jabbok, situated in a valley 
leading down to that river. It is first noticed by Josephus as having 
been taken by Alexander Janneeus, and it afterwards formed the chief 
town of the Decp.polis, or confederacy of ten cities, formed in this 
district. It vvas burnt b}^ the Jews at the commencement of the 
Koman war, and again by Vespasian; but it was afterwards rebuilt 
with great splendour, and subsequently adorned by the Antonines: 
the ruins of the theatre, the forum, the temple of the sun, and many 
other buildings still remain. Jabesh-G-ilead is supposed to have stood 
somewhat S.E. of Pella, where there is a valley named Wady Ydhes. 
It is noticed in connexion with the war against the Benjamites, and 
with the threatened cruelty of Xahash. Pella, Falul, stood on a small 
plain or terrace of the mountains of Gilea l, overlooking the valley of 
the Jordan, at an elevation of some 1000 feet; the connexion of its 
name vrith the Macedouian Pella is doubtful. The first historical 
notice is its capture by Antiochus B.C. 218, but it owes its chief interest 
to its having been the asylum of the Christians at the time of the 
destruction of Jerusalem. Gradara, Um-Keis, stood on a spur of 
Gilead, just S. of the Hieromax, and possessed numerous edifices of the 
Roman era, among which the remains of two theatres are the most 
conspicuous : numerous tombs are excavated out of the limestone rock, 
and in these a troglodyte population still exists, living as the demoniacs 
of the Gospel age (Matt. viii. 28). Gergesa, which is noticed in the 
passage just quoted, was probably a village in the territory of Gadara. 
Gadara was taken by Antiochus (b.c. 218) and by Alexander Jannjeus 
(about B.C. 198); it was destroyed in the civil wars, but rebuilt by 
Pompey, and became under Gabinius the principal town in Pera^a. 
Mahanaim is supposed to have stood X. of Gerasa, where there is a 
place still csiiled Mahieh : it derived its name from the '-'two hosts" 
of angels who appeared to Jacob, and was the place where Ishbosheth 
was crowned. In the neighbourhood was fought the battle in which 
Absalom perished. 

K 3 



202 



Book II. 



§ 23. The territory of Moab ma 5' be included in onr review 
of tliis part of Palestine : it lay S. of the Arnon, and eastward of 
the Dead Sea at its southern extremity — now a bleak and desolate 
region, but in earlier times very possibly of a more inviting cha- 
racter. The Israelites traversed it in their journey from Egypt, and 
it is of further interest as the native land of Euth, and the refuge 
of David. 

The capital of this district was named Ar Moab, or Rabbath Moab, 
and at a later period Areopolis. It stood some distance S. of the 
Arnou. on a low hill: under the Romans it was the metropolis of 
Paleestina Tertia until its destruction by an earthquake, a.d. 315. 
Kir-Moab was more to the S., on the top of a hill about 3000 feet 
above the Dead Sea, and surrounded by mountains. It was the only 
town which Joram failed to take. In the ravine that leads hence to 
the Dead Sea was Zoar, the little city'' where Lot took refuge. 

§ 24. To the X. of the Hieromax, the plateau of Bashan stretches 
from the valley of the Jordan and the Sea of Galilee far away to 
the eastward until it meets with a chain of hills, named by classical 
writers Alsadamus. This extensive district formed the ancient 
kingdom of Bashan, far-famed for its rich pastures and fine forests, 
whence the expressions proverbial among the Hebrews, "bulls of 
Bashan," and " oaks of Bashan." It consists of several distinct 
tracts : (i.) The portion of the country lying to the X.W. of 
Alsadamus, which is remarkably wild and rocky, abounding with 
every variety of cliif, gully, and ravine, and hence termed by the 
Hebrews Argob, ''rocky," by the Greeks Tracbonitis, and by the 
Arabs Lejah, " retreat," in reference to its inaccessible character, 
(ii.) The hills of Bashan themselves, which, though stony, are fer- 
tile, (iii.) The wide plain between these and the Jordan, which 
possesses a remarkably rich soil, and is the district so much praised 
by the Hebrews, (iv.) The mountainous district about the ridge of 
Hermon. These formed separate regions in the time of our Saviour, 
viz. Batanaea, in the S.E., about the ranges of Alsadamus, repre- 
senting the Hebrew name Bashan ; Auranitis, about the upper 
valleys of the Hieromax, a name still preserved in the modern 
Hauran ; Tracbonitis to the N.E. ; Ituraea in the N.W., about the 
roots of Hermon, named after Jetur, a son of Ishmael, and still 
called Jedur ; and Gaulonitis, Jaulan, between Hermon and the 
upper course of the Jordan. 

§ 25. The whole of this district was at one time thickly studded 
with towns : in Argob alone " threescore great cities, besides a great 
many unwalled towns," are said to have existed (Deut. iii. -i, 5), 
and the remains every^^here visible render this number not impro- 
'bable. Many of these remains are in a state of high preservation, 
being built of large blocks of black basalt, which neither time nor 



Chap. XI. 



TOWNS. 



203 



the hand of man have been able to displace. The towns may be 
classified as belonging to two wholly distinct periods, which we 
may term the Biblical and the Roman : the remains in many in- 
stances show that the Romans adoi^ted the old cities. 




Bozrah (Bostra). 



(1.) The to\%Tis belonging to the Biblical era. — Edrei, Fdhra, strongly 
situated on the border of Argob^ was the scene of the defeat of 
Og, king of Bashan. It has sometimes been identified with Dera, 
or Edraha, a good deal more to the S. Ashtarotli, the other of the 
capitals, named after the patron deity Astarte or Venus, and some- 
times hence called Ashtaroth Carnaim, oi the two horns" (Gen. xiv. 
5), was situated not far from Edrei. Its site has not been satisfactorily 
made out; it has been identified sometimes with Asliareh on one of the 
branches of the Hieromax. Kenath, the Canatha of the early geogra- 
phers, was situated among the hills of Alsadamus, and is also noticed 
under the name of Xobah, after its conqueror (Xurn. sxxii. 42 ; Judg. 
viii. 11; 1 Chr. ii. 23). The remains of the town are numerous, con- 
sisting of a theatre, a hippodrome, mausoleums, a peripteral temple, and 
other objects of Greek architecture. Salcah, Sidl:had, at the S.E. end 
of the range, and the farthest town in the kingdom of Baslian, pos- 
sessed a citadel situated on a conical hill. Numerous inscriptions of 
the Roman period exist, and the remains of vineyards and trroves of 
fig-trees testify to the former prosperity of the place. Kerioth, Ku- 
reiyeli, stood at the S.W. end of Jehel Hauran : its remains bear a 
Cyclopean character: inscriptions have been found bearing date a. d. 



20-i 



Book II. 



140, 296: it is noticed by the prophets (Jer. xlviii. 24; Am. ii. 2). 
Bozrah of the Moabites, the Bostra of the Romans, now Bdsrali, was 
on a large and fertile plain S.W. of the range of hills : it is noticed 
by Jeremiah fxlviii. 24) among the cities of the Moabites, and in 
1 Mace. Y. 26, as having been taken by Juda^. Trajan constituted it 
the capital of eastern Palestine ^\dth the title No^a Trajana Bostra, and 
the year in which this was done Ta.d. 106) w^as the commencement of 
the Bostrian era observed in these parts. Bostra was raised to the 
dignity of a colony by Alexander Severus (about a.d. 230') : after the 
introduction of Christianity it became the seat of a primacy, with 
thirty-three subject bishoprics. The ruins are very extensive and 
handsome, consisting of a theatre, temple, triumphal arch, and many 
other monuments. 

(2.) The towns belonging exclusively to the Roman era were — 
Phaeno, Musmeili, the capital of Traclionitis, due S. of Damascus : the 
beautiful ruins of a temple (bearing date about a.d. 165) and other 
jniblic buildings remain — Batanasa, on the northern declivity of Jehd 
Hauran, noticed by early Arab authors, with numerous Greek remains 
— Succaea, noticed by Ptolemy, in the hill-country, with the ruins of 
large churches (bearing date a.d. 369, 416) and other buildings — 
Heapolis, to the S., with Greek remains and inscriptions — and Phi- 
lippopolis, Or man, near the S.E. extremity of the range, founded by 
PhilijD the Arabian on his election to the empire a.d. 244. 

(3.) In addition to these are the remains of numerous towns, of 
which the modern names alone are known, such as Hit, with buildings 
of about the 2nd century — Shuhha, perhaps the same as Dionysias, 
with a Roman gateway, numerous Greek inscriptions (dates about a.d, 
165, 248), and some fme temples — Suiceideli in Jehel Hauran, with 
most extensive ruins and inscriptions (dates ad. 103, 135, 196): it is 
still the chief town in this district; and Hehrdn, near the southern 
end of the range, with a temple bearing date a.d. 155. 

§ 26. The history of Palestine as an independent state commences 
with the Exodas from Egypt, and terminates with the Babylonish 
captivity. It may be divided into three periods, viz. the Judges, 
the United Kingdom, and the Divided Kingdom. 

(E) The Judges. — Under the Judges the Israelites were chiefly en- 
gaged in protecting themselves against the attacks of the neighbouring 
nations — the Philistines, Canaanites of Hazor, Midianites, Amalekites, 
and Ammonite. The only distaut people with whom they came in 
contact were the Mesopotamians under Chushan-rishathaim. The 
tribes during this period lived under their own elders, without any 
bond of political union : in time of war they had their special leaders 
or judges, who were sometimes elected (Judg. iv. 6, xi. 5), and at other 
times assumed the office (iii. 9, 15, 31, x, 1, 3). The office of Judge, 
in the proper sense of the term, originated with Eli, with the excep- 
tion of Deborah, who also held the office of prophetess (Judg. iv. 4:"',. 

(2). Tue United Kin /dom. — Under the earliest king, Saul, the border 
warfare was sustained by the Ammonites, Philistines, and Amalekites, 
and the boundaries of the empire did not advance ; but under his 
successor David the addition of the territories of Hadadezer king of 
Zobah, and Hadad king of Damascus, carried the boundary to. the 
Euphrates; while the defeat of the Edomites in the S. by Abishai, one 
of David's geDerals, secured the route to the Dead Sea and prepare^l 



Chap. XL 



HISTORY OF PALESTINE. 



205 



the way for the commerce afterwards carried on by the Red Sea. His 
border was effectually secured by the defeat of the Ammonites. The 
alliance with Hiram king of Tyre, which was commenced by David, 
was another important step. Under Solomon the Jewish state reached 
the climax of its greatness ; he extended his relations with foreign 
nations by his alliance with the sovereign of Egypt, and by the commer- 
cial intercourse which he carried on with that country : he continued 
the alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, and was thus enabled to carry 
on trade with the distant coasts of Arabia, Africa, and India. The 
extent of his dominions was from Phoenicia in the N. to the lied Sea 
in the S., and from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates. Within his 
own territories the Canaanites were reduced to bondsmen, and on his 
border the Philistines, Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, Syrians, and 
even some of the Arab tribes, yielded a peaceable subjection. Before 
the termination of his reign, however, the kingdom showed symptoms 
of decline. Damascus was again raised to an independent position 
under Rezin. On the other side he was pressed by Ha,dad, one of the 
royal family of Edom, who obtained an independent position on his 
border, while inward disaffection broke out under Jeroboam. 

(3.) The Divided Kingdom. — On the death of Solomon a disruption of 
the tribes took place, ten of them combining to form the northern 
kingdom of Israel, while the remaining two, Judah and Benjamin, 
formed the southern kingdom of Judah. The latter, though smaller 
in point of extent, had a counterpoise in the possession of the capital, 
Jerusalem, and in the compactness of its territory. Israel was, more- 
over, peculiarly open to the encroachments of the eastern empires, no 
barrier being interposed between the trans-Jordanic district and the 
desert, while the heart of the country might be reached from the north 
by the entering in of Hamath" between the ranges of Libanus and 
Antilibanus. Judah, on the other, hand, was accessible only on the 
side of Egypt. Hence, as we might have expected, the former kingdom 
was the first to succumb beneath the growing influence of Assyria. 

The kingdom of Judah lasted from B.C. 975 to B.C. 588, under 20 
kings; that of Israel from B.C. 975 to B.C. 721, under 19 kings. The 
capital of the former was Jerusalem, of the latter Shechem, and after 
the accession of Omri, Samaria. The history of these kingdoms con- 
sists of a constant succession of wars, either among themselves or 
with the powerful nations on either side of them. Into the details 
of these wars it is unnecessary for us to enter, as they did not affect 
the ten-itorial divisions of Palestine until the final extinction of the 
kingdoms. Israel was incorporated with the Assyrian empire, and at 
the dissolution of that empire passed, with the remainder of the western 
provinces, into the hands of the Ba^bylonians. Judah, though occasion- 
ally reduced to subjection by the Assyrians, was not totally subdued 
until after the establishment of the Babylonian empire. 

Palestine remained an integral portion, first of the Babylonian, and 
afterwards of the Persian empire. In the reign of Cyrus the .Jews 
were restored to their native land (b.c. 525), and the Temple was 
rebuilt ; commissions were issued to Ezra under Artaxerxes I. {v,.c. 
457) and Nehemiah (b.c. 445) for the completion of the works neces- 
sary to the re -establishment of the Jewish polity. The conquest of 
Palestine by Alexander the Great, and the subversion of the Peridan 
empire, led to disastrous results. Palestine was for a lengthened period 
the debateable ground between the monarchies of Syria and Egypt. 
Annexed in the first instance to Syria (b.c. 323), it was conquered by 



20(3 



PALESTINE. 



Book 11. 



Ptolemy (B.C. 312), and it remained a portion of the Egyptian dominion 
from B.C. 301 to B.C. 203. ,The Jews then souglit the assistance of the 
Seleucida;, and a succession of struggles for independence followed, 
under the leadership of the Maccabees, terminating in the establish- 
ment of an independent dynasty under John Hyrcanus (B.C. 130). The 
disputes which disgraced his successors ultimately opened the way for 
the interference of Pompey (b.c. 63), and Judaea became henceforth 
dependent upon Rome. Antipater, an Idumsean, was appointed procu- 
rator by the influence of Julius Csesar (b.c. 48); and his second son 
Herod was elevated to the dignity of king of Judaea (b.c. 38), and after- 
w^ards of the whole of Palestine and Idumaea (b.c. 31). On the death 
(B.C. 4) of this Herod — distinguished as 'Hhe Great " — the kingdom was 
divided into three portions, Archelaus receiving Judaea, Samaria, and 
Iduma'a ; Philip, Galilee, with the title of Tetrarch ; and Antipas, Tra- 
chonitis, Bacanaea, and Ituraea. These districts were again consolidated 
into one kingdom under Herod Agrippa (a.d. 41) and his son Agrippa 
II. ; but the Roman authority was really I'^aramount, and the Jews 
SLiflered severely from the rapacity of the governors imposed upon 
them. A fierce struggle ensured, terminating in the destruction of 
Jerusalem under Titus (a.d. 70), and in the extinction of the national 
existence of the Jews. 




Roman Keinains in the South Wall of Haram at Jerusalem. (From a Sketch by 
Wm. Tipping, Esq.) 



Temple of Birs-Ximrud at Borsippa. 



CHAPTEE XII. 

MESOPOTAMIA, BABYLONIA, ASSYRIA, ARMENIA, SzC. 

I. Mesopotamia.— § 1. Boundaries and character. §2. Mountains: 
Rivers. § Divisions: Towns: History. II. Babylonia.— § 4. 
Boundaries, and character. § 5. Rivers : Canals. § 6. Inhabit- 
ants. § 7. Divisions : Towns : History. III. Assyru- — § S. 
Boundaries and character. § 9. Rivers. § 10. Inhabitants : Divi- 
sions. § 11. Towns: History. IV. Armenia. — § 12. Boundaries 
and character. § 13. Mountains : Rivers. § l-t. Inhabitants : 
Divisions: Towms : History. § 15. The Anabasis of X.enophon. 
V. § 16. Colchis. § 17. Iberia. § 18. Albania. § 19. Sarmatia. 

1. Mesopotamia. 

§ 1. Mesopotamia ^vas bounded on the X. by Mons ^Masius, 
separating it from Armenia, on the E. by the Tigris, on the W. by 
the Euphrates, and on the S. by the Median Wall, separating it 
from Babylonia. It consists for the most part of an immense 
plain, broken only in one place by the range of Singaras, Sinjar, 
which crosses it for a considerable distance towards the S.W. in the 



208 



MESOPOTAMIA. 



Book II. 



latitude of Xineveh. The plain affords excellent pasturage during 
the spring and early summer months, hut afterwards becomes 
parched up in the absence of artificial irrigation. Hence in modern 
times it presents, at one period, the most rich and delightful aspect, 
luxuriant ^-ith grass, and enamelled with flowers, at another period 
the appearance of an arid barren wilderness. In ancient times the 
remains of cities prove that it was more densely populated, and 
better- cared for than at present. Timber was both abundant and 
of fine growth, so much so that the emperors Trajan and Severus 
built fleets on the banks of the Euphrates. Among its special pro- 
ducts may be noticed naphtha, amomum, and ga ng it is, probably a 
kind of anthracite coal. The remote districts were the haimts of 
the lion, the wild ass, and the gazelle. 

Name. — Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek words /xeaos, TroTafios, 
expressive of its position between the Tigris and Euphrates ; it thus 
closely corresponds with the Hebrew designation Aram-naliaraim, 
'^Aram of the two rivers," and the modern ArBhic Al-Jezireh, "the 
island." The name Mesopotamia is of comparatively recent introduc- 
tion, not appearing either in Herodotus or Xenophon : this district was 
probably first recognized by a special name about the time of Alex- 
ander the Great. 

§ 2. The most im}X)rtant mountain-range is Masius, which skirts 
the N. boundary, and throws out numerous spiu's towards the S., 
imparting a hilly broken character to the northern district : Singaras 
may be regarded as a distant ofiset of this chain. The chief rivers 
are the Tigris and the Euplirates, from which the country derives its 
name : these have been already noticed, as skirting the borders of 
the plain. The rivers which traverse the jolain are for the most 
part tributaries of the Euphrates : the most important is the 
Cliaboras, KJiahur, which rises in Masius, and after a course 
first towards the S.E. and then towards the S.AV. joins the Eu- 
phrates, at Circesium : at the point where its course clianges it 
receives several tributaries, particularly the Mygdonius from Xisibis. 
The Balissus or Bellas, Beiikke, flows through the X.AV. of the dis- 
trict, and joins near Callinicum : on its banks the army of Crassus 
first encountered the Parthians. 

§ 3. Under the Eomans the country was divided into two parts 
— Osrhoene to the W., and Mygdorda to the E. of the Chaboras : the 
former was so named after Osrhoes, an Arabian chief who established 
himself there in the time of the Seleucida3. The inhabitants were 
a Semitic race — a branch of the Aramaic family which extended 
over Syria. The towns lined the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, 
and were thickly strewed over the plain at the foot of the Masian 
range. We know singularly little of them, and the few particulars 
recorded belong almost wholly to the period of the Eoman empire, 



Chap. XTI. 



TO"\\^XS — HISTORY. 



209 



when ^lesopotamia became a battle-field against the Parthians. 
The openness of the country and its liability to sweeping invasions 
may very much account for this : towns rose and fell without any 
record of their existence. Some, as Corsote, were in ruins in 
Xenophon's time ; others, as Carmande, were large and prosperous, 
and yet are never heard of again ; whil^ others, like the Csense 
which he notices, are known only by the stupendous mounds 
under which they are buried. 

The most important town in Osrhoene was Edessa, situated on the 
Scirtus, a tributary of the BalissiiSj, and otherwise named AntiocMa 
Callirlioes, from a fountain of that name: it was probably built by 
Antigonus, though a much earlier date has been assigned to it^ and it 
has even been identified with the Scriptural Ur : Edessa became in 
Christian times the seat of a famous theological school. Nisibis, the 
capital of ^lygdonia, stood on the Mygdonius, near the base of the 
Masian range : it was also reputed a town of great antiquity, and pro- 
bably vras so, though not to be identified with any Scriptural town: it 
is first noticed by Polybius under the name of Antiochia jlygdoniee ; 
it figures frequently in the wars between the Romans and Parthians, 
and remained an outpost of the Roman empire to a late date. Carrliae,^ 
on a branch of the Belias, was an old town of commercial importance : 
the same character, though in a higher degree, attached to Batnse, 
which stood between Carrhse and the Euphrates, and was the scene of 
an annual fair of great importance : it was fortified by Justinian. 
Apamea, on the Euphrates, was built by Seleucus opposite Zengn:ia for 
the defence of the bridge of boats. Nicephorium, lower down the river, 
was probably founded by Seleucus I., though by some writers attributed 
to Alexander the Great. Circesium, at the junction of the Chaboras, 
is noticed by Procopius as the (ppovpiou ecrxaroy of the Romans in his 
day. Is, near the Babylonian frontier, represents the modern Hit. 
Singara, near the eastern end of the range of the same name, appears 
to have been the chief town in the central district : it was the scene of 
several conflicts in the Eastern wars ot the Romans, and particularly of 
one between Constantius II. and Sapor. Atrse or Hatra, near the Tigris, 
to the S.E. of Singara, is described as a place of grent strength, which 
held out successfully against Trajan and Septimus Severus : extensive 
ruins of it still remain imder the name of AI Uatirr. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Anthemiisia, between 
the Euphrates and Edessa — Hhesaena, Bi's-aJ-Aui, near the sources of 
the Chab'jras, afterwards named Theodosiopolis, probably as having 
been rebuilt by Theodosius — Constantia between Xisibis and Charra? — 
Iclinse, a fortified town or castle on the Bilecha — and Dura, near Circe- 
sium, the p'ace where a military monument to Gordian v\-as erected. 

History. — In early times, Mesopotamia formed a portion of the great 
Eastern monarchies of Assyria, Media, and Persia. The authority 
exercised by those powers was of a very lax and indefinite character, 



Crassus took refuge at CarrhiG after his defeat by the Farthians. 

sic, ubi sseva 

Arma ducuni dirimens miserando funere Crassus 

Assyrias Latio macula vit sanguine Carras, 

Parthica Pvomanos soJverunt damna furores. — Luc. i. 103. 



210 



BABYLONIA. 



Book II. 



and in all probability the western district, adjacent to the Euphrates, 
was practically independent. The Assyrian inscriptions make mention 
of the Na'iri, as a tribe in that part with which the monarchs were 
frequently at war. The history of these wars and of the heroes who 
conducted them is, however, sunk in oblivion : nor do we hear of any 
conqueror ever issuing from this country, with the exception of 
Chushan-rishathaim, noticed in the Bible (Judg. iii. 8) as having held 
Israel in subjection for eight years : his name, ^'Chushan of the double 
aggression," seems to bespeak a chieftain versed in the practices of 
border warfare. The Seleucidai extended their sway over the northern 
part of Mesopotamia more particularly, and nominally over the whole 
of it. Trajan conquered it, but Hadrian relinquished possession of it. 
It was again conquered under M. Aurelius, but after repeated struggles 
the greater part was given up to the Persians by Jovian. a.t>. 388. 



§ 4. Babylonia was bounded on the N. by the Median Wall, on 
the E. by the Tigris, on the S. by the Persian Gulf, and on the W. 
and S.W. by the Arabian desert. The natural limit on the N. was 
formed by the approximation of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates 
to each other. The name was sometimes, however, extended over 
the whole of Mesopotamia. Babylonia consists of an almost un- 
broken plain, which in early times under a system of skilful irri- 
gation possessed the very highest fertility^ but w^hich at present 
is for the most part a barren and desolate wilderness. Its soil was 
well fitted for the grow^th of cereals, and among the other produc- 
tions for which the country w^as famous in ancient times w^e may 
notice — the date-palm, sesamicm, and asphalt. 

§ 5. There are no hills in Babylonia : nor are there any rivers 




View of Babil from the ^Vest. 



II. Babylonia. 



Chap. XII. 



CAXALS 



— IXHABITAXTS. 



211 



excejjt the two great border streams of the Euplirates and the Tigris, 
which have been already described. Artificial works take the place 
of natural features : a network of canals conducted the fructifying 
waters of the rivers over the face of the country, and presented, 
next to the rivers themselves, the most striking objects in its general 
aspect. Of these, four are described by Xenophon (A7iah. i. 7, § 15) 
as crossing from the Tigris to the Euphrates, each sufficiently large 
to convey a com vessel; the longest, named Nahr-Malcha^ ''the 
king's canal," entered the Tigris near Seleucia, and was ascribed by 
Herodotus (i. 185) to Xitocris. In addition to these, there were two 
very important canals on the W, of the Euphrates, designed appa- 
rently to regulate the flow of the river, and to prevent it from over- 
flowing its banks : the first, named Maarsares, left the river above 
Babylon, and terminated in a marsh some distance to the S. ; the 
second, Pallacopas, commenced about 75 miles S. of Babylon, and 
joined the Persian Gulf at Teredon. Xumerous marshes lay along 
the courses of these canals AY. of the Euphrates, commencing im- 
mediately below Babylon. We must also notice the Median Wall 
of Xenophon (Anah. ii. 4, § 12), which crossed between the rivers 
in a north-easterly direction, coming upon the Tigris about 35 miles 
above Baghdad. 

§ 6. The earliest occupants of this country in historical times 
were a Cushite or Hamitic race. The name of Gush (which was 
more generally restricted to the Ethiopians of Africa) appears in 
Asia under the forms Gosssei, Gissia, and Susiana ; Nimrod, the 
reputed founder of Babylon, is described in the Mosaic genealogy as 
the son of Gush (Gen. x. 8). The indigenous appellation of this 
race seems to have been Akkad, and its dominant tribe appears 
under the familiar name of " Ghaldees," or Kaldai, as they are called 
in the Assyrian Inscriptions. The wide extension of the name of 
Ghaldees to the very borders of Armenia seems to imply that at one 
period this race had spread over the whole of Mesopotamia. This 
original Hamitic race was either superseded by, or, perhaps we 
should rather say, was developed into the Semitic race, which 
issued hence along the courses of the Tigris and Euphrates north- 
wards, and across the Arabian desert westwarus to the shores of the 
Mediterranean. Probably, a Scythic or Turanian element was 
superadded, representing a still earlier aboriginal population ; this 
maybe represented by "the nations" noticed in conjunction with 
the Hamitic Shinar and the Semitic Elam (Gen. xiv. 1). 

§ 7. Babylonia was not parcelled out into any systematic ar- 
rangement of provinces or districts, but certain portions of the 
plain received special designations, as Chaldaea, the position of which 
has been described (p. 12) ; Mesene, about the head of the Persian 
Gulf, and a second district of the same name in the X., probably at 



212 



BABYLOXIA. 



Book II. 



tlie point where tlie Euphrates and Tigris approach each other most 
nearly ; Auranitis, and Amordocia, on the right bank of the Euphrates. 

The towns of Babylonia belong to thi'ee distinct periods : (i) the 
ancient capitals whose history is nnknov^~n, except in so far as 
the rnins themselves declare it ; (ii) the historical towns erected 
during the flourishing period of the Babylonian empire ; and (iii) 
those subsequently built by the Seleucidc"e for commercial objects, 
and Avhich continued to exist under the Eoman empire as border 
fortresses. The sites of the first class are marked by those wonder- 
ful mouDds which rise so conspicuoush^ out of the plain, and of 
which the Birs-i-Ntmmd, near Babylon, AlckerJt?'/, near Baghdad, 




Plan of the Ruins of Babylon. 



Chap. XII. 



BABYLOX. 



213 



Niffe'i\ in tlie central plain, Warha and Senhereh^ about the marshes 
of the Euphrates, and Murj]iei'i\ on the western side of that river, 
besides many others which might be enumerated, are still in exist- 
ence. Some of these have been identified with the old Biblical 
capitals of the land of Shinar ; of others, even the names are unre- 
corded in history, but may yet be deciphered from the monograms 
on the bricks. These cities perished at a very early period, and 
Avere in many cases converted into the abodes of the dead, being 
used as Xecropolises by the succeeding towns : this is the case par- 
ticularly at IVarha and y{fe)\ where coffins are piled up tier on 
tier in prodigious numbers. In the second class may be placed the 
famed capital of Babylon, and its suljurb Borsippa. In the third 
class, Seleucia on the Tigris, Apamea, Charax Spasinu, and others. 

Babylon stood on both sides of the Euphrates, near the modern 
HillaJi. Its size was enormous : Herodotus estimates the circuit of the 
walls at stades, and Ctesias at 3G0: there appear to have been two 
walls ; and the discrepancy between these writers may be explained on 
the ground that the former refers to the outer, and the latter to the 
inner wall. Even the lowest of these computations would imply an 
area of above lO^' square miles, or nearly five times the size of London. 
The height of the walls - was no less remarkable; according to Hero- 
dotus, 200 royal cubits or 337j feet, nearly the height of the dome of 
St. Paul's, and their thickuess ou royal cubits or 85 feet. It was 
entered by a hundred gates of brass, and protected by 250 towers* 
The more remarkable buildings Avere--the ancient temple of Belus, 
represented by the mound of Bohil A', an oblong mass about 140 
feet high, 600 long, and 42 '^i broad — the palace of Xebuchaclnezzar, 
identified with the mound of the Kasr (B), an irregular square of 
about 700 yards each side— a more ancient palace, contained in the 
moimd of Amram (C ). more to the S. — and another palace, the lesser " 
one of CtesiaS; the ruins of which (DD) exist on both sides of the river. 
There are also remains of an enclosure in tAvo parallel mounds fFF , 
probably a reservuir. The present remains are almost wholly on the 
left bank of the river, which has probably changed its course, and 
formerly ran betAA^een the tAvo ridges marked II. The hanging gardens 
formed one of the greatest ornaments of Babylon. The lines GG are 
the remains of one of the Avails. About six miles to the S.W. of 
Babylon AA-as Borsippa, represented by Birs-Xirnrud, Avhere a mound of 
a pyramidal form, built up in a series of seven stages to a height of 
153 feet, is croAAmed by the remains of the temple of Xebo : it was 

2 The construction of these walls was commonly attributed to Semiramis : — 
0777] TT^arv Tel\o<; 
'Acr(;baATa) Sijcraaa Se/xtpa/xt? e/x/SacrtAevei'. — TheoCR. Idyl. xvi. 99. 

uhi dicitur altam 
Coctilibus maris cinxisse Semiramis urbem. — Ov. Ifet. iv. 57. 
Persarmn statuit Babylona Semiramis nrbem, 

L't solidum cocto tolleret ag-gere opus ; 
Et duo in adversum misit per mcenia currus, 

Ne possp-^.t tacto stringere ab axe latus. 
Duxit et Euphraten medium, quam condidit, arci, 

Jussit et imperio surgere Bactra caput. — Propert. iii. 11, 21. 



2 1 4 BABYLOXIA. Book II . 



erected by Xebuchadnezzar, and has been erroneously identified vdth 
the ' Tower of Babel ' {Gen. xi. 4). 




View of the Kasr, or ancient Palace of Xebuchadnezzar. 



The early history of Babylon is involved in much obscurity: it was 
not the original capital of the country, and its existence is not carried 
back by historical evidence to a period anterior to the 15th century 
B.C. when it is noticed in an Egyptian inscription. The earliest notice 
in the Bible occurs in the reign of Hezekiah, B.C. 712. At that time it 
was ruled by its own king ; but generally speaking it was subject to 
the kings of Xineveh during the period of Assyrian ascendancy. After 
the fall of Xineveh it rose to be the head of a mighty empire, and w.as 
enlarged and adorned by Xebuchadnezzar. It was taken by Cyrus. 
B.C. 538, who regula]'ly resided there for a certain period of the year: 
the fortifications were destroyed by Darius Hystaspis, and the temple 
of Belus by Xerxes. Babylon retained its position until the time of 
Alexander the Great, but soon afterwards sunk into insignificance 
through the erection of Seleucia on the banks of the Tigris, B.C. o22. 

Seleucia, on the Tigris, near the junction of the Xahr-malcha, was 
erected by Seleucus Xicator with materials brought from Babylon, and 
became a place of great commercial im2-)ortance : it was ruined in the 
wars between the Eomans and Parthians. Xot far from it was Coche, 
a place of military strength in the later days of the Roman empire. 
Persabora was a very strong post on the Euphrates, perhaps at Anhar : 
it is noticed in the history of Julian's wars. Cunaxa, the scene of 
the battle between Cyrus and Artaxerxes, B.C. 401, was situated in 
the midst of the canal district, near the Euphrates. Orchoe on the 
borders of the Arabian desert, W. of the Euphrates, was the principal 



Chap. XII. HISTORY OF BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. 



215 



seat of the Orcheni, a people who obtained celebrity both as an astro- 
nomical sect, and for their hydraulic skill. Apamea, described as being 

in Mesene, is of doubtful 
position. Several towTis 
stood about the shores of 
the Persian Gulf, whose 
sites cannot be identified 
in consequence of the great 
change that has taken place 
in the coast: among these 
we may notice — Ampe, 
whither the Milesians were 
transported by Darius, B.C. 
494 — Apologi Vicus, a con- 
siderable place of trade, pro- 
bably at Old Bosrah — Cha,- 
rax Spasinu, near the mouth 
of the Tigris, founded by 
Alexander the Great with 
the name Alexandria, re- 
stored by Antiochus Epi- 
phanes with the name of 
Antiochia. and occupit d by 
Spasines. an Arab chieftain, 
after whom it received its 
acpiornen of Spasinu ; it was 
a place r.f cousiderable trade 
— and Teredon, at the mouth 
of the Pasitigris. 

Historii of the Babylonian 
Empire. — Babylon remained 
sunk in comparative insig- 
nificance throughout the 
whole period of Assyrian 
supremacy. It had never- 
theless its own monarehs, 
^vith whom the Assyrians 
frequently carried on war. 
The era of Nabonassar, B.C. 
747, seems to mark a poli- 
tical change, but its nature 
is uncertain. One of his 
successors, JLi/vInc-em p'/dus, 
is undoubtedlv the Mero- 




Portions of Ancient Babylon distinguishable in the 
present Riiius 



dach-baladan of Scripture, who sent ambassadors to TIezekiah : he was 
expelled from his throne by Sargon, and a second time by Sennacherib, 
who appointed Belibus as his viceroy from B.C. 7u2 to B.C. 699, and after- 
wards Asshur-nadiii (Assaranadius) from B.C. 699 to B.C. 693. It is uncer- 
tain whether the succeeding governors were viceroys or native princes. 
Esar-haddon, the x\ssyrian monarch, assumed the crown himself, and 
held his court there occasionally ; but he appears in the later part of his 
reign to have appointed a \icer03', Saosduchinus, from B.C. 667 to B.C. 647, 
who was succeeded by Ciniladanus, B.C. 647-625. XobopoLiSi>ar was the 
last of these viceroys or subject kings : he aided Cyaxares in the over- 
throw of Nineveh, and established himself on the throne of Babylon, 



216 



ASSYEIA. 



Book II. 



which he occupied from B.C. 625 to B.C. 604. The Babylonian territory 
Linder him consisted of the valley of the Euphrates as high as Carchemish, 
Syria^ Phoenicia, Palestine., and probably a part of Egypt. He car- 
ried on war, in conjunction with the Medes. against the Lydians, and 
afterwards against the Egyptians who had aided the Lydians. His 
son Xebucbadnezzar gave the Egyptian king Xecho a total defeat at 
Carchemish. Xehachadnezzar, B.C. 604-561, was equally distinguished for 
his martial achievements and for the gigantic works which he executed 
in his countr}", and particularly at Babylon. He reduced Tyre after a 
siege of thirteen years : sacked Jerusalem, and carried off its inhabitants ; 
and invaded Egypt. There is little to record of his successors, Ecil- 
Mcrodich, B.C. 561-559; Xci-ii^issar, B.C. 559-556; and Lahorosoarchod, 
B.C. 556-555. Xabon:idius commenced his reign just as Cyrus weis enter- 
ing upon his Lydian war : he entered into alliance with Croesus, and 
fortified his own territory against the Medes. Cyrus commenced his 
invasion of Babylonia b c. 54n, and, having defeated the enemy in the 
open field, he laid siege to Babylon, which was then under the care of 
Bil-sh':(r-"z "r, the Belshazzar of the Bible, and, entering by the dry bed 
of the Euphrates, captured the city. Xabonadius had retired to Bor- 
sippa, where he was taken prisoner by Cyrus, B.C. 538. Henceforth 
Babylonia formed a portion of the Persian empire. 




Mound of Ximroud. (From Layard's ' ^'inevch.') 



III. Assyria. 

§ 8. Assyria was bounded on the X. by the range of Xiphates ; 
on the E. by that of Zagriis ; on the S.E. by Susiana ; on the W. 
and S.W. by the Tigris. The northern and eastern portions of 
Assyria are mountainous, the former being covered with ranges 
emanating from the Armenian highlands, and the latter with the 
secondary ridges of the Zagrns chain. The southern and western 
districts, as high up as Xineveh, on the other hand, partake more 
of the character df the Mesopotamian plain, though more diversified 
with heights and river-courses. The plains of Ass}Tia, as of Meso- 
potamia, are alternately a garden and a wilderness, the excessive 
heat of summer completely parching up the vegetation. The hilly 
district varies in character, the rising gimmd adjacent to the plain 
being well watered and productive, the intermediate hills of an arid 



Chap. XII. IIIYEKS — INH ABITAXTS — TOWXS. 2 1 7 

character, and the higher elevations of Zagrus well wooded and 
offering rich pastures during the summer months. 

§ 9. The rivers which water Assyria ^11 flow into the Tigris, 
and have courses very nearly parallel to each other towards the 
S.W. Most of them rise in Zagrus, but some penetrate through 
the central chain into the highlands of Media. The chief rivers 
from N. to S. are — the Zabatus or Lycus, Great Zah, which rises in 
the angle where Kiphates and Zagrus effect their junction, and, 
• doubling about among the parallel ranges that beset its middle course, 
reaches the Tigris in 36° of lat. — the Capms or Zerbis, Lesser Zah, 
which rises in Media^ and reaches the Tigris near So^ lat. — the 
Physcus or TomadStus, Odvrneh, which joins a short distance below 
the Median "Wall — and the Gyndes,^ Diala, which joins a little above 
Ctesiphon. 

§ 10. The inhabitants of Assyria were a Semitic race, Assbur 
being described in Gen. x. 22 as a son of Shem. There appears to 
have been, as we have already observed, a close connexion bet^veen 
the population of Babylonia and Assyria ; for we are told (Gen. x. 
, 11), that " out of that land {i. e. Babylonia) went forth Asshur," or 
according to another rendering of the words, " out of that land he 
{%. €. Ximrod) went forth to Asshur." Whichever of the two senses 
we adopt, the general fact indicated remains the same, viz. that 
there was an affinity between the two races— a view which is sup- 
ported by indications both of language and history. The political 
divisions were numerous : few of the names present any feature of 
intere&t ; we may, however, specify ArrapacMtis in the N.E., which 
is thought to represent the Scriptural Arphaxad ; Adiabene, the 
district about the com'se of the Great Zah ; Aturia, about the me- 
tropolis Nineveh ; and Sittacene in the S. 

§ 11. The remarks made in reference to the towns of Babylonia 
ap|)ly in great measure to those of Assyria also. The banks of the 
Tigris are lined with mounds, marking the sites of once flourishing 
cities, whose histories and even names remain a matter of doubt. 
It seems tolerably certain that Nineveh itself was not the earliest 
capital ; Scripture notices Eesen as surpassing it in size, and places 
Calah and Eehoboth on a par with it. W^e have already (p. 12) 
endeavoured to identify some of these places : we will now add that 
Calah SJiergat appears to have been the first capital, and to have 
been built about B.C. 1273 — that the seat of government was thence 
moved higher up the river to Nimrud by Sardanapalus, B.C. 930 — 



3 Nee qua vel Nilus, vel reg-ia lymplia Choaspes 
Profluit, aut rapidus, Cyri dementia, Gyndes 
Radit Arectceos baud una per ostia campos. — Tibvll. iv. 1, 140. 
—For the allusion to Cyrus see above, p. 32. 

. A.NC. OEOG. L 



2j8 



ASSYRIA. 



Booh II. 



and that this remained tlie capital until the time of Sennaclierib, 
B.C. 702, who again removed the seat of power to Xineveh. In 
addition to these jilaces,. there are numerous mounds whicli tm- 
donhtedly mark the sites of large towns, such as Abu Khameem 
and Tel Errnah, on the western hank of the Tigris, Khorscihad, 
>i]iereef-Jcl.aiK and others on the eastern side of it. These towns 
were m<jstly destroyed either before or at the time of the fall of 
Xineveh : when Xenophon passed by their sites, he observed the 
mounds, but heard little of the famous cities that lay buried beneath 
them ; even the name of Xineveh is imnoticed, and the j^lace is de- 
scribed as Mesplla, while that of Eesen appears under the Gr^ecised 
form Larissa. Some few towns of a later date are foimd in the 
southern part of Assyria, of which Cteslphon is the only one that 
attained celebrity. 




Vaulted Drain beneath the Palace at Ximroud, (From Layard's ' Xineveh. '"^ 

The capital of Assyria was Ninus or Nineveii ; it is described in the 
book of Jouali as •'•a city of three days' journey" (iii. 3\ and its 
population (judging from the statement in iv. 11) must have amounted 



Chap. XII. 



NINEVEH. 



219 



to 600,000. Though it had disappeared before classical times, yet 
the memory of its greatness was preserved. Both Strabo Txvi. p. 737J 
and Diodorus (ii. p. 7) give striking accounts of its size. The mounds 
opposite Mosul, named Kouyunjik and Xehhi Yunv.s, represent the site of 
Nineveh, or, at all events, a portion of it. The doubtful point is, how 
far Nineveh extended on either side. It has been noticed that the four 
mounds'^ Kouyunjik, Khorsahad, Karamless, and Ximroud, stand at the 




Subterranean Excavations at Kouyunjik. (From Layard's ' Xineveb.') 



* A brief description of the contents of these mounds will not be out of place 
(1.) The mounds of Kouijunjili and JVebbi Yinnis stand in close proximity to each 
other. The former contains the magnificent palace of Sennacherib, erected about 
B.C. 700, covering an area of 100 acres. The chambers, of whioh more than 
seventy have been explored, vrere covered -^ith bas-reliefs commemorating the 
^vars of Sennacherib : many of these are now in the British Museum. On the 
northern side of the mound a second palace was erected by Sardanapalus III., 
grandson of Sennacherib : the apartments were decorated with hunting scenes, 
executed in the highest style of Assyrian art. Some of these also adorn the 
British Museum. The mound oi Xehhi Yunus derives its name from an unfounded 
tradition that Jonah was buried there. The whole enclosure of Kouyunjik cov ers 

L 2 • 



220 



ASSYRIA. 



Book II. 



anccles of a quadrangle, the size of which would correspond tolerably 
well with the statements of Jonah and Diodorus: hence it has been 
conjectured that the whole of the space enclosed between these points 
was termed Nineveh, the area being occupied by extensive gardens and 
parks surrounding palaces, and temples, and private houses, much as is 
the case in modern Oriental towns. This, however, must be regarded 
as doubtful, particularly as Nimroud probably represents Resen. 
Nineveh was destroyed, B.C. 625, by the combined armies of the Medes 
and Babylonians. Arbela, between the Zabatus and Caprus, has gained 
notoriety from the battle between Darius and Alexander the Great, 
which was fought, however, at Gaugamela, about 20 miles to the N.W. 
ApoUonia and Artemita are supposed to have stood respectively N. 
and S. of the Delas in its mid course : more to the E., Chala and the 
neighbouring CeLonae, on the banks of the Holwan, commanded the 
2:)ass across Zagrus. On the banks of the Tigris, in the S. of the 
province, were the important towns of Opis, probably at the junction of 
the Physcus — Sittace, further down the stream— and Ctesiphon, which 
rose into importance after the decay of Seleucia, and became the winter 
residence of the Parthian kings : it was strongly fortified : its site is 
now named Al Madain, '^the two cities.'* 

History of the Assyrian Empire. — We pass over the earliest kings, until 
we come to Tiglath-Fiieser 1., B.C. 1110, who extended his conquests 
over Cappadocia, Syria, and Armenia,^ and attacked Baby lon without 



about 1800 acres, and is about 7 1 miles in circumference. (2.) Khorsahad stands 
about 15 miles N.E. of Komjunjik : it appears to have been named Sarghun after 
the monarch Sargon, who established it as his capital about b.c. 720'. His palace 
is covered with a double mound nearly 1000 feet in length. It was richly adorned 
with sculptures, representing for the most part processions of tribute-bearers, 
sieges of towns, punishments of prisoners, and buildings. The Loxtvre contains a 
rich collection of these. (3.) Ximroud lies on the left bank of the Tigris, about 
17 miles S. of Kouyunjik. The great mound is 1800 feet long by 900 broad, and 
rises to a conical elevation at the N.W. angle. The buildings here were erected 
by a succession of kings — Sardanapalus L, who founded the N.W. palace, e.g. 900, 
in which the celebrated black obelisk was found ; Shamas-iva, b.c. 850, and Iva- 
Lush (Pul), B.C. 800, who enlarged that palace ; Esar-haddon, b.c. 680, who built 
the S.W. palace with materials plundered from the other palaces ; and his son 
Sardanapalus III., who built the S.t:. palace. (4.) Kileh-Shergnt is situated 
on the right bank of the Tigris, about 60 miles wS. of Kouyunjik. The mound is 
of a triangular form, 60 feet high, and about 2| miles round. The most remark- 
able object discovered here is the cylinder, now in the British Museum, containing 
the annals of Tiglath-Pileser I. 

5 The conquered countries are described on the Assyrian mouuments by names 
which are in themselves instructive, as illustrating both Biblical and classical geo- 
graphy. It may be noticed that many of the nations with whom the Assyrians carried 
on the most frequent wars sunk into comparative insignificance in after times. 
Northwards we can identify the Mayiiiai about Lake Urumiyeh with the Minni of 
Scripture ; Ararat, or KJiarkhar, with central Armenia, as described in the Bible ; 
Muzr with Colchis, whose inhabitants were probably a Hamitic race, as described 
by Herodotus, and as inc icated by the Assyrian name which answers to the Biblical 
ATizraim. Westward of Armenia, the most important tribes were Tuplai, the Tubal 
of the Bible, the later Tiharejii ; and the Muskai, Mesech, the later Moschi, in 
Cappadocia ; XJiilak, Cilicia, is also noticed. On the northern and western frontier 
of Mesopotamia were the Xa'iri, with whom the Assyrians were constantly engaged. 
Along the course of the Euphrates lived the Tsukhi, probably the Shuhites of 
Scripture ; and on the side of Syria the Kliatti, the Scriptural Hittites, of whom 
a tribe named Patena evidently represents Fada7i-Aram. The town of Samaria is 



Chap. XII. HISTOliY OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 



221 



success. The celebrated Sardanapalus I., B.C. 93-)^ carried his arms suc- 
cessfully from the shores of the Persian Gulf to the MediterraueMU, sub- 
duing Tyre, Sidon, Byblus, and Aradus in the latter direction, Babylon 
and Chaldsea in the former. Sli'dni'meser, B.C. 900, conquered Armenia. 
Media, Cappadocia, Babylonia, Syria, a,nd Phoenicia. He also received 
tribute from Jehu, king of Israel, who is named Yahua, son of Kkumr^, 
i. e. successor of Omri. Sh'i.mas-wa, B.C. 850, attacked the Syrians, 
Mede?, and Babylonians, taking two hundred towns either belonging to 
or confederate with the latter. Iva-Lush III., B.C. SuO, the Pul of the 
Bible, received tribute from the Medes, Persians, Armenians, Syrians, 
Samaritans, Tyre, and Sidon. The name of Menahem, king of Israel, ap- 
pears in the list of his tributaries, as recorded in 2 Kings xv. 19. Tiglath- 
Pileser II., B.C. 747, carried on wars in Upper ^Mesopotamia, Armenia, 
Media, and Syria, where he defeated Rezin, king of Damascus. He is 
the monarch who invaded the northern districts of Palestine (2 Kings xv. 
29). Shalmancser, B.C. 730, is not noticed in Assyrian inscriptions. 
He carried on war with Hoshea, king of Israel, and besieged Samaria 
(2 Kings xvii. 3-5). He appears to have died before the city was taken ; 
for the king of Assyria" (2 Kings x\ui. 6) who actually carried oflp the 
Israelites was named Sargon, who came to the throne B.C. 721, and who 
is recorded in the inscriptions to have transplanted 27,280 families of 
the Israelites. Sargon waged war with Merodach-baladan, king of 
Babylon, and invaded Susiana, Armenia, and Media : he also came into 
contact with the Egyptian monarchs, one of whom, Sebichus, the second 
of the Ethiopian dynasty, had formed an alliance with Hoshea (2 Kings 
x\T.i. 4\ In this war he took Ashdod (Is. xx. \) and Gaza: he also 
extended his expeditions to Cyprus. Sennacherib, B.C. 702, subdued 
and deposed Merodach-baladan, appointing a viceroy over Babylon. In 
the third year of his reign he defeated the Hittites, the kings of Tyre 
and Sidon, and, descending southwards, subdued the towns of Philis- 
tia, particularly Ascalon. He twice invaded Palestine, on the first 
sion receiving tribute from Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 15), on the second 
occasion besieging Lachish and Libnah, and shutting up Hezekiah in occa- 
Jerusalem (2 Kings xviii. 17, xix. 8). The destruction of his army in 
Egypt has been already referred to. Esar-haddon, B.C. 680, renewed 
the wars vdth. Phoenicia, Syria, Armenia, Susiana, Media, Babylonia, 
and Asia Minor : he also describes himself as the " conqueror of Egypt 
and Ethiopia." He is probablj^ the king who carried Manasseh to 
Babylon (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11). Sardanapalus III., B.C. 660, undertook 
a campaign against Susiana, but was otherwise unknown for martial 
deeds. Asshur-emit-ili, B.C. 640, was either the last or the last but one 
of the Assyrian kings, it being doubtful whether he is identical "with 
the Saracus of Berosus or not. With the latter monarch the Assyrian 
empire terminated, Xineveh being destroyed by the conjoined forces of 
the Medes under Cyaxares, and the Babylonians under Xabo-polassar. 



described as Beth KJnimri ("the house of Omri") ; Judgea as Jchuda ; Idumaea 
as Hudum ; and Meroe as Jlinikha. The island of Cyprus is referred to under 
the name Yavan (Javan). Eastward of the Zagrus range were races, some of 
\vhose names we cannot identify : the Hupiiska, who lived eastward of Xineveh ; 
the Xamri, whose territory extended to the shores of the Persian Gulf ; the Bikni 
in Parthia ; the Farfsu in Persis ; Jfada in Media ; and Gimri, the Sacce, or 
Scythians. Southwards, Babylonia is termed Kan-Duniyas, Susiana Xuvaki^ the 
Karoon being noticed under the name Via {VVai of Daniel. Eidwus)^ and the 
Shat-el-Arab as the " great salt river." Many of the towns of Phoenicia and Syria 
are noticed under names but slightly varying from the classrical or Biblical forms. 



AR:^rEXIA MA.JOE. 



Book II. 




The Town and Rock of Wan. 



lY. Armenia Major. 

§ 12. The boundaries of Armenia cannot be very accurately de- 
fined : speaking generally, Armenia may be described as the high 
mountainous country between the Euxine, Caspian, and MediteiTa- 
nean seas and the Persian Gulf, whence the mountain chains of 
Western Asia radiate in various directions. On the S. the limit of 
this district mav be placed at the ranges which overlook the Meso- 
potamian and Assyrian plains, viz. Masius and Xiphates, and more 
to the E.. Caspius Mons, which separated it from Media : the eastern 
boundary was fijrrned by the converging streams of the Araxes and 
the Cyrus ; and the latter ri\'er may be regarded as its northern 
boundary also, until it approximates to the Euxine, whence the 
south-Avesterly direction of the motmtain-chains carried the boundary 
towards the upper valley of the Euphrates, which formed its limit 
on the W. Armenia is an elevated plateau, forming the westerly 
continuation of the great plateau of Iran. The general elevation, of 
its central plains above the level of the sea may be stated at about 
7000 feet. Out of this plateau, as from a new base, spring moun- 
tain chains of great elevation, the central range culminating in the 
splendid conical peak of A'jlvri Tagh (17,260 feet), to which the 
Biblical name of Ararat has been more particularly assigned. Tlie 



CiiAP. Xll. MOUNTAINS — EIYERS 



— INHABITANTS. 



223 



uplands, though exposed to a long and severe winter, afibrd rntjst 
abundant pastin-e in the summer months, and have been in all ages 
the resort of the shepherds of the Mesopotamian lowlands during 
that season. A fine breed of horses roamed over the wide' grassy 
plains, and formed the most valued production of the country. 

§ 13. The mountain ranges have been already generally de- 
scribed : we need here only repeat that three lines of mountain 
chains may be traced through this country ; the most northerly 
consisting of Paryadres and its eastern continuations, which separate 
the upper courses of the Araxes and Cyrus ; the central one consist- 
ing of the chain, which under the name of Abus, first divides the 
two branches of the Euphrates from each other, and then bounds 
the upper course of the Araxes on the S., terminating in the twin 
heights of the Greater and Less Ararat ; while the southerly one, 
w^hich is the most continuous and best defined of the three, in the 
first place separates the upper courses of the Euphrates and Tigris, 
then imder the name of Nipliates ^ passes southwards of Lake Arsissa, 
and after parting with Zagrus, proceeds under the name of Caspius 
Mons to the shores of the Caspian Sea. The yet more southerly 
range of Masius, which bounds the Mesopotamian plain, is an offset 
from Niphates ; it strikes across from the Euphrates in a south- 
westerly direction to the Tigris, and is continued on the eastern 
side of that river under the name of Gordiaei Montes, which return 
back in a northerly direction to the central chain. The chief rivers 
are — the Euplirates and Tigris, which seek the Persian Gulf — the 
Araxes and the Cyrus, which seek the Caspian Sea, imiting, just as 
the two former, previously to their discharge — and the Acampsis, 
Avhich flows northwards into the Euxine. These rivers are described 
elsewhere (p. 75, 77). There are, as might be expected in a 
country wlaere the watershed is so undecided, several lakes. Of 
these the most important, named Arsene or Thospitis, Wan, is in the 
S., while Lychnitis, Goutcha, is in the X.E. 

§ 14. The Armenians were an Indo-European race, their country 
having probably been the very cradle of that branch of the human 
family. Of the tribes the Carduchi may be specially noticed, the 
progenitors of the modern Kurds, and occupying the same comitry, 
viz. the mountain ranges eastward of the Tigris on the borders 
of Assyria. Armenia was divided into a large number of districts, 
the titles of which are for the most part devoid of interest : we may 
notice, however, the following — Gogarene, in the extreme N., 



This name is sometimes referred to as equivalent to Armenia itself : 

Addam urbes Asiae domitas pulsumque Niphaten. — Virg. Georg. iii. 30. 
Cantemus Augusti tropaea 

Csesaris et rig-idum Niphaten. — Hor. Carm. ii. 9, 19. 



224 



ARMENIA MAJOE. 



Book II. 



probably the original seat of the people named Gog in Scripture : 
Chorzene, representing the modern name Kars : Sophene, a consider- 
able district about the sources of the Tigris ; and Gordyene, about 
the Gordysei Montes, both of which names contain the elements 
of the name Kurdistan. The to\\ms are unnoticed until the period 
when the Romans entered into the country. We need not infer 
that the places which come prominently forward in the history 
of their wars were the only or the chief towns in existence. We 
have evidence in the inscriptions'" found at Wan that an ancient 
capital stood on the impregnable rock which rises on the eastern 
shores of Lake Arsissa, and it is doubtful whether the Roman 
historians have mentioned even its name. From the tenour of 
the inscriptions it may be inferred that the flourishing period of 
Wan lasted from B.C. 850 to B.C. 700 1 tradition assigns the 
foundation of the city to Semiramis. It is hardly probable, 
however, that the towns of Armenia attained any very great 
importance : the only purpose that they would serve would be 
as trading stations on the routes which have crossed the highlands 
from time immemorial. The majority of the population would 
naturally be scattered over the face of the country in those 
villages of subterraneous houses, which Xenophon (Anah. iv. 5, 
§ 25) describes, and which still exist in precisely the same state. 

The capital, Artaxata, stood on the banks of the Araxes^ below the 
heights of Ararat : it was built under the superintendence of Hannibab 
and named after the Armenian ruling sovereign Artaxias : ha^dng been 
destroyed by Corbulo, a.d. 58, it was rebuilt by Tiridates with the 
name N"eronia. Tigranocerta, ''the city of Tigranes," was situated on 
the banks of the Nicephorius, a tributary of the Tigris : it was built and 
strongly fortified by Tigranes, and shortly after dismantled by Lucullus, 
who defeated Tigranes before its walls : its exact position is unknown. 
Amida, on the Tigris, occupied the site of the modern Diarheicr : the 
only event of interest in its early history is the siege it sustained from 
the Persian king Sapor, a.d. 359. Artemita stood either at or near the 
ancient town of Wan, on the eastern shore of Lake Arsissa : the Buana 
of Ptolemy, and the Salban, captured in the reign of Heraclius, were 
probably in the same neighbourhood. We may briefly notice 
Arsamosata, a fortress in the valley of the Euphrates near the junction 
of the two branches — Carcathiocerta, in the same neighbourhood 
— Arzen, probably at Erzrum — Theodosiopolis, identified by some 
writers with. Arzen, but by others placed about o5 miles to the E. : it 
derived its name from Theodosius IL, who founded it — Naxuana, 
Xachdjevan, in the valley of the Araxes — and Elegia, near Erzriim, the 
scene of a battle betw^ean Vologeses III. and the Romans, a.d. 162. 

History. — The history of Armenia is unimportant ; it has been a 



^ Thoy are found on the face of the rock, and in excavated chambers, which 
may have been used as sepulchres : detached stones and slabs also bear inscriptions. 
Some of these resemble the most ancient Assyrian inscriptions, others are of the 
time of the Persian empire. 



Chap. XII. ROUTE OF GREEKS UNDER XEXOPHON. 225 



scene of constant warfare, but at no period the seat of an independent 
empire— exposed to the invasions of the more powerful masters of the 
surrounding plains, Assyrians, Medes, Greeks, Syrians, and at a later 
period the battle-field on which the armies of Rome contended for the 
empire of the East. Armenian historians record the names of the kings 
who held rule in the country from the earliest times : the first dynasty 
was named after Haig, who is said to have lived B.C. 2107 : there were 
fifty-nine kings belonging to this, the last of whom, Wahe, fell in a 
battle with Alexander the Great, B.C. 328. This dynasty was followed 
by a succession of seven governors appointed by Alexander, and after 
his death by the Seleucid£E, from B.C. 328 to B.C. 149. The independent 
dynasty of the Arsacida3 established itself, according to the Roman 
historians, in the year B.C. 188 in the person of Artaxias ; buc accord- 
ing to the Armenians, in B.C. 149, in the person of Valarsaces, a brother 
of Tigranes III. The Arsacidte were divided, according to the latter 
authorities, into two branches, the elder of Avhich reigned from B.C. 
149 to A.D. 62, and the younger at Edessa from B.C. 38, and afterwards 
in Armenia Magna from A.D. 62 until a.d. 428. The most illustrious 
of these rulers was Tigranes I., the ally of Mithridates against the 
Romans. 

§ 15. The countries which we have described in the preceding 
part of this chapter were the scene of one of the most interesting 
adventures recorded in ancient literature, viz. the advance and 
retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, w^ho aided Cyrus the younger in his 
expedition against liis brother Artaxerxes. As the narrative pre- 
sents some few geographical difficulties, w^e shall give a brief account 
of the route described in Xenophon's Anabasis. 

The early part of the course lay across the plateau of Asia Minor, from 
Ephesus to Dana or Tyana, and thence over the Taurus range into the 
maritime plain of Cilicia, which was traversed to the eastern extremity 
of the Bay of Issus : thus far the route requires no elucidation. We 
now approach the border of Syria. South of Issus the Amanian 
range approaches close to the sea-shore : the Kersus (Mer'kez-su} dis- 
charges itself at this point : and on each bank was a fort, one belonging 
to Cilicia, the other to Syria, which guarded the pass of the " Cilician 
and Syrian Gates : " Cyrus passed through these to Myriandrus. The 
narrative is then singularly defective in the omission of all notice or 
the difficult Pass of Beilan, and the rivers which must have been 
crossed before reaching the Chains (Koiveik or river of Alepjjo). The 
river Daradax and the Castle of Belesis must have been met with 
close to the Euphrates, although no mention is there made of the river : 
Belesis may be represented by the ruins of Balis, and the river 
Daradax by a canal drawn from the Euphrates to the town. The 
Euphrates was crossed at the ancient ford of Thapsacus, the later Sura, 
Sun' yell, and the army entered on the plain of Mesopotamia, which 
Xenophon (i. 5) calls Syria in this part as far as the river Araxes, better 
known as the Chabdras, Kliahur — Araxes being apparently an appel- 
lative for any river. Thenceforward the plain is termed Arabia (i. 5), 
as being occupied by Scenite Arabs : the Masca was merely a channel 
of the Euphrates surrounding the site of the town Corsote, Irzah ; 
Pylse was situated about 70 miles X. of Cunaxa, at the point where 
the plain and the mountains meet: Carmande may have been Hit, 

h 3 



Chap. XIL ROUTE OF GREEKS UNDER XEXOPHOX. 227 



Babylonia was now entered : Xenophon describes four canals as crossing 
the plain from the Tigris to the Euphrates ; these may yet be dis- 
tinguished^ the third of them being the Xalir Malcha of modern maps. 
Xenophon does not give the name of the place where the battle was 
fought ; this is supplied by Plutarch, as Cunaxa, the exact jjosition of 
which cannot be ascertained : Plutarch states that it was 50<J stades or 
nearly sixty miles from Babylon. 

After the battle the Greeks retreated northwards over the plains of 
Babylon, by a somewhat circuitous route, until they reached the 
Median "Wall, the remains of which (named Sidd Ximritd, i. e. 'Wall of 
Ximrod') ma.y still be traced across the plain from the Euphrates to 
the Tigi'is, near Opis, m a north-easterly direction. This wall they 
are said to have passed through ^ii. 4), but must have again passed 
through it in order to reach Sitace (perhaps at Akhara), where they 
crossed the Tigris. The river PhyRcus and the town Opis cannot be 
identified with certainty : the former is supposed to be either the 
AdJiem, on the banks of which extensive ruins have been found, or the 
Xalir-ican. an artificial channel, in which case Opis would be near EsJci 
Baghdad, in about 34^ 30' latitude. The Lesser Zabatus {Zah'j was 
crossed without being noticed by the historian : Caense was probably 
Kalah Shergat. The Zabatus [Great Zah) was forded at a point about 
25 miles from its confluence with the Tigris : the torrent which they 
next crossed (iii. 4-: was the' Bumadus. Gliazir, which joins the 
right bank of the Zabatus about three miles below the ford : thence 
they reached Larissa (Ximmd) and on the following day Mespila 
[Kouijunjikj. the site of ancient Xineveh. They followed the ordinary 
route towards the north, leaving the Tigris at a considerable distance 
to their, left; by Batnai. They forsook this route, however, as they ap- 
proached the Khahour, and instead of fording it near its confluence with 
the Tigris, deviated to the right, and crossed a range of hills to Zahho: 
the passage of the Khahour, and of its confluent the Hazel, are 
not noticed, though the forrner is a difficult operation. Crossing the 
triple ridge in the neighbourhood of ZaJ:ho, they reached, after four 
days, the mountains of Kurdistan, which, in the neighbourhood of 
Fynyk, press close upon the bank of the Tigris. Xenophon resulved to 
cross Armenia instead of follo^\'ing the other routes which oifered 
themselves : he crossed *the mountain range to Finduk, which he 
reached probably at the end of the first day's march, and thence by a 
series of difficult passes reached the Centrites or eastern Tigris, Avhich 
receives the waters of the rivers Bitlis, Sert, and Bohtan. They crossed 
■ the Centrites neai^ Tilleh ; then proceeded northwards, and in six days 
reached the Teleboas, which Ainsworth identifies with the Kara-su. a 
confluent of the Southern Euphrates; but Layard with the river of 
Bitlis: assuming the latter as the more probable, Xenophon would 
have passed a little westward of the lake of Wan, a range of mountains 
intervening, and would have reached the Euphrates Jiurad-su. in six 
days from the Teieboas. After leaving the Euphrates, the course, as 
described by Xenophon, is quite uncertain. Ains worth identifies the 
Pliasis with the Basin Chai, a tributary of the Araxes or Aras, and the 
Harpasus with the Arpa Chai, another tributary of the same river, and 
the town Gymnias with Erz Burn : Layard and others identify the 
Phasis with the Araxes or perhaps the Cyrus, and the Harpasus with 
the Tcherouk, which flows into the Euxine. In the former case the 
hol}^ mountain Theches would be the rauge between the sources of 
the Euphrates {Kara-suX and the Tcherouk : in the latter, it would be 



228 • COLCHIS. Book II. 

more to the eastward, between Batoun and Trehizond. Arrived at 
Trapezum, Trehizond, they followed the line of coast, partly by land 
and partly by sea, back to their native country. 




The Caucasus. 



Y. — Colchis, Iberia, Albania, Sarmatia. 

§ 16. Colchis lay along the eastern coast of the Euxine, from the 
Phasis in the S. to the Corax in the ]t.W. : on the N. it was 
bounded by Caucasns, on the E. by Iberia, and on the S. by Ar- 
menia. It answers to the modern provinces of Mivgrelia and part 
of Ahhasia. The chief mountain range is Caucasus, which in this 
part of its course approaches close to the shores of the Euxine : little 
was known of this extensive range by the ancients : it was the 
fabled scene of the sufferings of Prometheus,^ and supplied the poets 
with a picture of wild and desolate scenery The chief river of 
Colchis was the Phasis in the S. ; numerous lesser streams pour 



« Caucasiasque refert volucres, furtumque Promethei. 

YiEG. Ucl. vi. 42. 

9 Duris genuit te cautibus horrens 

Caucasus. i^* ^66. 

Sive per Syrtes iter gestuosas, 
Sive facturus per inhospitalem 

Caucasum. Hor. Carm. i. 22, 5. 



Chap. XII. 



TOWNS — HISTORY ~ IBERIA. 



229 



do^^Ti from the Caucasus to the Euxine. The inhabitants were sub- 
divided into numerous tribes, of which we may notice the Lazi, who 
communicated to this district its later name of Lazica ; and the 
Abasci, whose name sur\dves in the modern Abhasia. The only im- 
portant towns were Dioscorias, on the sea-coast, a Milesian colony, 
v/here Mithridates wintered B.C. 66 : on its site the Romans after- 
wards built Sebastopolis ; and Cutatisium, the reputed birthplace cf 
Medea,^ in the interior. There were numerous lesser to^vns on the 
coast, which carried on an active trade in timber, hemp, flax, pitch, 
gold-dust, and especially linen. 

History. — Colchis occupies a prominent place in mythology as the 
native land of Medea, and the scene of the capture of the golden fleece 
by the Argonautic expedition :^ it was regarded by poets as the native 
seat of all sorcery,^ a credit which it may perhaps have gained from the 
abundant growth of the plant iris, whence the medicine called colchicum 
is extracted. Colcbis was reputed the most northerly portion of the 
Persian empire, but was practically independent of it. Mithridates 
annexed it to the kingdom of Pontus, and made his son king of it. The 
Romans deposed him, and appointed a governor; but Pharnaces re- 
gained the territory, and under his son Polemon it was part of tlie 
kingdom of Pontus and Bosporus. 

§ 17. Iberia was bounded on the X. by Caucasus, on the W. by 
Colchis, on the E. by Albania, and on the S. by Armenia : it answers 
to the modern Georgia. The chief mountain ranges in it are — 
Caucasus, which was here traversed by the celebrated pass named 
Caucasiae Portae, now the Pass of Bariel, in the central range ; and 
the MoscMci Montes on the side of Colchis. The only important 
river is the Cyrus, the upper course of which falls within the limits 
of Iberia : it received, on its left bank, the Aragus, Arak, which 
rises near the Caucasian Gates. The inhabitants, named Iberi or 
Iberes, were divided into four castes — royal, sacerdotal, mihtary, 
and servile : they are described as a peaceful and industrious race. 
The modern Georgians, their descendants, are still named Virh, pro- 
bably a form of Iberi, by the Armenians. The chief towns were — 
Harmozica, the later capital, S. of the Cyrus, near the borders of 
Armenia ; and Mestleta, the earlier capital, near the confluence of 
the Aragus with the Cyrus. 

History. — The Iberians were probably nominal subjects of the Persian 
empire. They afterwards acknowledged the supremacy of Mithridates. 



1 Hence named Cytaeia — 

Tunc ego crediderim vobis, et sidera et amnes 
Posse Cytaeeis ducere earminibus. Propert. i. 1, 24. 

2 Ec0' io<f>e\.' 'Apyous jttrj StaTrracr^at crKCL</)OS 

KoAxcoi/ e? alav Kvaveag 2v)a7rAT]yaSa?. El'RlP. Ifed. 1. 

^ Sed postquani Colchis arsit nova nupta venenis, 
Flagrantemque domum regis mare vidit utrumque. 

Ov. Met. vii. 394. 



230 ALBANIA — SAEM ATIA ASIATICA . Book II 



The Romans penetrated into the country under Lucullus and Pompeius, 
the latter of whom subdued the inhabitants^ B.C. 65. It remained, 
however, under its own princes, even after it had been nominally 
attached to the province of Armenia in a.d. 115. The Eomans, by the 
treaty of Jovian, renounced their supremacy in favour of the Persians. 

§ 18. Albania was hounded on the W. by Iberia, on -the N. by 
Sarmatia, on the E. by the Caspian, and on the S. by Armenia, the 
. river Cyrus forming the line of demarcation in this direction : it 
ianswers to the present Shirivan and part of Daghestan. The moun- 
tain ranges in this district consist of the eastern portion of Caucasus, 
which is here traversed by an important pass named Albanicae Portae, 
Pass of Derhend ; an important offset from the central chain, the 
Ceraunii Montes, strikes off towards the X.E. The chief river is the 
Cyrus, which here receives two important tributaries — the Cambyses, 
Yori, and the Alazon, Alasan, which unite shortly before their con- 
fluence with the main stream : Ponipey followed the course of the 
Cambyses in his pursuit of Mithridates, B.C. 65. The Albani are a 
race of doubtful origin, but probably Scythians, and allied to the 
more famous Alani : they were divided into twelve hordes, the name 
of one of which, Lega3, is preserved in the modern Leghlstan : these 
tribes were in Strabo's time united under one king, but formerly 
had each its own prince. The only towns of importance were — 
Albana, Derhend, which commanded the pass on the shore of the 
Caspian ; and Cbabala, which ranked as the capit-al. 

§ 19. Under the title of Sarmatia Asiatica is included the vast 
region lying N. of the Caucasus and E. of the Tanais, stretching 
northwards to an undefined extent, and eastwards as far as the Rha, 
Avhich separated it from Scythia. The mountain ranges assigned to 
this region emanated from Caucasus, and were named Coraxici Montes, 
on the borders of Colchis, and Hippici, between the Tanais and Rha. 
The rivers were — the Tanais, Don, Avhich formed the limit between 
Europe and Asia — the Atticitus, Kuban, which discharged itself 
partly into the Palus M^eotis and partly into the Euxine — the Rha, 
Wolga, flowing into the Caspian — the TJdon, Kouma, and the Alonta, 
Tereh, falling into the same sea more to the S. The inhabitants of 
this district were broadly classed together under the name of Sar- 
mata3 or Sauromata}, and were subdivided into a vast number of 
tribes, whose names and localities, though interesting in an ethno- 
logical point of view, need not be specified here. The only towns 
known to the ancients were situated on the shores of the Euxine, 
and were for the most part Greek colonies. We may notice Pityus, 
Pitsunda, N. of Dioscurias, described in the reign of GaLLienus as a 
strong fortress with an excellent haibour — Phanagoria, on the E. 
side of the Cimmerian Bosporus, founded by the Teians, a great 
emporium for the trade of these districts, and the Asiatic capital of 



Chap. XII. 



TOWNS — CAUCASIAN PASS. 



231 



the kings of Bosporus, with a remarkable temple of Aphrodite : 
numerous tombs stand on the site, but the town itself has disap- 
peared, the materials having been carried away to other places — 
and Tanais, at the mouth of the river of the same name, a colony of 
the Milesians, and a place of large trade : it was destroyed by 
Polemon I., but probably restored : ruins of it exist near Nedrigoska. 




Pass cf tbe Caucasus. 



Persepolis. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE PROVINCES OF THE TEESTAX EMPIRE. 

I. Persis. § 1. Boundaries and physical character. § 2. Inhabitants; 
Divisions : Towns. II. Susiaxa. § 3. Boimdaries ; Rivers. § 4. 
Inhabitants ; Districts ; Towns. III. Media. § 5. Boundaries ; 
Districts: Mountains: Rivers. § 6. Inhabitants; Districts; Towns. 
IV. Ariaxa. § 7. Its extent and divisions; Carmania. Parthia^ 
Aria. Paropamisada^. Drangiana, Gedrosia. Y. The Xortherx 
Peovixces. § 8, Hyrcania, Margiana^ Bactriana, and SogcHana. 
§ 9. The Campaigns of Alexander the Great. § 10. India. § 11. 
Taprobane. § 12. Sinte. § 13. Serica. § 14. Scythia. § 15. 
Scythian Tribes. 

§1.1. Persis. — Of the provinces of the Persian empire Persis de- 
mands the earliest notice, as being the original seat of the race, and 
containing the metropolis, Persepolis. It was bounded on the X. 
by Media and Parthia, from which it was separated by the range 
of Parachoathras : on the AV. by Stisiana i on the S. by the Persian 
Gtilf: and on the E. by the desert of Carmania. The name still 
stirvives in the modern Fccrs. It is throughout a mountainous dis- 
trict, with s^me extended plains and a few valleys of gi*eat beauty 
and fertility. Tlie mountain chains are continuations of Zagrtts, 
under the names of Parachoatliras, Elivend, and Ochus, and run for 
the most part in a direction parallel to the coast of the Persian Gulf : 



Chap. XHI. EIYERS — IXHABITANTS — TOWNS. 233 

hence the rivers are in many cases confined to the interior, and dis- 
charge themselves into lakes. This is tL(^ cast- vitlj tlie Araxes, 
Bend-amir, which rises on the horder^ nf Su.siana flows east- 
ward, receiving the tributary waters of the Cyrus or Medus, Virlir^rn, 
and discharging itself into a lake now named Bukte(jo.n, ahout 40 
miles E. of Persepolis. The only river of any importance that 
reaches the sea is the Arosis or Oroatis, Tab, on the border of Susi- 
ana. The sea-coast was almost uninhabitable from the extreme 
heat and unhealthiness of its climate. 

§ 2. The Persians v-ere the most important nation of the Ariau 
branch of the Indo-European race. They were originally called 
Art^i, a form of Arii and of the Sanscrit Arya^ "noble." The 
name Perste is also of Indian origin. The Persians were divided 
into three castes, warriors, agriculturists, and nomads ; and these 
were subdivided into ten tribes, which have been already noticed in 
connexion with the geography of Herodotus.^ They were reputed 
both by the Greeks and Romans a most warlike - race, good riders, 
and skilful in the use of the bow, but superstitious^ and effemi- 
nate.'^ Persis was divided into numerous districts, of which Para^- 
tacene was the most important. The name is probably derived from 
a Persian or Sanscrit root signifying "mountaineers." Of the towns 
but few are known to us. Pasargadae ranked as the ancient capital 
of Cyrus, and Persepolis as that of the later sovereigns. The former 
was on the banks of the Cyrus, X.E. of Persepolis, its position hav- 
ing been identified by the discovery of the tomb of Cyrus at Mur- 
ghdh ; the latter was finely situated at the opening of an extensive 
plain, near the junction of the Araxes and Medus, and is represented 
by the extensive and beautiful ruins now named Chel-JIinar, "the 
forty columns." A town named Ispadana, in the X. of the province, 
occupied the site of Ispaltan. 

1 See p. 37. 

- Tayol ITepcrtby, 

BacTi-Aec? Batjt/Veoj? vnoxoi /xeyaAov 
SoOi-'Tat, (TTpaTiaq T7o\X.rj<; eqSopot, 
To^oS6.fiavre<; r r)6' t— — OjSarat, 
$OjSepol fj.ev iSetv, Seipol 6e ^d\r]v 

^UX-??? evrX-qfXOVi. So^r]. JEsCH. Pe)^S. 23. 

Quaque pharetratee vicinia Persidis urget. 

^ YiRG, Georg. iv. 290. 
^ Discat Persicum haruspiciiim, 

Nam Magus ex matre et gnato gigiiatur oportet, 

Si rera est Persariim impia religio, 
Gnatus ut accepto reneretar carmine Divos, 

Omentum in flamma pingue liqucfaciens.— Catull. sc. 2. 
Persicos odi, puer, apparatus ; 
Displicent nexas philyra coronae ; 
Mitte sectari, rosa quo locorum 

Sera moretur. IIor. Carm. 1. 38, 1. 



234 



SUSIAXA. 



Book II. 



Some doubt exists as to the date of the edifices which adorned Per- 
sepolis. It seems probable that they were subsequent to the time of 
Cyrus, and were erected by Darius Hystaspis and Xerxes. The city 
was surrounded, according to Diodorus (xvii. 71), by a triple wall of 
great strength. Persepolis was burnt by Alexander the Great, and is 
afterwards only noticed in 2 Mac. ix. 1, as having been attacked by 
Antiochus Epiphanes. The ruins stand on an immense ai'tificial plat- 
form, originally some 40 or 50 ft. in height above the plain, which is 
approached by a remarkably fine flight of steps. The buildings are 
adorned with, bas-reliefs, and the columns are elaborately chiselled. 
In the neighbourhood of Persepolis are some places which bear marks 
of high antiquity, but which, are unnoticed by any early writer. About 
five miles off is the steep conical hill named Idahr, crowned with the 
remains of a fortress, and suiTounded by a plain which is thickly 
covered with fragments of sculpture of all kinds. Xalish-i-rustam is 
another cliff in the same neighbourhood, in the face of which 
numerous tombs have been excavated. The sculptures with which 
these are ornamented belong partly to the Persian, but more generally 
to the Sassanian period. 




Tomb of Cynis at JTurghdb, the ancient Pasargadae. 



§ 3. II. SusiANA. — Susiana was bounded on the X. by Media ; 
on the W. by the Tigris and a portion of Assyria : on the S. by the 
Persian Gulf ; and on the E. by Persis, from which it is separated 
by the ranges of Parachoathras : the name smwives in the slightly 
altered form Khiizistan. The coimtry is in its eastern half inter- 
sected by the various ramifications of Parachoatliras : the western 
portion is a plain, and suffers from intense heat. In addition to 



Chap. XIII. 



EIYERS — 



IXHABITAXTS. 



235 



the Tigris, which skirts its western border, we may notice the 
Choaspes, Kerklmh^ which rises in Media, not far from Echatana, 
penetrates the chain of Zagrus, and, emerging into the plain, passes 
by the ancient Susa, and falls into the Tigris below its junction with 
the Euphrates. Its course appears to have undergone considerable 
change within historical times. It formerly divided above Susa, and 
sent otf two arms, one of which joined the EuLtus, while the other 
flowed into the Chalda?an lake. Eulaeus, Karun^ or river of Shusfer, 
which rises in Parachoathras, and pursues a westerly c<:>urse through 
the mountains, but on gaining the plain turns southwards. It 
receives from the X. an important tributary, the Coprates, Dizftd^ 
which approaches within eight miles of the Choaspes in the neigh- 
bourhood of Susa. After the junction of the Eulaeus and Coprates 
the river assumes the name of Pasitigris, and formerly discharged 
itself directly into the Persian Grulf, but now into the Shat-eI~Arah. 

§ 4. Susiana appears to have been originally occupied by a Ha- 
mitic race ; the name of Cush being preserved not only in Susiana, 
but, still more evidently, in Cossaei and Cissia, the former being the 
name of a tribe, perhaps identical with the Cuthgeans of the Bible, 
and the latter being the title by which Herodotus describes the 
whole of the province. These retired towards the mountains, and a 
Semitic race, the Elyma^i, the Elam of Scripture, occupied the 
maritime plain. Both of these races, however, gave way before the 
Arians, who ultimately formed the dominant race here as in Persis 
and Media. Susiana was divided into numerous districts, of which 
we need only notice Elymais, in the X.W., about the upper valleys of 
the Choaspes ; Cossaea, the mountainous region in the same district 




]Monnd of 



236 



SUSIAXA — EUIXS OF SUSA. 



Book II . 



bordering on Media ; Cissia, in its restricted application, the district 
about Susa ; and the Elymaei in the maritime plain. Of the towns 
we know but little. The only important one was Susa, the Shushan 
of the Bible, centrally situated near the junction of the hills and the 
plain on the left bank of the Choaspes. 




Susa rose to importance as one of the royal residences ^ of the Per- 
sian monarchs. Among the causes which led to this selection may be 
noticed its excellent water^^ the beauty of its scenery^ and the retired- 



5 Hence the name became familiar to the Greek and Latin poets. 
Oire TO 2ot'crtoI^ rjS' 'EK^aravcov, 
Kat TO rraKaiov Klacnvov ep/cos 

UpokL-6vT€? e'/Sar. .EscH. Fers. 16. • 

Xon tot Achcemeniis armantur Susa sagittis, 

Spieula quot nostro pectore fixit Amor. — Propert. ii. 13, 1. 
Achsemeniis decurrant Medica Svisis 
Agniina. LrcAX, ii. 49. 

^ The water of the Choaspes is said to have been specially reserved for the use 
of the monarchs. Hence Milton describes it as the 
" amber stream, 
The drink of none but kings" (Par. Reg. iii. 288), 
and Tibullus [y\ . i. 140) as " regia hmpha Choaspes." 



Chap. XIII. 



MEDIA 



— BOUNDARIES. 



237 



ness of its situation. The name probably refers to the number of lilies 
(in the Persian language Shushan) that grew there. It is sometimes 
described as on the Eulseus, sometimes on the Choaspes; we have 
already stated that a branch stream connected these two rivers. The 
ruins at Sus are at present a mile and a half from the latter and six 
miles from the former stream. The modern Sinister has inherited the 
name but not the site of the old town. The most famous building 
was the Memnonium^ or palace, described in the book of Esther (i. 5, 6), 
the site of which has been recently explored. It was commenced by 
Darius and completed by Artaxerxes Mnemon, and consisted of an 
immense hall, the roof of which was supported by a central group of 
36 pillars arranged in a square; this was flanked by three porticoes, 
each consisting of two rows of six pillars each. 




Tomb of Darius. (Fi om Kawlinson's ' Herodotus.") 



§ 5. III. Media. — Media was bounded on the N. by the Caspian 
Sea ; on the W. by the Carduchi Montes and Zagnis, separating 
it from Armenia and Assyria ; on the S. by Susiana and Persis ; and 
on the E. by Parthia and Hyrcania. In the latter direction its limit 
may be somewhat indefinitely fixed at the line where the mountains 
subside into the central plain. The province answers to the modern 
Azerhijdn, Ghildn, Irak Adjem, and the western part of Masen- 
derdn. The limits above laid down comprised three districts of very 
different character : — (i.) the low alluvial strip along the shores of 
the Caspian ; (ii.) the mountainous district of Atropatene in the 
N.W. ; and (iii.) Media Magna, the central and southern portion, 



238 



MEDIA. 



Book II. 



wliicli abounded in fine plains and fertile valleys, with a climate 
moderated by their general elevation above the level of the sea. 
These plains, particularly the Nisasan, produced a breed of horses 
celebrated far and wide in ancient times. The country was on the 
whole remarkably fertile. The chief mountains of Media were — 
Zagrus and Parachoathras in the W. ; Caspius Mons, Orontes, Jasonius, 
and Coronus, in the X., Jasonius representing the lofty peak of 
Demavend. The western range was crossed by a pass named Portal 
Zagricse or Medicge, XelisJiin, on the road leading to Nineveh. A 
still more important pass, Caspi^e Porta?, formed the main line of 
communication between Media and Parthia ; it was situated E. of 
Rhagae at Dereh. The only important river' is the Amardus, KizU 
Ozien, which rises in Zagrus and flows northwards into the Caspian. 
A large lake named Spauta or Martiana, Urumiah, is situated in the 
N.AV., notorious for the extreme saltness of its waters. 

§ 6. The Medes were a branch of the Arian stock, and were 
anciently called Arians, according to Herodotus (vii. 62). They 
were closely allied to the Persians, as proved by their similarity of 
dress, by the high official position enjoyed by Medes under the Per- 
sian kings, and even by the tern medize " as expressive of desert- 
ing to the Persian side. They are first noticed in Assyrian inscrip- 
tions under the form Mada about B.C. 880. The name has been 
explained as meaning "middle land," from an idea that Media was 
centrally situated in regard to the other nations of western Asia. 
Their name is frequently given by the Poman poets to the 
Parthians.^ Their skill in poisoning^ was noted. Media was 
divided into two large portions : — (i.) Atropatene> in the N., 
named after Atropates, a satrap who rendered himself inde- 
pendent in the time of the last Darius ; and (ii.) Media Magna. 
We have already observed that this division was based on tlie phy- 



^ Virgil [G-eorg. iv. 2il) speaks of the Hvdaspes as a Median river : he must 
use the term " Medus " in an extended sense as meaning '* eastern:" the 
Hvdaspes is really in India. Horace [Carm. ii. 9, 21) similarly describes the 
Euphrates as " Medum flumen." 

s Hie magnos potius triumphos ; 

Hie ames dici pater atque princeps : 
Neu sinas Medos equitare inultos, 

Te duce, Caesar. , Hon. Carm. 1. 2, 49. 

Triumphatisque possit 
Eoma ferox dare jura Medis. Id. iii. 3, 43. 

Horribilique Medo 
Xectis catenas. Id. i. 29, 4. 

And so Propertius — 

Vel tibi Medorum pugnaces ire per hastas 
Atque onerare tuam fixa per arma domum. — iii. 9, 25. 
^ Nulla manus illis, fidiicia tota veneni est. — Lrc. \iii. 388. 



Chap. XIII. 



TOWNS. 



239 



sical character of the country, and must have been in existence pre- 
vious to the introduction of the name Atropatene. Of the to^vns we 
know but little. The capital was Ecbatana, the Achmeta of Scrip- 




Plan of Ecbatana. 

Expr.AXATIOK. 

1. Remains of a Fire-Temple, 5. Cemetery. 

2. Ruined Mosque. 6. Ridge of Rock called " the Dragon.*' 

3. Ancient Buildings with Shafts and Capitals. 7- Hill called " Tawilah," or " the Stable." 

4. Ruins of the Palace of Abakai Khan. 8. Ruins of Kalisiah. 

9. Rocky Hill of Zindani-Soleiman. 

ture (Ezr. vi. 2), each of these foms being probably a corruption of 
Eagmatana as found in the Assyrian inscriptions. The site of this 
town has been much discussed. It seems probable that there were 
two tOT^ms of the name ; one in the northern division of Atropatene, 
at a place now called TakJit-i-SoIeiman, y^hich was the older capital 
of Arbaces, and one in the southern division at Hamaddn^ which 
was in existence in Alexander's age. 

The city was surrounded, according to Herodotus, by seven concen- 
tric walls, increasing in height from the outer to the inner, and 
each of a different colour. This story had its origin in the circum- 
stance that the seven colours specified were typical in oriental philo- 
sophy of the seven great heavenly bodies. The earlier Ecbatana was 
the same place which under the Parthians was described by the various 
names of Phraata, Praaspa, Vera, Gaza, and Gazaca. The later Ecba- 
tana, Hamaddn, was the residence of the Persian kings, and was more 
than once visited by Alexander the Great. It was in existence in the 
time of the Seleucida^, and even later. Rhagae, near the border of Par- 
thia, is first noticed in the book of Tobit (i. 14) under the form 
Rhages. It was rebuilt by Seleucus Xicator under the name Europus, 
and subsequently by one of the Arsacidae under the name Arsacia, Its 
position near the Caspi?e Portae made it at all times an impoi-tant place. 
Near the southern border of Media there is a very remarkable hill with 
a precipitous cliff, formerly named Bagistanus Mons, now Beliistiin, on 



24C 



MEDIA — HISTOPvY. 



Book II. 



the face of which are a series of sculptures ^vith trilingual inscriptions 
descriptive of the victories of Darius. They are placed at an elevation 
of about 300 ft. from the base of the rock, and must have been exe- 
cuted with the aid of scaffolding. Semiramis was reputed to have made 
a paradise at this spot. 

History. — The early history of Media is wrapped in great obscurity. 



is probabh' identical with the Arphaxad of Tob. i. 2), Cyaxares, and Asty- 
ages. The impression derived from the Assyrian annals is, that Media was 
in a state of semi-subjection to Assyria from the time of the Assyrian 
king Shalinanubar, about B.C. 880, until the accession of Cyaxares, 
B.C. 644; for the inscriptions record coustant invasions, particularly 
imder Tiglath-Pileser, who, about B.C. 74t', transplanted the Syrians 
of Damascus to Kir, supposed to be the Cyrus 2 Kings xvi. 9), and 
under Sargon, about B.C. 710, who attempted a permanent subjection 



dia commences ^vith Cyaxares, B.C. 634. The chief events of his reign 
were— his stiuggle with the Scythians, who still held a portion of the 
country, particularly the line of Zagrus; the capture of Nineveh. B.C. 
625; and his war with Alyattes, king of Lydia. which was terminated 
by the well-known eclipse of Thales, probably B.C. 610 Cyaxares evi- 
dently endeavoured to grasp the supremacy which Assyria had exercised 
over Western Asia, or at all events over the northern portion of it, leav- 
ing the southern to Babylon. He is probably the Ahasuerus of the 




Mons Bagistanus, Rock of Behistun, 



Ctesias furnishes us 
with a list of kings 
preceding Cyi'us, the 
first of whom, named 
Arbaces, would have 
commenced his reign 
about B.C. 875: Hero- 
dotus, on the other 
hand, notices only four, 
of whom the fii*st, 
Deioces, beganhis reign 
B.C. 708, his successors 
being Phraortes (who 




Sculptures on Rock of Behistun. 



by planting colonies of 
captive Israelites in the 
country ^2 Kings xvii, 
6). The attempt does 
not appear to have suc- 
ceeded ; for the inscrip- 
tions of Sennacherib 
and Esai'-haddon de- 
scribe it as a country 
that had never been 
subdued by their pre- 
decessoi'S. During the 
whole of this period 
Media probably retain- 
ed its own rulers, who 
acknowledged the su- 
premacy of Assyria by 
the occasional payment 
of tribitte. The au- 
thentic history of Me- 



Chap. XUI. ARIAXA — CARMAXIA — PAllTHIA. 241 

book of Tobit ; xiv. 15). Cyaxares was sucaeeded by Astyages, B.C. 59-i, 
who led an uneventful life until the invasion of Cyrus, B.C. 505, when 
Medifi was absorbed in the Persian empire. 

§ 7. ly. Ai-iiAXA. — Under the collective name of Ariana the 
provinces in the eastern part of the plateau of Iran were included, 
viz. Gedrosia, Drangiana, Arachosia, the mountain-district of 
Paropamisus, Aria, Parthia, and Carmania. The title was origin- 
ally an ethnological one, expressive of the district occupied by the 
Arian races, hut, like the modern Trdn. which is undoubtedh' 
derived from it, it has acquired a purely geographical sense. Of 
the provinces enumerated very little information can be gathered 
from classical Avriters. The chief interest that attaches to them is 
in connexion with the military expedition of Alexander the Great, 
of which a review will be given after the description of the physical 
features of the various provinces. 

1. Carmania was bounded on the S. by the Persian Gulf ; on the W. 
by Persis : on the X. by Parthia ; and on the E. by Gedrosia^ from 
which it was separated near the sea-coast by a chain of hills named 
Persici Montes. It answers in name and position to the modern Kir- 
man, but includes beyond that the greater part of Laristan and Mog- 
hostdn. It was divided by Ptolemy into Carmania Deserta and Car- 
mania Yera^ or Proper.'' The former consisted of the interior j^lain 
in the X.. the latter of the mountainous district in the S., extending 
from the sea-coast to a considerable distance inland. As the chains 
run generally in a direction parallel to the coast, no rivers of any im- 
portance reach the sea. The valleys and plains in the latter district are 
described as fertile, and the mountains themselves yield various mine- 
ral productions. The capital was Carmana, in the interior, still exist- 
ing under the name of Kirman. Harmtiza, on the sea-coast, was a 
place of considerable trade. 

2. PartMa was bounded on the X. by Hyixania; on the "W. by 
Media ; on the S. by Persis and Carmania: and on the E. by Aria and 
Drangiana. It thus comprehended the southern pan of Khordsan. 
nearly the whole of Koli istan. and a portion of the great Salt Desert. 
It was inclosed on the X. and S.AV. by mountains, viz. Labutas, El- 
hurz, and Masdoranus in the former direction, and Parachoathras in the 
latter; and on other sides by a vast desert. The Parthians were un- 
do nbtedly an Arian race; the name appears in the Sanscrit language 
under the form Parada. They were particularly celebrated in ancient 
times for the skill with which they discharged then- arrows ^ as they 



Tergaque Parthorum, Eomanaque pectora clicam ; 

Telaque, ab arerso quge jacit hostis equo. 
Qui fugis, lit vincas, quid ^icto, Parthe, relinquis ? 

Ovid, de Ar. Am. i. 209. 
Fidentemque fuga Partlium, versisque sagittis. 

YiRG. Georc/. iii. 31. 

Xavita Bosporum 
I'oeuus perhorrescit, ncque ultra 
Caeca timet aliunde fata ; 
Miles sagittas et celerein fugam 

Parthi. Hor. Carm. ii. 13, H. 



AKC. GEOG. 



M 



242 



Book II. 



retreated. There were few towns of any importance. Hecatompylos, 
one of the capitals of the Arsacid^e. stood somewhat eastwai'd of the 
Caspian Gates, probably near Jali Jinn, where an opening northwards 
exists between Labutas and Masdoranus. It owed its Greek name pro- 
bably to Seleucus. Apamea, surnamed Rhagiana, in the western part 
of the country, was built by the Greeks after the Macedonian conquest. 
Tagae stood near the chain of Labutas, probably at DamegJtan. 

Parthia was the seat of an independent sovereignty from B.C. 250, 
when Arsaces threw off the supremacy of the Seleucidse, until a.d. 226, 
when the Sassanian dvDasty rose to power. After the decay of the 
Syro-Macedonian empire Parthia became the dominant state in western 
Asia, with Seleucia on the Tigris for its capital, and it offered a stout 
and protracted resistance to the arms of Rome. The Parthians defeated 
Crassus, B.C. 53, and were defeated by Cassius, B.C. 51. The surrender 
of the standards taken on the former occasion by the voluntary act of 
Phraates, B.C. 20, is referred to by Horace in more than one passage 
adulatory of Augustus.- 

3. Aria was bounded on the X. by the Sariphi Montes, separating it 
from Margiana; on the E, by Bagous Mons, the Ghoi' range : on the S. 
by Carmania ; and on the W. by Parthia. It embraces the eastern por- 
tion of Klwrdsan and the western portion of A fghanistan. It is watered 
by the river Alius, Heri Bud, which rises in Paropamisns, and runs 
towards the X.AY., where it is absorbed in the sands. The valley of 
the Heri JRud, as well as many other portions of the province, are very 
fertile. The chief towns were— Aria, the capital, on the river Arius, 
built, or more probably enlarged, by Alexander the Great, under the 
name of Alexandria Arion, and occupying the site of the present Herat. 
iSTot improbably the same place is described under the name of Arta- 
coana. 

4. Paropamisadae is the collective name of a number of tribes occupy- 
ing the southern spurs of Paropamisus from the upper course of the 
Etymandrus, Helmund, to the Indus, or in other words the provinces 
of Cahidistdn with the northern part of Afglianistdn. Their district was 
throughout rugged, but well watered, and possessing some fine fertile 
valleys. The rivers were the Cophes or Cophen, Cahid, which flows 
eastward into the Indus, receiving in its course the tributary waters of 
the Choes, Kamali, otherwise called the Choaspes and Evaspla; and the 
Guraeus, probably the Punjkora, but sometimes regarded as identical 
with the Suastus, which flows into the Choes. The chief town vras 



Nec patitnr Scythas, 
Et versis aiiimosum equis 

Parthum dicere. Hor. Car?n. i, 19, 10. 

Tela fugacis eqiii) et braccati militis arciis. 

Propeet. iii. 4, 17. 

2 Et sigua nostro restituit Jovi, 
Derepta Parthorum superbis 

Postibus. Hor. Carm. iv. 15, 6. 

Ille, seu Partbos Latio iniminentes 

Egerit justo doniitos triumpho Hor. Id. i. 12, 53. 

Denique ssevam 
Militiam puer, et Cantabrica bella tulisti 
Sub duce, qui templis Partborum signa refigit. 

Hoe. Fjjist. i., IS, 54. 



Chap. XIII. AEACHOSIA — 



DRAXGIAXA — 



GEDPtOSIA. 



243 



Carura or Ortospana, the capital of the Cabolitaj (otherwise called Bo- 
litee). on the site of the modern Cahal. Nicsea was probably another 
name for the same place imposed by Alexander. Gauzaca is supposed 
to represent the modern Ghiznee. Cahdl was the seat of an Indo- 
iScythian dynasty which established itself after the fall of the Bactrian 
empire. Its flourishing period appears to have been about a.d. 100. 

5. Aracliosia was bounded on the X. by the Paropamisadae ; on the 
E. by the Indus; on the S. by Gedrosia; and on the AV. by Drangiana. 
It embraced the modern Kandaliar with parts of the adjacent pro- 
vinces. The country derived its name from the river Arachotus, pro- 
bably the Arl^aiid-al), one of the tributaries of the Etymandrus. The 
eastern part of this district is covered with the spurs and secondary 
ranges of the Solirnan Mountains— the ancient Paryeti Montes. The 
site of the old capital, Cophen, also named Arachotus, has not yet been 
satisfactorily determined: it may have been at Vlan Bohaf, S.E. of 
Kandaliar. A later capital was named Alexandria after Alexander the 
Great, but not founded by him: its position is wholly unknown. 

6. Drangiana was bounded on the X. by Aria; on the E. by Ara- 
chosia; on the S. by Gedrosia; and on the W. by Carmania. It answers 
to the modern Seistan. The eastern part of it is mountainous : the 
western partakes of the character of the Carmanian plain. It is watered 
by the Erymanthus or Erymandrus, Selmend, which rises in the lower 
ranges of Paropamisus and flows towards the S.AV. into the Aria Lacus, 
Zarah. A second river^ the Pharnac5tis, Ferrali-Bud, flows from the 
N. into the same lake. The inhabitants were named either Drangae, 
Sarangce, Darand^e, or Zarangte. The appellation probably means 

ancient," and points to this as the country in which the Arian race 
first established themselves. The capital, Prophthasia, stood X. of 
Lake Aria, probably at a place where ruins have been discovered between 
the modern towns of DushaJ: and Furr-cih. 

7. Gedrosia was bounded on the X. by Drangiana and Arachosia; on 
the E. by the Indus; on the S. by the Indian Ocean; and on the W. 
by Carmania. It occupies about the same space as Beloochistdn and 
Melcran. The northern part is mountainous, a considerable range 
named Baetii Montes, Washc'di, intersecting the country throughout its 
whole length: another range, Arbiti Montes, Bala, skirts the eastern 
frontier, running parallel to the Indus: the Persici Montes, on the 
border of Carmania, have been already noticed. The rivers are unim- 
portant, and in many cases are confined to the interior. The largest is 
the Arahis, BiiraUy, which joins the Indian Sea at the point where it 
turns southwards, Gedrosia suffers from excessive heat and drought, 
and is hence for the most part unfruitful. Its most remarkable pro- 
ductions were myrrh, spikenard., and palms. The inhabitants of the 
coast appear to have lived very wretchedly, in huts of shells, roofed 
over with fish-bones, and subsisting wholly on fish. They were an 
Arian race, and were di^dded into various tribes. Along the southern 
coast v\'ere two tribes of Indian extraction, the Arabitae, who lived 
between the Indus and the Arabis, and the Oritee, to the westward of 
the latter river. The principal towns were Ehambacia, not far from 
the coast, perhaps at Haur ; Oraea, C"r/y2 0/'«, founded b}' Xearchus at 
the mouth of the Tomerus: Omana, a considerable port on the west- 
ern part of the coast; and Pura, in the interior, perhaps at Buuiwr: 
the name is an appellative for a "''town." 

§ 8. Y. The Xortherx Provinces. — It remains for us to 

M 2 



244 



NOETHEEX PROYIXCES OF PERSIA. Book II. 



describe the northern provinces of the Persian empire —Hyrcania, 
Margiana, Bactriana, and Sogdiana. 

1. Hyrcania lay along the south-eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, 
bounded on the W, by Media, from which it was separated by Mons 
Cor onus and the river Charindas ; on the E. by Margiana ; and on the 
S. by Parthia, the range of Labutas intervening. It comprehended 
the eastern part of Mazanderdn, and the district of Astrahad. "With 
the exception of a narrow strip of coast, it is throughout mountainous 
and savage, and infested with wild beasts ;^ this feature is expressed in 
its ancient name, Hyrcania, or Vehrkdna, "the land of wolves," which 
is still preserved in the name of the modern town Gourgan. The chief 
river was the Sarnius, or Atrek, in the eastern part of the country. 
The Hyrcanians were an Arian race. Their chief tow^n was named 
Carta or Zadracarta, perhaps the same as Tape, in the W. 

2. Mariana was an extensive district, lying between the Oxus on 
the X. and the Sariphi Montes on the S.; on the E. it was contiguous 
to Bactria, and on the W. to Hyrcania. It includes portions of Kho- 
rdsan, Balk, and Turcomania. It contains tracts of great fertility, 
wherever water is attainable : elsewhere it is barren. The only river is 
the Margus, Murgli-ah, winch rises in the Sariphi Montes, and flows to- 
wwds the N.W. ; formerly it joined the Oxus, but it now loses itself 
in the sands. The inhabitants were a Scythian race, the principal 
tribe being the Massagetae. The capital, Antiochia Margiana, occu- 
l^ied the same site as the modern Merv on the Margus ; it is said to 
have been founded by Alexander, and to have been restored by An- 
tiochus Soter. 

3. Bactria, or Bactriana, w^as bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Oxus, 
separating it from Sogdiana; on the S.E. and S. by Paropamisus, and on 
the W. by the desert of Margiana. It answers both in name and posi- 
tion to the modern Bcdk,^ but included also the eastern provinces of 
Badakslian and Kunduz. The country is generally mountainous, off- 
sets from Paropamisus covering the eastern and southern portions, and 
penetrating nearly to the valley of the Oxus. The valleys which in- 
tervene are fertile;^ occasionally steppes and sandy tracts occur. The 



3 Hyi'canseque admorunt ubera tigres. — Yirg. jEfi. iv. 367. 

Its dogs were also famous — 

Canis Hyrcano de semine. Lvcret. iii. 750. 

* The Zend form of the name, Bakhdhi, supplies the connecting link between the 
ancient and modern forms. 

^ Its fertility was known to the Romans ; in other respects its remoteness was 
the most prominent notion. 

Sed neque Medorum, silvae ditissima, terra, 
Nec pulcher Ganges, atque auro turbidus Hermus, 
Laudibus Italise certent : non Bactra, neque Indi, 
Totaque thuriferis Panchaia pinguis arenis. — Yirg. Georg. ii. 136. 
Hinc ope barbarica variisque Antonius armis 
Victor ab Auroras populis et littore Eubro 
.Egyptum viresque Orientis, et idtima secum 
Bactra vehit. In. JEn. viii, 685. 

In the following passage Bactra appears to be used as synonymous with 
Parthia — 

Urbi sollicitus times, 
Quid Seres et regnato Cyro 

Bactra parent. Hor. Carm. iii. 29, 26. 



Chap. XIII. 



BACTPJA — 



SOGDIAXA. 



245 



chief river is the Oxus on its northern border, which has been already 
described, and which received several tributaries in Bactria — the Bac- 
trus or Dargidus, Delias, on which the capital stood, with its tributary 
the Artamis, iJakash, — the Dargomanes, Goree, higher up — ^and the 
Zariaspis, which must be the same as the Bactrus, if the towns Bactra 
and Zariaspa are to be considered as identical. 

The Bactrians were an Arian race, differing but little from the 
Persians in language, and using very nearly the sarne equipment as the 
Medes. The names of some of the tribes are evidently of Indian origin, 
the Khomari, for instance, representing the modern Kumdras^ the 
Tokhari, the Thakurs, and the Varni^ the word Varna^ "a caste." 
The capitcil, Bactra or Zariaspa, was situated on the river Bactrus, on 
the site of the present capital B:iU:: the town lays claim to the very 
highest antinuity, and is to this day described as the mother of 
cities it has in all ages been a great commercial entrepot for the mer- 
chandise of eastern Asia ; Alexander visited it in the winter of B.C. 
3"28-7. The conqueror erected a city, Alexandria, in this province, 
probably at Khulm, E. of Bactra. Drepsa or Drapsaca, was probably 
at Anderdh; in the X.E. of the province. 

Bactriana occupies a very cons^^icuous place both in the mythical and 
historical annals of the Greeks. It was visited by Bacchus, according 
to Euripides {Baccli. 15), and conquered by Xinus with the aid of Se- 
miramis, according to Ctesias. The Bactrians aided at the destruction 
of Xineveh, and for a while resisted the arms of Cyrus. Bactria formed 
the 12th satrapy of Darius, and remained an integral portion of the 
Persian empire until its overthrow by Alexander. It was placed under 
satraps by the conqueror, and after his death fell to the Seleucidee. 
In the reign of Antiochus II., Theodotus threw off the Syrian yoke, and 
established an independent sovereignty (b.c. 25Uy. One of his suc- 
cessors. Eucratides, about B.C. 181, extended his sway over the western 
part of India, and another, named Menander, advanced his frontier to 
the Ganges. The power of this dynasty was overthrown by the ad- 
vance of the Scythian tribes, probably about B.C. 100. It ultimately 
formed a portion of the Sassanian empire. 

4. Sogdiana was bounded on the X. by the Jaxartes, and on the S. 
by the Oxus; eastward it was limited by the lofty chain of mountains, 
which under the name Comedarum Montes, ^luztagfi^ runs northwards 
from Paropamisus ; westward it stretched away to the Caspian Sea. 
It embraced Bokhara and the gi'eater part of Turkestan. The eastern 
part of this proA-ince is mountainous, a considerable range of mountains 
named Oxii Montes, Ak-tagli, penetrating westward between the upper 
courses of the Oxus and Jaxartes : while another, the Sogdii Montes, 
Kara-tagJi, emanated from the central range more towards the S. The 
only important rivers are those which have been noticed as forming 
the northern and southern boundaries : of the tributary streams which 
joined them we need only notice the Polytimetus, the very precious" 
river, as the Greek historians rendered the indigenous name, Sogd, 
which waters the far-famed valley of Saviiarcand ; the modern name of 
the stream, Zar-asshan, means gold-scatt-ering," and contains a si- 
milar allusion to the fertility which it spreads about its banks. It 
flows into the Lake of Karakoid, which probablv represents the ancient 
Oxia Palus. 

The Sogdians were allied in race to their neighbours the Bactrians ; 
many of the names of the tribes point to a connexion with India. 
These are for the most part devoid of interest ; we may, however, 



246 EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Book IL 



notice the Chorasmii as representing the modern Kliarism, or the desert 
between the Caspian and the Sea of Aral. The towns of ioiportance 
were— Maracanda, Samarcand, on the Polytimetus, which has been in 
all ages a great commercial entrepot ; Cyrescliata or Cyropolis, on the 
Jaxartes, deriving its name from the tradition that it was the extreme 
limit of Cyrus's empire ; Alexandria Ultima, also on the Jaxartes. enters 
at or near Kliojend, its name implying that it was the farthest to^^m 
planted by Alexander in that direction ; Alexandria Oxiana, probably 
situated at Kurshee, S. of Samarcand, where is a fertile oasis ; and 
Tribactra, probably representing the modern Bokhara. 

§ 9. The countries, which we have just described as the northern 
and eastern provinces of the Persian empire, derive a special in- 
terest from the military expedition of Alexander the Great, which 
gave occasion to the only satisfactory account of them that has reached 
us. We therefore append a brief review of that expedition in as 
far as its geographical details are concerned, commencing with, the 
departure of Alexander from Susa. 

The Expedition of Alexander the Great. — Alexander started on his 
Asiatic expedition, in B.C. 33-J-, from his ]\Iaceclonian capital, Pella. His 
early course lay along the X. coast of the ^Egoean Sea by the towns of 
Amphipolis, xVbdera, and Maronea : he reached the shores of the Hel- 
lespont at Sestus, and, while his army crossed directly to Abydos, he 
himself went to Eleeus, and crossed to the harbour of the Achaeans, the 
old landing-place of Ilium. Having visited the most interesting spots 
connected with the history of Troy, he rejoined his army, and advanced 
.along the coast of the Hellespont by Percote and Hermotus to the 
river Granicus, where his first great victory over the Persians was 
gained. From the banks of the Granicus he turned southwards through 
the interior of Mysia and Lydia to Sardis, and thence to Ephesas, both 
of which surrendered to him without a contest. Miletus was the next 
important point, and here he met with determined but ineffectual 
resistance. Thence he advanced to the siege of Halicarnassus, which 
detained him for a considerable time. Having reached the S. angle of 
Asia Minor, he turned eastward, and entered Lycia, following the line 
of coast by Telmissus and Pinara to Patara, and thence crossing to 
Phaselis. In advancing along the coast X. of Phaselis, he traversed 
with difficulty the dangerous pass at the foot of Mount Climax, and 
reached Perge in Pamf>hylia, whence he advanced to Side on the sea- 
coast, and to Syllium, a place of uncertain position between Side and 
Aspendus. He returned to Perge, and struck northwards through the 
defiles of Taurus by Sagalassus to Celtense in Phrygia, and thence across 
the plains of that province to Gordium in Bithynia, which he reached 
in the early part of the year 333. He halted there for some two or 
three months, and resumed his course in an E, direction as far as 
Ancyra, and then S. across Cappadocia to the Cilician Gates of Taurus, 
vvhicli dangerous pass he traversed without molestation, and descended 
on the S. side of Taurus to the fertile plains of Cilicia. At Tarsus he 
halted for some time, and made an excursion thence to Anchialus and 
Soli in the W. of Cilicia. Resuming his course from Tarsus in a S. E. 
direction, be crossed the Aleiau plain to Mallus at the mouth of the 
Pyramus, and then followed the line of coast to Issus, and through 
the gates of Cilicia and Syria to Myriandrus in Syria. Meantime 



248 EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER THE GEEAT. Book IL 



Darius was crossing the Amanian range by the northern pass which 
descends into Cilicia near Issus. Alexander therefore retraced his 
steps, and met the enemy on. the banks of the Pinarus, where he again 
triumphed in the important battle of Issus. From this point Alex- 
ander hastened southwards through Syria to Phoenicia, the chief towns 
of which (Marathus, Byblus, Sidon) surrendered, with the exception 
of Tyre, winch sustained a siege of seven months. Thence (in 332) he 
followed the coast southwards, and met with no further obstacle until 
he reached Gaza, Avhich held out against him for two months. In 
seven days he crossed from Gaza to Pelusium on the frontier of Egypt : 
he ascended the eastern branch of the Nile to Memphis, and descended 
by the western branch to Canopus. After the foundation of Alex- 
andria, he made his famous expedition to the oracle of Jupiter Amnion, 
reaching it by way of Pai'setonium on the Mediterranean coast, and 
returning to Memphis across the desert. In 331 he retraced his steps 
to Phoenicia, and struck across from Tyre to Thapsacus on the Eu- 
phrates, and having crossed that river took a northerly route under 
the roots of Masius to the Tigris at Nineveh, and again succeeding in 
the passage of the river, he advanced to meet the hosts of Darius on the 
plain of Gaugamela. A decided victory awaited him, the fruits of which 
he reaped in the surrender of Babylon and Susa, which he visited in 
succession, reraainiug a short time in each. Leaving Susa, he struck 
across the mountainous region that separates Susiana from Persis, 
defeating the Uxians at the defile that commands the western, and the 
Persians at that which commands the eastern entrance to the ''Persian 
Gates," and reached Persepolis. In 330 he went in pursuit of Darius 
to Ecbatana {Ramadan), and Rhaga3, and passed through the Caspian 
Gates to Hecatompylus (near Jali Jirm). The lofty range of Elburz 
was surmoimted in the invasion of Hyrcania on the borders of the 
Caspian Sea, and the forest haunts of the Mardians on the confines of 
Gliilan and Mazanderan were scoured : Zadracarta {Sari) witnessed the 
triumphal entry of the conqueror. From Hyrcania Alexander pro- 
ceeded to Parthia, rounding the ridge of Elburz at its eastern extre- 
mity, and reached Susia (near fleshed) ; Aria yielded, and he started 
for Bactria ; but he was summoned to Artacoana in consequence of a 
revolt, and passing through the plain of the Arius {Eeri-rud), decided 
on founding the city of Alexandria Ariorum, which still survives under 
the name Herat. The next point was Prophtliasia (near Furrah), the 
capital of Drangiana. In 329 Alexander passed up the valley of the 
Etymander into Arachosia, where he founded another Alexandria, 
now Candaliar. The range of Paropamisus intervened between this 
and Bactria : at the southern entrance of the pass of Bamian, about 
50 miles north-west of Cabul, another Alexandria, surnamed ''ad Cau- 
casum," was founded. Surmounting the lofty barrier, he descended 
by Drapsaca and Aornus to Bactra, Balk, in the valley of the Oxus. 
He crossed the Oxus, probably at Kilff\ and traversed the desert north 
of that river to the fertile banks of the Polytimetus, Kohil:, and the 
town of Maracanda, Samarcand ; thence on to Jaxartes, the farthest 
limits of the known world, where another Alexandria, surnamed 
" Ultima," was planted, probably on the site of Khojend. lie crossed 
the Jaxartes to attack the Scythians, and received homage, not only 
from them, but from the distant Sac?e. The disaster of his general, 
Pharnuches, recalled him to Maracanda, and led him in pursuit of the 
enemy down the valley of the Oxus to the edge of the desert of Khiva. 
He returned by the course of the Polytimetus, and passed the winter 



Chap. XIII. EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 249 

of 329 at Bactra. The "visit of Pharasmanes, king of the Choras- 
mians, gave him an opportunity of acquiring some information relative 
to the extensive steppe about the Sea of Aral. In 328 Alexander re- 
entered Sogdiana^ and achieved the capture of a stronghold named the 
Sogdian Rock/' probably near the pass of Derhend, whence he re- 
turned to Maracanda. He next visited the district of Xenippa, about 
10 miles X. of Bokhara, and returned to winter at Xautaca. In 327 
Alexander invaded Parastacene, somewhere eastward of Bactria, and 
took the stronghold of Chorienes. He returned to Bactra^ whence he 
started for his Indian campaign. Having crossed Paropamisus, he 
descended the course of the Cophen, Cahul, by Xicaea, probably the 
same as Ortospana or Cabura (the modern Cahul), to its junction with 
the Choes^ also called Choaspes and Evaspla (the modern Kamali),' 
where he turned off into the mountain district intervening between 
the Cabul and the Indus : the river Gurjeus in that district is probably 
the Piinjkora, which runs parallel to the Choes; the towns Gorydala 
and Arigreum stood at the foot of the Indian Caucasus, near the 
sources of these streams ; descending the Gurseus he seized Massaga 
and the strongholds Ora and Bazira, between the Guraeus and Indus ; 
he returned to the Cophen at Peucela, a place not far westward of 
the junction of the Cophen and Indus — descended the stream to Em- 
bolima — followed up the rigiit bank of the Indus for a short distance 
to attack the stronghold of Aornus, and having captured it, onwards 
to Dyrta, probably at the point where the Indus forces its passage 
through the Hindoo Koosh, whence he returned to the junction of 
the Cophen. In 326 he crossed the Indus at this point and advanced 
into the Punjab by Taxila (the ruins of which still exist at Manikyala) 
to the banks of the Hydaspes, Jelum, one of the five rivers of the 
district ; the spot at which he crossed that river, as well as the sites of 
the to\\'ns Xicaea and Bucephala, which were built to commemorate, 
the former his victory over Porus, the latter his passage of the river, 
cannot be identified. Proceeding eastward, he reached the Acesines, 
Ch.enahy and the Hydraotes, Bavee, which he crossed to Sangala, the 
modern Lahore. Proceeding still eastward, he reached the banks of 
the Hyphasis, Gharra, below the junction of the Hesudrus, SutledJ. 
This formed the eastern limit of his discoveries. He returned to the 
Hydaspes, where a fleet had been prepared for his army, and dropped 
down that stream to its junction with the Acesines, turning aside to 
the capture of the city of the Malli, Mooltan — then down the Acesines 
to its junction with the Indus, at which point he built an Alexandria, 
probably at Mittun — and then down the Indus to Pattala at the head 
of the Delta. In 326 he separated from his fleet, sending Xearchus 
to explore the coasts of the Indian Ocean to the mouth of the Tigris, 
while he himself took a land route through Gedrosia and Carmania. 
His intention had been to follow the line of coast, but finding this 
impracticable from the excessive heat and sterility of that distinct, he 
struck into the interior, and passing by Pura, probably Bunpur, he 
reached the frontier of Carmania, his army having endured terrible 
suflFerings in the passage across the Gedrosian desert. His route through 
Carmania and Persis was comparatively easy ; passing through Pasar- 
gadse and Persepolis in the latter province, he finally gained Susa. The 
voyage of Xearchus was successful, but presents few topics of interest 
to us ; he followed the coast to the entrance of the Persian Gulf, put 
in near the mouth of the Anamis, Ibrahim, a little eastward of the isle 
of Ormuz, and thence resumed his course to the mouth of the Tigris. 

M 3 



250 



IXDIA. 



Book II. 



§ 10. India was a term used somewliat indefinitely for the 
country lying eastward of tlie river Indus. Down to the time of 
Alexander, it was confined to the districts immediately adjacent to 
that river: under thr ^ ::da?, it was extended to the banks of 
the Ganges ; in PtolcnxV - ^^ri graphy, it comprehends all the coun- 
tries between the Indus and the Eastern Ocean, which were grouped 
into two great divisions, India intra Gangem, and India extra Gun- 
gem. Tiie details of the geography of these vast regions are for the 
most part devoid of interest to the classical student ; but they have 
their special interest both for those who are acquainted with Indian 
*top<j2:ra}hy, and in connexion ^vith the histoiy of geography and 
comnifrce. It would be out of our province to go into the fomer 
subject, and therefore we shall confine ourselves to a general sketch, 
^\-ith a special reference to the latter subject. 

(I.) lu addition to the more important physical features already 
n i':: " r : : ' ' : :her adduce the following as being known to the 
an; - - : .) Mountains — Bettigo (the Ghats), and Yindius 

T'/,.'.: . -. 1 , liontories — Comaria^ ' Co//?or/«,, Coiw or CalHgi- 
cum near the S.^'A'. end of the peninsula^ Prom. Aurea? Chersonesi, 
the southern termination of the Sinus Sabaricus ; Malaei Colom on the 
^y. coast of the Golden Peninsula ; and Prom. Magnum, the western 
side of the Sin. Magnus. (3. ,. Gulfs and Bays~S. Canthi G. of 
Cutch^, S. Barygazenus \G. of Camhay), S. Colchicus ' B. of Manaar), 
and S. Ai'garicus, opposite Taprobane ^probably Path's Bay). ^4). 
Bivers — Xamadus (Xerhudda , Xanagima Tapty^, along the shores of 
the Indian Ocean; along the AY. side of the Bay of Bengal. Chaberis 

Caveri;. Tyndis Kistna ^ Maesolus {Godaveryj, Dosai'on Mahanadf^, 
and Adamas Brahniinij. 

2. The principal states on the coast from W. to E. were — Pat- 
talene Loicer Scinde . with its capital Pattala {Tatta.: Syrastrene, 
Y*. of the G. of Camhay ; Larice, along the Indian Ocean from the 
Xerl'udJa to the G. of Camhay, with Ozene ' Oujein as its capital; 
farther S,. Ariaca. with Hippocura ' Hydrahad : Dachinabades Dec- 
' - ; ; Lin^yrica. Uc^r MAwjahyre. ^-ix'ii Corura Coimlpatore . for its 
c:: ; C'ottiarn C:'-:hin an i Comaria, at the end of the peninsula ; 
r . ' on the > >: ^vith Modui-a Mathura for its 

: [ ider up tL : . coast, the Aiwarni with Malanga 

Ji / '/ • : - - in - the coast now called Circars : the 

Caiin^?} ; an^^ :Lv aT-a _ ath Gauge somewhere near Catcutta 

for their cap::al. In tu- nn-.in r. commencing from the Y'., a race of 
Scythians occupied in the days of Ptolemy an extensive district on the 
banks of the Indus, comprising the modern ^^chide and Punjah : Cas- 
]::r:a C^'^lunir . lay more to the X, : the Caspira?i between the Hyphasis 
and the Jomanes : on the course of the Gauges, the Gangani ; the 



6 P. 76. 

T..: ^ v,, ;: -V.:- remote people was atti'ibuted to Augustus in the most 

In fori' - - .a/ai ex aviio solidoque elephanto 
Gangara .a.v- ; a.am, ^i.etorisque anna Quirini. 

ViRG. Georg. iii. 27. 



Chap. XIII. TAPEOBAXE — THE SIX-E — SERICA. 



251 



^landalae with the town Palimbothra [Fatna) ; and the Marundse^ thence 

to Calcutta, 

''ry.j The chief coaimercial towns were — along the western coast of 
Hindostan. Pattala 'Tatta , Barygaza ^Baroche^, Calliene (GallicuV, 
Muziris Mangalore . and Xflkynda ^Xeliceram) ; while there were 
three principal emporia fur merchandize — Ozene 'Oujein^. the chief 
mart of foreign commerce, and for the transmission of goods to Bary- 
gaza, Tagara probably Deof//</r in ttio DeccanK and Plithana Pulta- 
nah on the Godavery . Along the Regio Paralia. and on the Coro- 
laandel coast were several important ports ; in the kingdom of Pandion, 
were extensive pearl-tislieries. I'urther to the X. were — Alaj.solia Ma- 
sidijn'itam), famous for its cottun goods ; and Gange, near the mouth 
of the Ganges, a mart for muslin, betel, pearls, kc. 

'4:,] The productions of India best known to the Romans were its 
ivory, its gold and gems,- its frankincense,^ and its ebony. ^ 

§ 11. The important island of Taprohane, otherwise called Salice, 
Ceylon, has been frequently noticed in ccamexic'n vrith the history 
of geography. It w^as well known to the ancients frorn its com- 
mercial importance." According to Pliny it contained no less than 
500 to^rnSj the chief of Avhich was named Palaesimtindum, probably 
the same as is elsewhere called Anurograrnni'jn. which remained 
the capital from B.C. 267 to a.d. 769. The island is bnt seldom 
alluded to in classical literature. ^ 

§ 12. The Sinae occupied a district of undefined limits to the 
X.E, of India extra Gangem, stretching to Serica in the X. It 
probably included the modern districts of Torcyain, Cocliiu-China, 
and the southern portion of China. This district is first described 
by Ptolemy, who evidently had but a very imperfect knowledge of 
it. The towns of most importance Avere — TMnae, either Xonhin^ 
or Uisin in the province of Schensi ; and Cattigara, perhaps Canton. 

§ 13. Serica was a district in the E. of Asia^ the position of 
which is variously described by ancient writers, but which is gene- 
rally supposed to have occupied the X.T\'. angle of China, The 
name of Serica as a coimtry was not knowm before the first century 
of our era, but the Seres as a people are mentioned by Ctesias and 
other early writers. It is imcertain whether the name was an indi- 



s India mittit ebur. Vieg. Georg. i. 5 7. 

Indum sanguineo veluti violarerit ostro 

Si quis ebur. Id. J^m. xii. 6 7. 

Xon aurum, aut ebur ludicum. Hor. Carm. i. 31, 6. 
Gemmis et dentibus Indis. Ov. J/ef. xi. 167. 
^ Et doniitas gentes, thurifer Inde, tuas. Ov. Fast. iii. 720. 

Thura nec Euphrates, nec miserat India costum. Id. i. 341. 
^ Sola India nigrum 

Fert ebenum. Virg. Georg. ii. 116. 

2 It consisted of pearls and precious stones, especially the ruby and the emerald. 
3 Aut ubi Taprobanen Indica cingit aqua. Ov. ex Pont. i. 5, SO. 



252 



SCYTHIA 



— SCYTHIANS. 



Book II. 



genoiTS one, or was transferred from tlie silkworm to the district in 
wMcli the insect was found. The country is described as very 
fertile, with an excellent climate, its most valuable production being 
silk.'* The method by which commerce was carried on with this 
distant people has been already described (p. 80). 

§ 14. The vast regions lying between Serica in the E., Sarmatia 
Asiatica in the W., and India in the S., were included under the 
general name of ScytMa, the limits to the X. being wholly unknown. 
The modern districts of Tibet, Tartary, and a large portion of 
Siberia, may be regarded as answering to it. Very little was known 
of these remote regions : Herodotus was only acquainted with the 
names of the tribes to the N. of the Euxine and Caspian Seas, and 
no succeeding writer adds much to his information until we come 
down to the age of Ptolemy. By him the country was divided into 
two parts, Scythia intra and S. extra Imaum, in other words 
Scythia AV. and E. of Imaus, by which he designated the northern 
ranges of BoJor and its continuations. The mountains and rivers, 
which received special names in ancient geography, have been 
already noticed (pp. 74, 77). 

§ 15. The origin and ethnological affinities of the Scythians are 
involved in great obscurity. Into these questions it is un- 
necessary for us to enter, particularly as we have no reason to 
suppose that the name, as applied by Ptolemy, indicated any one 
special race, but rather included all the nomad tribes of Central 
Asia. It is a matter of more interest for us to know that these 
tribes have left traces of their existence amid the gold mines of the 
Altai ranges, and in numerous sepulchres and ruined buildings, the 
high antiquity of which is undoubted. The conclusion drawn from 
these remains is that those nations had attained a higher degree of 
civilisp.tion than we should have expected : their skill in metallurgj^ 
is particularly conspicuous. Of the special tribes we may notice — 
the Aorsi, between the Daix and the Jaxartes, a people who carried 
on an extensive trade with India and Babylonia ; the Massaget^e, 
who frequented the steppes of Indepenchnt Tartary about the Sea of 
Aral ; the Sacae, who occupied the steppes of the Kirghiz KhasaJcs 
and the regions both E. and W. of Bohr, through whom the trade 
was carried on between China and* the west, as already described ; 
the Argippsei, the progenitors of the Calmucks, who lived in the 
Altai ; and the Issedones, in the steppes of Kirghiz of Ichim, 



^ Quid, quod libelli Stoici inter Sericos 
Jacere pulvillos amant? Hor. Epod. viii. 15. 

It was supposed at one time that the Seres obtained the substance from the 
leaves of trees. Virgil alludes to this in the line — 

'* Velleraque ut foliis depectant tenuia Seres?" — Georg. ii. 121. 



The Nile during the Inundation, with the two Colossi of Thebes (Wilkinson). 



BOOK III. 
AFEIC A. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

AFRICxi. 

§ 1. Boundaries; Xame. § 2. Seas. § 3. Xattiral divisions. § 4. 
Mountains. § 5. The Kile. § 6. The Oases. § 7. Commerce. 
§ 8. Productions. § 9. Commercial routes. § 10. Ethnology. 
§ 11. Political divisions. 

§ 1. The continent of Africa, as known to the ancients, was 
bounded by the Mare Internnm on tbe X. : the Oceanns Atlanticus 
on the W. ; and the Isthnms of Arsinoe, the Arabiciis Sinns, and the 
Mare ErythrEeum on the E. Its southern limit was unknown : 
Herodotus indeed correctly describes it as surrounded by water, but 
the progress of geographical knowledge tended to weaken rather 
than confirm this belief, and the latest opinion was, that below the 
equator the coast of Africa trended eastward, and formed a junction 
with the coast of Asia, converting the Indian Ocean into an inland 
sea. How far the continent may have extended to the 8. does not 
appear to have been even surmised ; the actual knowledge of the 
interior was limited to the basin of the Xiger, while the E. coast 
had been partly explored to about 10° S. lat., and the W. coast to 
about 8° X. lat , or the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone. But even 



254 



AFRICA. 



Book 111 



the greater part of the continent within these limits was, and still 
is, a terra incognita. The portion of the continent of which the 
ancients possessed any adequate knowledge was restricted to the 
districts contiguous to the N. coast and the valley of the Xile. 

Names. — The history of the names Libya" and '^Africa" is strik- 
ingly analogous to that of Asia." When we first hear of this conti- 
nent in the Homeric poems no general name is given to it. "Libya" is 
the name only of a district contiguous to Egypt on the W. The Greeks 
early became acquainted with the use of this name through their inter- 
course with Egypt, and thus gradually extended it to the whole of the 
continent, in the first instance exclusive, and finally inclusive, of Egypt 
itself. The origin of the name is doubtful. It was referred by the 
Greeks to a mythological personage, who was either a daughter of 
Oceanus or a hero. In later times it has been variously connected with 
the Biblical '^Lubim" — who were not, however, a maritime, but pro- 
bably an inland people — and with the Greek A/ij/ (from Aet/8co\ "the 
south-west wind," which blew to Greece from that quarter, and derived 
its name from its moist character. The name "Africa" originated 
Avith the Roma,ns in the district adjacent to Carthage, which constituted 
their first province on this continent. It was probably the name of a 
native tribe, but its origin is still a matter of great uncertainty. Jose- 
phus connects it with Epher, a grandson of Abraham and Keturah. It 
may perhaps have a Phoenician origin, and mean " Xomads," in which 
case it would be equivalent to the Greek ISTumidia. 

§ 2. The seas that surround ihe continent of Africa are singularly 
deficient in bays and estuaries, and hence the coast-line bears a 
very small proportion to the area, as compared with either of the 
other continents. The uniformity of the Mediten*anean coast is 
indeed broken by the deep indentations named Syrtes Major and 
Minor, answering to the Gulfs of Sidra and Khahs. These are 
really the innermost angles of an extensive sea which penetrates 
between the highlands of Gyrene on the E. and the Atlas range on 
the W. The special names for the parts of the sea adjacent to Africa 
were, Mare ^gyptium, off the coast of Egypt, and libycum Mare, 
more to the W. The shores of the Oceanus Atlanticus were explored 
by the Carthaginians, but the records contain no topics of interest 
connected with it. Of the Southern Ocean the ancients knew still 
less. The portion adjacent to the coast was named generally Mare 
-ffitMopicum, and a portion of it S, of Cape Guardafui Mare Bar- 
baricum. 

§ 3. Libya, or Northern Africa W. of Egypt, was divided by He- 
rodotus into three parallel belts or districts — the cultivated, the 
wild-beast district, and the sandy desert. The first and third of 
these denominations answer respectively to the Tell of the Arabs 
and the Sahara. The second is a misrepresentation, and the true 
intermediate district is better described by the modern Arabic name 
Beled-el'Jerid — " the date-district " — the chain of oases, in which 



Chap. XIY. 



MOUNTAIXS — THE XILE. 



255 



that fruit is found most abundantly, lying between the cultivated 
district of the coast and the great sandy desert of the interior. It 
is a mistake, however, to suppose that the three belts are marked 
off from each other by any . well-defined lines of demarcation; on 
the contrary the limits are shifting ; the Tell and Sahara are 
often intermixed, even in the W., where the range of Atlas would 
seem to form a barrier between the two. The true distinction is 
one of production^ and not of position, and the remarks of Herodotus 
must be accepted as only generally true. 

§ 4. The mountains of Africa do not present the same uniformity 
as those of Asia. In the W. there is an extensive but isolated 
system, to which the ancients transferred the mythological name of 
Atlas,^ occupying that division of the continent which lies between 
the Syrtes and the Atlantic Ocean. The extreme points of this 
range may be regarded as C, Qhir in the W. and C, Bon in the E., 
and the general direction would therefore be from W.S.W. to E.X.E. 
It is divided into two portions by the valley of the Molocath. The 
W. division, or High Atlas, strikes northwards along the course of 
that river, and in the neighbourhood of the sea sends out lateral 
ridges parallel to the coast towards the W., to which the ancients 
gave the specific name of Atlas Minor. The eastern division consists 
of the range of Jebel Amer and a series of subordinate parallel 
ridges, which gradually approach the Mediterranean coast and 
decline into the desert in the neighbourhood of the Syrtes. 

§ 5. The only river in Africa that holds an important place in 
ancient geography is the Nile, which was at once the great fertilizer 
of Egypt and the high-road of commerce and civilization. 

The Nile, more than any other river in the world, attracted the atten- 
tion of writers of all classes. Its sources then, as now, were unknown, and 



1 We have already noticed tlie Homeric sense of the term Atlas fp. 20). The 
same idea- was sustained hy the later poets, as when .Eseh^lus speaks of the giant 
Atlas : — 

09 Trpb? ecTTTepov? tottov? 
ecTTTjKe K.Cov ovpavov re /cat x^o^o? 

oifxoiv epet5^o^', a.xQo<; ovk evdyKakov. Prom. Vinct. 348. 

Ubi coelifer Atlas 

Axem humero torquet stellis ardentihns aptura. — Yirg. ^n. ri. 797. 

Atlas en ipse laborat 
Vixque suis humeris candentem sustinet axem. — Ov. 2Iei. ii. 297. 
Quantus erat, mons factus Atlas. Jam barba comaeque 
In silvas abeunt ; juga sunt humerique manusque ; 
Qaod caput ante fuit, summo est in monte cacumen, 
^ Ossa lapis hunt. Turn partes auctus in omnes 
Crevit in immensum (sic Di statuistis), et omne 
Cum tot sideribus coelum requievit in illo. — Ov, 2Iet. iv, 656. 



256 



AFEICA. 



Book ill. 



the search after them had abeady passed into a proverb.^ It was indeed 
believed that it issued from marshes at the foot of the Lunte Montes, 
but the true position ^ of the Mountains of the Moon was unknown, and 
the description will apply to other Abyssinian rivers, which generally 
rise in lagoons. It appears moreover probable that the ancients re- 
garded the Astapus, or Blue Kile, to be the true river, and that their 
observations applied to that rather than to the White Xile, which 
moderns generally regard as " the true Xile," as being the larger stream. 
At the same time it should be observed that the ^'blue," or rather 
the black," Nile — for that is the meaning of the Arabic Azrek — has 
the true characteristics of the Nile. These two branches form a junc- 
tioQ S. of Meroe, and for some miles flow together without mixing their 
waters. K. of Meroe the united stream receives the Astaboras, Tacazze ; 
between that point and the border of Egypt is the region of the " Cata- 
racts," as they are called, which are in reality nothing more than rapids 
formed by ridges of granite,- which rise through the sandstone, and, by 
dividing its stream, increase its rapidity. The fall is, after all, not so 
considerable as the imagination of the poets pictured it, the Great 
Catai^act having a descent only of 80 feet in a space of five miles. 
Below the junction of the Astaboras the river flows X. for 120 miles, 
then makes a great bend to the S. W. — skirting in this part of its course 
the desert of Bahiouda — and finally resumes its northerly direction to 
the head of the Delta, where it is divided into seven channels,"^ which 
were named from E. to W. — the Pelusian, now dry ; the Tanitic, pro- 
bably the canal of Moneys ; the Mendesian, now lost in Lake Men- 
zaleh ; the Phatnitic, or Bupolic, the lower portion of the Daniietta 
branch ; the Sebennytic, coinciding with the upper part of the Damietia 
branch, and having its outlet covered by the lake oi Bourlos ; the Bol- 



2 j^iie pater, quanam possum te dicere caussa, 

Aut quibus in terris occuluisse caput. — Tibull. i. 7, 23. 
Te, fontium qui celat origines 

Nilus. HoR. Carm. iv. 14, 45. 

lUe fiuens dives septena per ostia Xilus, 

Qui patriam tantee tarn bene celat aquse. — Ov. Amor. iii. 6, 39. 
Qui rapido tractu mediis elatus ab antris, 
Flammigerte patiens zonse Cancrique calentis, 
Fluctibus isrnotis nostrum procurrit in orbem, 
Secreto de fonte cadens, qui semper inani 
Quserendus ratione latet ; nec contigit uiii 
Hoc vidisse caput : fertur sine teste creatus, 
Flumina profundens alieni conscia caeli.— Claud. Idyl. iv. 8. 
Aut septemgemini caput hand penetrabile Nile.— Stat. Silv. iii. 5, 21. 

Csesar is represented as willing to relinquish all his schemes of grandeur for 
the solution of the problem — 

spes sit mihi certa videndi 
Niliacos fontes, bellum civile relinquam. — Luc. x. 191. 

3 The source of the 'White Nile' is probably S. of the Abyssinian ranges 
between 0^ and 5° S, lat. 

* Et septemgemini turbant trepida ostia Nili. — Yirg. /Sn. vi. 801 
Et septem digestum in cornua Nilum. Ov. Met. ix. 773. 

Sive qua septemgeminus colorat 

.Equora Nilus. Catull. xi. 7. 



Chap. XIV. 



THE OASES — COMMERCE. 



257 



bitic, the lower part of the Eosetta branch ; and the Canopic, or Xau- 
cratic, coinciding in its upper part with the Rosetta brancli, fn^m which, 
however, it diverged at 3W lat., and ran more to the W., discharging 
itself at the Lake of Madieh, near Ahoukir. 

§ 6. The Oases form a peculiar and a very important feature in 
the continent of Africa. The word Oasis is derived from the Coptic 
ouah, " a resting-place." It was a general appellation for spots of 
cultivated land in the midst of sandy deserts, but was more especi- 
ally applied to those verdant spots in the Libyan desert which con- 
nect eastern with western and southern Africa. The ancients de- 
scribe these as islands rising out of the ocean of the wilderness, and 
by their elevation escaping the waves of sand which overspread the 
surrounding districts. They are, however, deiDvessions rather than 
elevations — basins which retain the water through the circumstance 
of a stratum of clay or marble overlying the sand. The moisture 
thus secured produces in the centre of the basin a prolific vegeta- 
tion, which presents the most striking contrast to the surrounding 
desert, and justifies the appellation of the " Island of the Blessed,'' 
which the ancients ^ applied to one of them. Their commercial im- 
portance was very great. They served as stations to connect Egypt 
and Ethioirla with Carthage in one direction, and with central Africa 
in another. Their full advantage indeed was not realised imtil the 
camel was introduced from Asia by the Persians. After that time • 
they were permanent!}^ occupied and garrisoned by the Greeks and 
Romans. Herodotus describes a chain of oases ^ as crossing Africa 
from E. to W. at intervals of ten days' journey. With the exception 
of the two most westerly — the Atarantes and Atlantes — the locali- 
ties admit of easy identification, but the distances require a little 
adjustment, for Ammonium is twice ten days from Thebes, and a 
similar interval exists between Augila and Phazania. In the first 
instance he probably computes the distance from the Oasis Magna, 
which is midway between Thebes and Ammonium ; in the second, 
he omits the intervening oasis of Zala, 

§ 7. The commerce of Africa was known to classical writers 
chiefly through the two nations in whose hands the foreign trade 
rested, viz. the Egyptians in the E. and the Carthaginians in the 
W. These regulated the trade of the interior, whence they obtained 
certain articles of luxury and ornament highly prized by the 
wealthy of Greece and Eome, and received in exchange the oil and 
wine of which they themselves stood in need. But though Egypt 



5 Kerod, iii. 26. 

^ They are Ammoniirm, eUShcah ; Augila, AvjUeh ; the Garamantes, Fezzan ; 
the Atarantes, who may represent a place on the outskirts of Fezzan ; and the 
Atlantes, whose name bears reference to the range of Atlas. 



Chap. XIV. 



COMMERCE — PRODUCTIONS. 



259 



and Carthage were thus the great marts of African commerce, the 
trade with the interior was actually carried on by certain tribes 
who were fitted by birth and habit to endure the privations and 
dangers incident to the long journeys across the desert. The 
Nubians were the carriers of Egypt ; the Xasamonians and 
other tribes that lived about the Syrtes were the carriers of 
Carthage. These tribes conducted their business veiy much in 
the same manner, and by the same routes, as the Africans of the 
present day, the physical character of the continent necessitating 
the adoption of the caravan as the only secure mode of travelling, 
and fixing the routes with undeviating certainty by the occasional 
supplies of water. 

§ 8. The most valued productions of the interior were gold, 
precious stones, ivory, ebony, and slaves. 

(1.) Gold was abundant both in the Ethiopian mountains and in the 
very heart of the continent S. of the Niger. 

(2.) Precious stones were procured from the mountains of Central 
Africa. The most common species was the carbuncle, which derived its 
classical name, '^calcedonius," from the Greek name of Carthage, whence 
it was exported to Italy. 

(8.) Ivor}^ was found in all parts. The Ptolemies had their stations 
on the shores of the Red Sea for the express purpose of hunting elephants. 
In the interior of Ethiopia and the adjacent districts of Kordofan and 
Darfur, it was the staple commodity, while even on the western coast 
of the Atlantic the Carthaginians found it abundant. 

(4.) Slaves were perhaps the largest article of African commerce. 
Not only did the Egyptians and Carthaginians require them for their 
own domestic use, but the latter people exported them, particularly 
females, in immense numbers to Italy and the Mediterranean islands. 
The supply was obtained from the interior of the continent, particularly 
the districts about the Niger. Herodotus tells us that the Garamantes 
had regular slave-hunts, and his statement is verified by the modern 
practice of the chieftains of Fezzan, who hunt down the Tihhoos. 

As the trade was chiefly carried on by means of barter, it becomes 
an interesting question what productions were given in exchange by 
the merchants. The same articles appear to have formed the media of 
exchange in ancient as in modern times. The northern part of the 
desert is abundant in salt ; Central Africa is deficient in it ; and a 
scarcity of this necessary article operates as a famine in the districts S. 
of the great desert ; this, therefore, forms the gi^eat staple of trade in 
exchange for gold and slaves. Dates are another valuable commodity. 
The region of dates lies between 26^ and 29^ N. lat., and from this 
district it is exported largely in all directions — southwai'ds as far as the 
Niger, and northwards to the shores of the Mediterranean, whence the 
agricultural tribes, in the time of Herodotus as at the present day, 
made periodical journeys to obtain their supply. "With regard to the 
Carthaginian trade on the shores of the Atlantic we are told that 
trinkets, harness, cups, wine, and linen, were given to the natives. 

§ 9. AVe are acquainted with several of the main routes by which 
the trafiic was carried on. In Africa, as in Asia, there were certain 



260 



AFEICA, 



Book III. 



spots which were the focusses of the caravan-trade. Thebes in 
Eg}^Dt was the chief emporium in the lower valley of the Sile ; 
Meroe in Ethiopia was the chief one on the Upper Xile ; Phazania, 
Fezzan, was the chief one in the interior. These were connected 
by chains of posts, forming the great lines of communication, and 
each post, in its measure, becoming a commercial mart. Lastly, 
Coptos was the chief emporium for the Indian trade, w^hich passed 
through the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenice. 

(1.) From Thebes a route led westward through the oases of Ammo- 
nium and Augila to Phazania, whence it branched off either southwards 
to the Niger or northwards to Leptis and Carthage. Two routes led 
northwards from Thebes to ]\Ieroe; one by the course of the Xile 
throughout, another by the course of the Nile until the point where 
it makes its great bend, and thence across the Xubian desert. 

(2.) From Meroe a route led westward to the shores of the Red Sea, 
whence ports, such as Adule, were found, communicating either with 
Lower Egypt or witli the opposite coast of Arabia. Another route un- 
doubtedly led from Meroe southwards to the districts of Senaar and 
Abyssinia. 

(3.) From Phazania routes led northwards to the coast of the Medi- 
terranean, where Leptis formed the gi'eat emporium, and southwards to 
the districts of Central Africa. 

(4.) From Coptos, roads, with caravanserais, were constructed by the 
Ptolemies to Myos Hormos and Berenice, and a vast amount of traffic 
passed by this ''overland route " between India and Europe. Pliny 
estimated the annual value of the imports from the East at about 
1,500,000 pounds sterling. 

§ 10. The ethnology of ancient Africa is not a subject of much 
interest. The nations with whom the Greeks and Romans came in 
contact were almost wholly of Asiatic origin. The north Africans, 
though darker than Europeans, and hence occasionally described in 
terms which seem only applicable to negroes, were really allied to 
the races of Europe and Asia, as the Mosaic genealogy indicates 
vvdien it represents the sons of Ham, the brother of Shem and 
Japheth, as occupying ^Ethiopia, Egypt, Libya, and Canaan. This 
opinion prevailed even in ancient times. Juba, according to Pliny, 
pronounced the Egyptians to be Arabs ; while far aw^ay to the W,, 
in Mauritania, a tradition of the Asiatic origin of the people was 
perpetuated. The ^Ethiopians were perhaps the nearest approach 
to the negro ; but the ancient monuments prove that there was a 
wide distinction, even in their case, and that they were no more 
true negroes than their modern representatives, the JBisJiaries and 
Shangallas. The other great divisions of the family of Noah were 
represented in the colonies on the coast of the Mediterranean — the 
Semitic in the Phoenicians, the Japhetic in the Greeks and 
Romans. 



Memphis. 



CHAPTEE XY. 

EGYPT, ETHIOPIA. 

I. Egypt. § 1. Boundaries. § 2. Position and character. § 3. The 
Nile. § 4. Hills. § 5. Canals. § 6. Lakes. § 7. Inhabitants. 
§ 8. Divisions. § 9. Towns — their names ; the capitals. § 10. The 
Delta. § 11. Its towns. § 12. Heptanomis, and its towns. § 13. The 
Thebaid and its towns. § 14. The Oases. II. ^Ethiopia. § 15. 
Boundaries and general character. § 16. Mountains, Biyers, &c. 
§ 17. Inhabitants; Districts. § IB. Towns; History. 

§ 1. The boundaries of ^gyptus, or Egijpt^ were — on the N., the 
Mediterranean Rea ; on the E., the Arabiens Sinus, and that 
portion of xVrabia which intervenes between the head of the Sinus 
Heroopolites and the Mediterranean, now called the Isthmus of 
Suez ; on the S. Ethiopia, from which it was divided at Syene ; 
and on the W. the Libyan desert. Its length is estimated at 526 
miles, and the total area at about 9070 square miles, the upper 
valley amounting to 2255, the Delta to 1975, and the outlying 
districts to 4840. In shape it resembles an inverted Greek iipsilon 
(a), ^^s it consists of a single long valley, spreading out on either 
side at its base. It was naturally divided into two parts — Lower 



262 



EGYPT. 



Book III. 



and Upper Egypt : the former the wide alluvial plain uf the Delta, 
the latter the narrow valley of the Xile with its priroitive formations 
of granitCj red sandstone, and limestone. Each of these had its cha- 
racteristic productions — the papyrus being the symbol of the Delta ; 
the lotus, that of Upper Egypt : and each had its own peculiar deities. 

The Xame, — The name ^- ^gyptus " first appears as the designation 
of the Xile (Horn. Od, iv. 477). and was thence transferred to the 
country in which that river forms so prominent an object. The name 
appears to have been specially applied to the Thebaid^ where it was 
perpetuated in that of the town Coptos, It may perhaps be con- 
nected with the Biblical Caphthor ; the modern name Copis is evi- 
dently a relic of it. 

§ 2. The position and physical character of Egypt account to a 
great degree for its importance in the ancient world. Situated 
midway between the continents of Asia and Africa, it was the gate, 
as it were, through which all intercourse between those two con- 
tinents was carried on. With the Mediterranean on one side, and 
the Eed Sea on the other, it held easy communication with the 
southern peninsulas of Europe, and with the coasts of India ; and 
was, even in early times, the link to connect the west with the east. 
Surrounded by deserts, the valley of the Xile formed a large oasis, 
isolated from the adjacent countries, yet easily accessible on all 
sides by means of routes which nature has formed. The wonderful 
fertility of its soil admitted of the maintenance of an immense 
population, and supplied the material wealth and comfort which 
are essential to the early advance of civilization. -The climate has 
been at all times famed for its salubrity, and the natural produc- 
tions were not only varied, but in some instances had a direct 
tendency to encourage art and manufacture. Among the more 
important articles we may notice — grain of all kinds (wheat, barley, 
oats, and maize), vegetables in great j^rofusion (onions, beans, cu- 
cumbers, melons, garlic, &c.), flax, cotton, papyrus (a most valuable 
fibrous plant, used for making boats, baskets, rope, paper, sails, 
sandals, as well as an article of food), the lotus, olives, figs, 
almonds, and dates. Stone of the finest quality for building 
abounded in Upper Egypt, while various ornamental species, such 
as porphyry, were also found. 

§ 3. The chief physical feature of Europe is the river and valley 
of the Xile. The valley is enclosed between two parallel ranges ' of 
limestone hills, the eastern shutting it off from the Red Sea, the 
western from the Libyan desert. The average breadth of this valley 

i Hinc niontes Naiuia vagis circmiidedit undis, 
Qui Libyte te, Nile, negant : quos inter in alta 
It convalle tacens jam moribus unda receptis. 
Prima tibi campos perniittit, apertaqiie Memphis 
Eura, modumque vctat crescendi ponere ripas. — Lrc. x. 327. 



Chap. XV. 



THE XILE- 



ITS INUXDATIOX. 



263 



as far as 30° X. lat. is about 7 nnles. Between this point and 25° 
its Tvidtli varies from 11 miles at the widest to 2 at the narrowest 
point : S. of 25° to Syene, the valley contracts' so much that in 
some places the hills rise almost immediately from the river's ban^s. 
The plain is generally more extensive on the W. than on the E. 
side of the river, and hence tlie towns are situated almost invariably 
on the left bank. The length of the river from the sea to Syene is 
732 miles, and its fall tliroughoiit this distance is estimated at 365 
feet, or about i a foot per mile. We have already described the 
general course of the river, but there are a few topics connected 
with it that deserve furthernotice in this place. 

Xame. — The name "^Nile" appears to have been of Indian origin, 
and to signify the blue river." The indigenous name was ^^Hapi." 
Homer names" it the ^Egyptus." - 

Its Inundation. — The Xile begins to rise about the beginning of July. 
About the middle of August it is high enough for purposes of irrigation, 
and between the 20th and 30th. of September it reaches its maximum 
height : it remains stationary for a fortnight, and then gradually 
recedes. An elevation of 30 feet is ruinous from excess of moisture, 
but one of 2-1: is necessary to insure a good harvest : below 18 is again 
ruinous from deficiency of moisture. Various theories were pro- 
pounded by the ancients as to the cause of the inundation : Agatliar- 
chides of Cnidus correctly attributed it to the rains of Abyssinia, 
which thoroughly saturate that country. 

Its Import mce. — Egypt was in truth the ^- gift of the Xile." Its soil 
was due to the action of the river : each succeeding inundation de- 
posited a rich stratum, which is now known to exist to a depth of 
above 60 feet below the present level of the land. Its fertility was 
wholly dependent upon the periodical inundations. ^ Its commerce 



2 Ov yap TOL TTplv ixolpa c/)tAovs t ISeetv, koL t/cecr^at 
Ol<oi' evKTLfJ-evoi'. Kal crqi' e? TvaTptSa yalav, 
TLpLV y or av XlyurrroLO Sctrrereo? rrora^OLO 
AvTt? vScop eA07]?. Od iv. 47 5 

3 The references to tliis subject in the classics are very numerous. 
Ant pingui flumine Nilus, 
Cum refluit campis, et jam se condiclit alveo. — Virg. .i^n. ix. 31. 
Qualis et, arentes cum iinclit Sirius agros, 
Tertilis aestiva Nihis abundet aqua ? 

Te propter nullos teUus tua postulat imbres 

Arida nec Pluvio supplicat herba Jovi. — Tibull. i. 7, 21-23, 25, 26. 
Sic ubi deseruit madidos septemfluus agros 
Nilus, et antique sua flumina reddidit alveo, 
^therioque recens exarsit sidere linius ; 
Plurima cultores versis animalia glebis 
Inveniunt, et in his qugedam modo ccepta, sub ipsum 
Nascendi spatium : quaedam imperfecta, suisque 
Trunca vident numeris ; et eodem in corpore ssepe 
Altera pars vivit ; rudis est pars altera tellus. — Ov. Met. i. 4 22. 
Virgil specially refers to the contrast of the black subsoil and the brilliant ver- 
dure of the fields : — 

Et viridem .Egyptum nigra fecundat arena." — Georg. iv. 291. 



264 



EGYPT. 



Book III. 



passed up and down the broad stream a,s on a high road. Add to this, 
that the water was deemed so pm^e that the Persian kings imported it, 
and that the supply of hsh and fowl formed one of the staples of food, 
while the reeds which grew on its banks served for sails, material for 
paper, and other useful purposes. We can hardly then be surprised 
that the Egyptians paid divine honours to this river, and worshipped 
it under the form of a bull. 

§ 4. The hills of Egypt are of secondary importance. The range- 
tljat hound the valley of the Xile were named Arabici Montes, 
Jelel Mohnff-m on the E., and Libyci Mts., Jehel Sihili on the AV. 
In addition to these Ave may notice — Casius, El Katieh, on the 
borders of Arabia Petr^ea, near the Mediterranean, its summits once 
crovrned with a temple of Zens Ammon, — Troicus Mons, Gehel 
Masarah, whence the stone for the casing of the Pyramids was 
taken : the name was j^robably the corruption of some Egyptian 
word — Alabastrites, S. E. of the town of Alabastra — Porphyrites, 
E. of Antseopoiis — and Smaragdus, X. of Berenice : these three last 
hills were so named after the geological character of the rocks. 

§ 5. Xnmerous canals intersected the country, and conveyed the 
waters of the Xile to the distant parts of the valley. The main- 
tenance of these canals was essential to the well-being of the 
country, and accordingly Augustus (b.c. 24) ordered a general 
repair of them as one of liis first measures for the improvement of 
the province. In addition to the agi'icultural canals, there were two 
constructed for commercial purposes. The most important one 
joined the Nile and the Pied Sea, and was named at different 
periods "Ptolemy's Eiver*' and " Trajan's Piiver." It was com- 
menced by Pharoah Xecho, B.C. 610, contintied by Darius Hystaspis 
about 520, completed by Ptolemy Philadelphus in 274, and re- 
stored by Trajan in a.d. 10^ : it originally began in the Pelusiac 
branch of the Xile near Bubastus, and terminated at Arsinoe on the 
Sinus Heroo}:olites : Trajan's began higher up the river at Babylon 
opposite Memphis, and entered the Pied Sea 20 miles S. of Arsinoe 
at Klysmon : th:s existed for 700 years. The other, named the 
Canopic Canal, connected the city of Canopus vvith Alexandria and 
Lake Mareotis. 

§ 6. There were several important lakes in the X. of Egypt. 
Moris, near Arsinoe, is described by ancient writers as an artificial 
lake of wonderful construction. At present there is a natural lake, 
named Birhet-d-Kerirn. 30 miles long from S.W. to X.E., and 7 
b-road ; it is connected with the Xile by the canal named Bahr- 
Ji'siij\ "Joseph's Canal"' and until recently it was supposed that 
the canal was tlie artificial work to which the ancients referred ; 
traces of a large reservoir have, however, been discovered, which 
was probably part of Lake Mceris. The object of the lake was to 
irrigate the fertile nome of Arsinoe. the water being conveyed in 



Chap. XV. 



LAKES— CANALS— INHABITANTS. 



265 



different directions by subordinate channels. 'i'he Amari Lacus 
were a cluster of salt lagoons E. of the Delta near Heroopolis. 
Sirbonis, Sebaket Bardoil, was a vast morass, E. of the Delta, and 
near the Mediterranean Sea, with which it was once connected by 
a channel. The Persian army under Darius Ochus was partly'' 
destroyed here in B.C. 350. Nitriae, the Natron Lakes, were a group 
of six, situated in a valley S.W. of the Delta : the sands about these 
lakes were formerly the bed of the sea ; they are all salt, and some 
few contain natron, or sub-carbonate of soda, which was extensively 
used by the bleachers and glass-makers of Egypt. Mareotis, 
Birket-el- Mar tout lay S.W. of the Canopic arm, and ran parallel to 
the Mediterranean, from which it was separated by a ridge of sand ; 
its breadth was 22 miles, and its length 42, and it was originally 
connected by canals with the Canopic arm, and with the harbour of 
Alexandria. These canals became gradually choked, and the lake 
had almost disappeared, until in 1801 the English army made a 
new channel, and let in the waters of the sea. The shores of 
Mareotis were formerly laid out in olive -yards and vineyards : ^ a 
very fine kind of papyrus also grew there. 

§ 7. The -.Egyptians believed themselves to be autochthonous, and 
the Greeks considered them to belong to the same stock as the 
Indians and Ethiopians. They were, however, a distinct branch of 
the great Hamitic family, intermixed indeed, in certain parts of the 
country, with the Arabian, Libyan, and Ethiopian races, but essen- 
tially separate from them. The population was undoubtedly much 
lai'ger in ancient than in modern times, but the estimates that have 
come down to us are not trustworthy ; Diodorus gives it as seven 
millions, while from the statement in Tacitus (Ann. ii. 60), we may 
estimate it at six millions : it is now put at less than two millions. 
The inhabitants were divided into castes, the number of which is 
variously given : it appears that the possession of the land was 
vested in the king, the priests, and the soldiers ; these, therefore, 
were the three great estates of the realm : the husbandmen were 
included under the soldiers. 

§ 8. The earliest division of Egypt was the twofold one, based on 



^ Diodorus (i. 30) incorrectly represents the whole of the army as having been 
swallo\Yed up in it, and he is followed hy Milton, who speaks of 
that Serbonian bog 
Betwixt Damiata and INIount Casius old 
Where armies whole have sunk. — Far. Lost, ii. 293. 
s Sunt Thasige vites, sunt et Mareotides albae. — Yikg. Georg. ii. 91. 
Mentemque lymphatam Mareotico. — Hon. Carm. i. 37, 14. 
Mareoticus is frequently used for Egyptian generally, as in the following reference 
to the Pyramids : — 

Par quota Parrhasiee labor est Mareoticus aulie. — Mart. viii. 36. 
AXC. GEOG, N 



266 



EGYPT. 



Book III. 



the natural features of the coiintiy, of Upper and Lo^Yer Egypt, the 
latter being co -extensive with the Delta. Subsequently, Upper 
Egypt was divided into two parts — Thebais, to which the title of 
Upper Egypt was henceforward restricted, and Heptanomis or 
Middle Egypt. This triple division is still retained by the Arabs, 
w^ho denominate the three districts from N. to S. El-Fdf, Wustaid, 
and Said, Egypt was further subdivided into nomes, or cantons, 
the number of which varied at different eras : Herodotus mentions 
only 18 ; under the Ptolemies the total number was 36 ; under the 
later Eoman emperors as many as 58. The nomes were subdivided 
by the Romans into toparchies, and the toparchies into arourcr. 
Under the later Roman emperors the Delta was divided into 4 
provinces — Augustamnica Prima and Secunda, and ^gj'ptus Prima 
and Secunda ; and the Thebaid into two parts — Upper and Lower. 

§ 9. The towms of Egypt were exceedingly numerous : Herodotus 
states their number at 20,000, Diodorus at 18,000 : in this estimate, 
how^ever, must be included vralled villages, as well as proj^er towns. 
Each town was specially devoted to the religious worship of some 
deity or animal, and they appear to have been generally named 
after their tutelary god. The Greeks, who identified the Egyptian 
gods with their own, translated these names into the corresponding 
terms in their own language, and hence the original names have 
been for the most part lost to us. Occasionally, however, both are 
recorded ; thus we have the Egyptian Chemmis, and the Greek 
Panopolis ; Busiris, " the burial-place of Osiris," and Taposiris ; 
Atarbechis and Aphroditopolis, Occasionally the Bible gives the 
original name, as in the case of On for Hdiopolis, though even in 
this case we have also the name translated into the Hebrew Bdh- 
shemesh ; Ammon iox Thebes; Sin for Pelusium. In cases where 
the significance of the name was not so clear, the old Egyptian form 
has been retained with but slight variation, as in the case of Thebes 
for Tape, the capital;" Memphis for Menofre, " the place of 
good;" Canopus for Kahi-nouh, '-the golden soil." In some 
instances the indigenous name still adheres to the site of the place, 
as in the case of Sin for Pelusium. We shall describe the towns 
under their respective districts : it will be only necessary to remark 
here that there were two ancient capitals — Thebes and Memphis ; 
and one comparatively modern one — Alexandria. Of the two 
former, Memphis appears to have the best claim to be regarded as 
the prior capital, but at certain periods of history they Avere con- 
temporaneously capitals of the two kingdoms of Ux)per and Lower 
Egypt. It may further be remarked that the Egyptians were not a 
sea-faring people, and that hence their capitals were high up the 
valley of the Xile ; the position of the later capital, Alexandria, was 
due to the commercial genius of the Greeks, to whom the other 



Chap. XV. 



THE DELTA— TO^XS. 



267 



maritime emporia — Xaucratis, Berenice, and Myus Hormes — also 
owed their existence. 

§ 10. The Delta Avas the most northerly of the three divisions of 
Eg^^i^t ; it derived its name from the similarity of its shape to the 
Greek letter A. the two sides of the triangle being foiTned by the 
ottter arms of the Xile, and the base l^y the Mediterranean Sea. 
The Delia, as a political divisiiin, extended beyond the Canopic and 
Pelusiac arms, as far as the alluvial suil extended.^ The true 
boundaries of the Delta were thus the Libyan and Arabian deserts : 
the apex of the Dtdta was fjrmerly m«jre to the S. than it is 
at present. The soil is nrjt nearly so fertile as that of Upper 
Egypt ; hence much is devoted to such crops a.s tlax, cotton, 
a£id other plants that succ?ed on second-rate soils. The nitre 
which is abundant in many p'arts, produces positive barren- 
ness. The Delta contained, according to Strabo, 10, and according 
to Ptolemy, 24 nomes. 

§ 11. The towns c-f the Delta are invested with associations of a 
varied character, extending over a vast number of centuries. The 
proximity of this district to the borders of Asia brought it into 
early communication Avitli Syria and -Tesopotamia. The Bible 
introduces us to various towns in connection partly ^dth the early 
sojourn of the Israelites in Goshen, and partly with the later 
alliance betvreen Judaea and Egypt during the era of Assyrian 
supremacv. From this s-jurce Ave first hear of Heliopolis, the 
seat of the most famous college of learned priests in Egypt — of 
Pelusium. the most important border-fortress — of Tanis, the seat 
of rc'yabv un L-r some of the early dynasties — of Bubastus, also 
occa-:o:_ahy rhe residence of the kings of Lower Egyp^t, and of 
other le>- important places. These vrere all hrsi-rat- towns in the 
days of E_;vpnan greatness, and Avere highly lavuured by the most 
renowned monarchs. AVe may add to the list Sais, the royal 
residence of Psamrnitichus and Amasis, as well as of other earlier 
sovereigns— ]\Iendes. the chief seat of the worship of Pan — and 
Canopus. the early port of Egypt. At a later date, Xaucratis 
became the most busy place as the emporium of Greek commerce. 
But thi> was in turn superseded by Alexandria, which became the 
capital of the AvhoE of Egyrr undta* the Ptolemies: its rise proved 
fatal to the prosperity of niany of the towns of the Delta. The 
Ptolemies r^st'Ored or adorned many of the towns, as the character 
of their remains still testifies. Their final ruin was in some cases 
produced by the changes of the river's course ; but the n:iaiority 



^ The term Delta was not peculiar to the lower course of the Nile, but was used 
in all cases where rivers have formed an alluvial deposit, and have hence divided 
"before entering the sea- as in the cases of the Ehone, the Indus, and the Achelous. 



268 



EGYPT. 



Book III. 



probably survived until the latest period of the Roman Empire. 
We shall describe the towns in order from N. to S., commencing 
with those which lay W. of the Delta proper. 

Alexandiia stood on a tongue of land between Lake Mareotis and 
the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded by Alexander the Great, B.C. 
332, on the site of a sm?Jl town called Rhacotis. Its position was 
good : the Isle of Pharos*^ shielded it on the N., and the headland of 
Lochias on the E,, while Lake Mareotis served as a general harbour both 
for the town and for the whole of Egypt. The town was of an oblong 
shape, about 4 miles in length from E. to W., and about a mile in 
breadth. Two grand thoroughfares bisected the city in opposite direc- 
tions, communicating at their extremities with the four principal gates. 
A mole 7 stadia long, and hence named Heptastadium, connected the 
Isle of Pharos " with the mainland. On the E. side of the mole was 
the Greater Harbour," extending as far as the headland of Lochias, 
the portion at the innermost angle, which was reserved for the royal 
galleys, being separated from the rest, and named the Closed Port." 
On the W. side of the mole was the haven of Eunostus, " Happy 
Return." The Isle of Pharos contained at its E. extremity the 
celebrated lighthouse,^ said to have been 400 feet high: it was built by 
Sostrates of Cnidus under Ptolemy ^ Soter and his successor. The city 
itself w^as divided into three districts — the Jews' quarter in the N.E. 
angle ; the Bruchium or Pyruchium, the royal or Greek quarter, in the 
E. and centre ; and the Rhacdtis, or Egyptian quarter, in the W. The 
second contained the most remarkable edifices, including the Library 
with its Museum and Theatre, connected together by marble colon- 
nades, the Palace, the Stadium &c. The library is said to have 
contained 700,000 volumes, some of which were deposited in the 
Serapeum in the quarter Rhacotis. The collection was begun by 
Ptolemy Soter, and was carried on by succeeding sovereigns, especially 



^ N-^(TO? eVetTa rt? ecrrl ttoAukAvcttw cttI ttwtoj, 
AlyvTrrov npoTrdpOLOe (J^dpov 84 e KiKk-qaKOvaC), 
Toaaov duevO', ocraov re nairqixepiri y\a(j)vprj in]v^ 

'Ei/ 6e kipjirjv euop/xo?, oQev t diio rxjas eLcra<; 

'E? TTovrov pdWovcTLV, d(j)Vcr(rdixevoL fJLekav vSojp. — HoM. Od. iv. 354. 
8 Tunc claustrum pelagi cepit Pharon. Insula quondam 
In medio stetit ilia mari, siib tempore vatis 
Proteos : at nunc est Fellwis proxima muris.—l^xc. x. 509. 
® Septima nox, Zephyro nunquam laxante rudentes, 
Ostendit Ph.ariis .Egyptia littora flammis. — Lrc. ix. 1004. 

Claramque serena 
Arce Pharon. Yal. Flacc. vii, 84. 

Teleboumque domos, trepidis ubi dulcia nantis 

Lnmina noctivagee toUit Pharus eemula Lunae. — Stat. S'tlv. iii. 5, 100. 
From the celebrity- of this lighthouse Pharos became a synon^nn for Eg^-pt 
itself, as in Stat. Silv.m.. 2, 102, " regina Phari ;" Llx. viii. 443, " petimus - 
Pharon arvaque Lagi," So also Pharius for JEgyptius in numerous places. 

1 Hence the allusion in the following lines : — 

Et PtoJemoice littora capta Phari. — Propert. ii. 1, 30. 

Nupta Senatori comitata est Hippia Ludium 

Ad Pharon et Kilum famosaque moenia Lagi. — Jut. Sat. \i. 82. 



Chap. XV. 



TOWNS IN THE DELTA. 



269 



by Energetes. The library of the Museum was destroyed during the 
blockade of Julius Coesar : that of the Serapium, though frequently 
injured^ existed until A d. 640, when it was d<istroyed by the Khalif 
Omar. Alexandria was the seat of a university, and produced a long 
roll of illustrious names, among which we may notice Euclid, Ctesibius, 
Callimachus, and Ptolemy. The modern town occupies the Hepta- 
stadium, the site of the old town being partly covered with modern 
villas. The most interesting remains of the ancient town are the tw(j 
obelisks, commonly called "^Cleopatra's Needles," which bear the 
distinctive sign of Thothmes III., and were brought from Heliopolis by 
one of the Caesars — Pompey's Pillar, erected by the eparch Publius in 
honour of Diocletian, and named "Pompey's" according to one ex- 
planation from the Greek word iro/jLiralos " conducting," inasmuch as it 
served as a landmark — and lastly, the Catacombs, or remains of the 
ancient Necropolis. Alexandria prospered during the reigns of 
Ptolemy Soter and Philadelphus, and began to decline under Philo- 
pator. In ^.c. 80 it w^as bequeathed to Rome by Ptolemy Alexander: 
and from 55 to 30 it occupies a prominent place in the civil wars of 
the Roman leaders. Under the emperors it was generally prosperous : 
the erection of NicopoJis as a rival town by Augustus — serious com- 
motions under Diocletian— and a general massacre by Caracalla, were 
the chief p.dverse events. In a.d. 270 it was subject to Zenobia, and in 
297 it was taken by Diocletian after it had joined the side of Achilleas. 
It was taken by the Arabs in 640. Alexandria holds a prominent 
place in the history of the Christian religion. From the time of the 
Babylonish Captivity the Jews resorted to Egypt in great numbers, 
and under the Ptolemies they occupied, as we have seen, one of the 
quarters of Alexandria, where they lived under their own ethnarch 
and sanhedrim. Here they became versed in the Greek language, and 
for the use of the Alexandrian Jews the Greek translation of the Old 
Testament, named the Septuagint, was made under the auspices of the 
Ptolemies. Violent disputes frequently occurred between the Jews 
and Greeks, partly on religious, partly on political matters. Alexan- 
dria received, the Christian faith at an early period, and became the 
seat of a patriarchate. A violent persecution occurred here in Diocle- 
tian's reign, in which the bishop Peter perished. Nicopolis, which 
Augustus founded in B.C. 24-, p.s a rival to Alexandria, stood on the 
banks of the canal which connected Canopus with the capital, and 
about 3 J miles from its eastern gate. It was named in commemoration 
of the victory gained on the spot over M, Antonius. The town soon 
fell into decay. Canobus or Canopus was situa^ted about 15 miles E. of 
Alexandria, near Abouldr, at the mouth of the Canopic branch of the 
Nile. Before the rise of the later capital it was the chief port of the 
Delta : ^ it was also celebrated for the worship of Zeus-Canobus, under 
the form of a pitcher with a human head : the numerous festivals made 
it notorious for the profligacy^ of its inhabitants: a scarlet dye for 



"2 Hence tlie early aequainta-nce which the Greeks had with it :— 
Kat ixr]v Kai'to/Sor /ca-t '^lejx^iv "tKero. — iEsCH. SuppJ. 311. 
"Ecrrti^ TToAt? Kai'w/So? ecr^aTT] x9ovo<;, 

'NeCX.ov 7rpo9 auTco (nojxaTi Kal Trpoax^JfJiaTL. — Td. From, Viiicf. 8-i6. 
3 Ut strepit assidue Phrygiam ad Nilotica loton 
Memphis Amycleeo passim lasciva Canopo. — Six.. It.\.i,. xi. 432. 



270 



EGYPT. 



Book III. 



staining the nails was prepared here. Hermopolis Parva, Danvmhur, 
stood 44 miles S.E. of Alexandria^ on a canal connecting Lake 
Mareotis -^-ith the Canopic arm. Andjopolis, Chahur, more to the 
S.E.. is supposed to have been so called from the worship of the 
Shades of the Dead : it was probably the same as Anthylla. which was 
assigned to the Egyptian queens for pin-money. Letopolis, named 
after the deity Leto or Athor, stood near the apex of the Delta, a few 
miles S.W. of Cercasorum. Cercasomm, El-Arkas, stood at the apex 
of the Delta, on the Canopic branchy and from its position wa.s a town 
of great military and commercial importance. The Delta now com- 
mences about 7 miles X. of it, 

Tuir-iis of the Delta prjpcr.—^2L\s. at one time the capital of the Delta, 
stood on the right bank of the Canopic branch, on an artificially elevated 
site, now partly occupied by Sy.-el-H-j.iJJar. It was famous for the worship 
both of Xeith i Minerva), and of Isis: the gi^eat annual festival, entitled 
"the Mystenes of Isis," was celebrated on a lake near the town: it was 
also one of the supposed bimal-places of Osiris. Sais was a royal city 
under the 17th, 24th, 2t3th and :2Sth dynasties, and attained its highest 
prosperity under the 2'^th, from B.C. 697 to 524 ; Psammitichus and 
Amasis were its most illustrious kings. It was still more famous as a 
seat of learning, and was visited by Pythagoras and Solon. The ruins 
of Sais consist of a boundary wall 70 feet thick, enclosing a large area, 
vast heaps of bricks, and traces of the lake. Naucratis stood on the E. 
bank of the Canopic arm, about 30 miles from the sea, and was 
originally an emporium founded by Milesian colonists at the invitation 
of Amasis, B.C. 550, and endowed by him with various privileges. It 
possessed a monopoly of the Mediterranean trade probably down to 
the foundation of Alexandria, after which it sunk. Its chief manu- 
factures were porcelain and flower- wreaths. It was visited by Solon, 
and probably by Herodotus. The exact site is uncertain, but is 
supposed to have been at Salhadschar. Mendes was situated at the 
point where the Mendesian arm flows into the lake of Tanis. Under 
the Pharoahs it was a place of importance ; but it declined early, 
probably through an encroachment of the river. It was famed for the 
worship of Mendes, or Pan, and for a species of ointment. Tanis was 
seated on the Tanitic arm, and was one of the chief cities of the Delta, 
and even tlie capital under A'arious kings from the 15th to the 24th 
dynasties. It is the Scriptural Zoan, said to have been founded only 7 
years after Hebron, and was regarded as the capital of Lower Egypt in 
Isaiah's time. Its position near the coast and near the E. frontier 
made it an important military post, and the marshes wliich surrounded 
it rendered it inaccessible to an enemy. It was the stronghold of the 
Memphite kings during their struggle with the Shepherds. The 
vestiges of the old town at San consist of an enclosure, 1000 feet long, 
and 7ui' wide, with a gateway on the X. side, numerous obelisks and 
sculptures belonging to the temj^le of Pthah, two granite columns, 
and lofty moimds. The name of Rameses the Great occurs frequently 
on the sculptures. Thmuis stood on a canal between the Tanitic and 



Prodigia et mores Urbis damnante Canopo. — Juv. Sat. \-i. 84. 

Sed luxiiria, quantum ipse notavi, 
Barbara famoso non cedit turba Canopo. — Id. xv. 45. 
Canopns is used by Lucan as a synonym for Egypt — 
Et Roniana petit imbelli signa Canopo. — x. 64. 



Chap. XV. 



TOWXS IX THE DELTA. 



271 



Mendesian branches, at Tel-etrivii. It was, like its neighbour Mendes, 
devoted to the service of Thmu, or Pan. It retained its importance 
down to a late period, and was an episcopal see. Sebennytus,-' >eiuen- 
hood, was favourably situated between a lake and the Sebennytic arm, 
and was a place of commercial importance. About 6 miles above 
Sebenuytus, on the course of the river, was Busiris, considerable re- 
mains ot which exist at A'-yi^'r. It posses-ed a very celebrated temple 
of Isis, which stood at Di^i '; t, and of whicli there are most extensive 
ruins uf the Ptolemaic era. The temple of Isis stood on a platform 
l-o'^''^ ft. by I'jijO. surrounded by an enclosure, and was itself jj ft. by 
200, built of the finest granite, and adorned profusely with sculp- 
tures. It was erected by Ptolemy Philadelphus. Xois stood nearly in 
the centre of the Delta, and was the residence of the 14th dynasty, 
who probably held out against the HyksC'S here. It is sujjposed to be 
identical with the Papremis of Herodotus. Leontopolis stood S.E. of 
Xois, and ap^'^ears to have been a comparatively modern town. In the 
reign of Ptolemy Philometor the Jews built a temple here similar to 
that of Jerusalem, which remained the head-cjuarters of a large Jewish 
community until the time of Vespasian. Its site is supposed to be at 
El-M<:)Vj-^^.<:h. Buhastus, the Scriptiu^al Pi-beseth. was situated on the 
E. >ide of the Pelusiac arm, S.W. of Tanis. It was sacred to Pasht,-^ 
who vv-as worsliipped under the form of a cat, and hence it - became a 
deposit 'jry for the mummies of that animal. Some monarchs of the 
22nd dynasty reigned here. The great canal left the Nile just X. of 
the tOAvn. Bubastus was captured by the Persians B.C. 3o2, and 
thenceforth declined. Its ruins at J-;-// 'st^y are very extensive, and 
consist of an enclosm-e three miles in circumference, large mounds 
intended to restrain the Xile, and heaps of granite blocks. Atliribis 
stood on the E. bank of the Tanitic branch,, and was sacred to the 
goddess Thripliis. Extensive mounds and the basement of a temple 
are fuund on its site at Atrieb, and the character of the ruins indicates 
their erection in the Macedonian era. The town had been embellished 
by the old Egyptian kings, and a granite lion still exists beai'ing the 
name of Rameses the Great. 

T'j :ni E. of the Ldt'j. proper. — Pelusium, the Sin of the Bible, stood 
E. of the Pelusiac arm about 2^ miles from the sea, and was the key of 
Egypt on this side. It is connected with several events in the history 
of Egypt — particularly the advance of Sennacherib, king of Assyiia ; 
the cfefeat of the Egyptians by Cainbyses, in B.C. 525 ; the advance of 
Pharnabazus of Phrygia and Iphicrates the Athenian in 373 ; and the 
several captiu^es of it by Alexander the Great in 333, by Antiochus 
Epiphanes in 173, by Marcus Antonius in 55, and by Augustus in 31. 
The surrounding district produced lentiles and flax.' The Pelusiac 
mouth, which was shallow even in classical^ times, was choked by 



* The name in Eg^-ptian form is Gemnouti " Gem the God." 
= Sanctaque Bubastis, variusque eoloribus Apis. — Ov. Met. ix. 690. 
6 Nec Pelusiacce curam a?pernabere lentis. — Yirg. Georg. i. 228. 
Accipe Niliacam, Pelusia munera, lentem : 

Yilior est alica, earior ilia faba. — Mart. xiii. 9. 
' Et Pelusiaco filum componere lino. — Sil. Ital. iii. 37 5. 
s Qua dividui pars maxima Nili 

In rada decurrit Pelusia septimus amnis.— Lrc. viii. 465. 
'A— b -po(T-0}XMv Ae— Tov/fa^a0a)v 

Xet'Aov. -EscH. Supph 3. 



272 



EGYPT. 



Book III. 



sand as early as the first cent, a.d., and the coast-line is now far 
removed from the site of Pelusium, the modern Tineh, Magdolum, 
the scriptural Migdol, stood about 12 miles S. of Pelusium, on the 
coast-road to Syria. Here Pharoah Necho is said to have defeated the 
Syrians, about 608 B.C. Kerodpolis was near the mouth of the Royal 
Canal, and gave name to the W. arm of the Red Sea, though it did 
not stand immediately on the coast. Its ruins are at Ah'i-Ke^jscheid. 
It must have been a place of commercial importance. Heliopolis, the 
Scriptural On and Beth-shemesh, stood on the verge of the eastern 
desert, N.E. of Cercasorum, and near the right bank of Trajan's Canal. 
It was a town of the highest antiquity, and the seat of a famous 
university, which is said to have been visited by Solon, Thales, Plato, 
and Endoxus, and to have possessed the archives from which Manetho 
constructed his history of the Egyptian dynasties. It was also visited 
by Alexander the Great, and it has acquired a special interest in 
connection with sacred history, as the place where Moses was probably 
instructed in Egyptian science, and where Jeremiah wrote his Lamen- 
tations. The place was especially devoted to the worship of the Sun, 
and the bull Mnevis was also honoured there. 1 he remains at 
Matarieh consist of a remarkable obelisk of the age of Osirtasen I., 
some fragments of sphinxes, a statue belonging to the temple of 
the Sun, and the boundary-walls of brick, 3750 ft. long, by 2370. 
Babylon, Bahonl, stood on the right bank of the Nile, near the entrance 
of the Great Canal, and probabl}^ owed its name and foundation to 
some B.ibjdonian followers of Cambyses in B.C. 525. Under Augustus 
it was a place of some importance, and the head- quarters of three 
legions. Arsinoe stood at the N. extremity of the W. gulf of the Red 
Sea, and was one of the principal harbours of Egypt. It was named 
after the sister of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and its revenues belonged to 
her and the succeediDg queens. Its position near the entrance of the 
canal, and on the shore of a fine bay, insured it a share of the Indian 
trade ; but its exposure to the S. wind, and the dangerous reefs in 
approaching it, were serious checks to its prosperity. Its site is at 
Ardschcrud near Suez. 

Of the less important towns in the Delta we may notice from N. to 
S. — Menelaus, named after a brother of Ptolemy Lagus, between 
Alexandria and Hermopolis, on the Canopic arm — Momemphis, 

Lower Memphis,*' on the E. shore of Lake Mareotis, a place of 
some streng-th from the nature of the approaches — Marea, S. of Lake 
Mareotis, one of the chief fortresses on the side of Libya, where 
Amasis defeated Pharoah A pries — Bolbitine, Roseita, on the Bol- 
bitic branch of the Nile, the site of the famous Rosetta stone, in 
which the beneficent acts of Ptolemy Epiphanes are recorded— Buto, 
Kem-Kasir, on the Sebennytic arm, celebrated for its monolithite 
tem^Dle and oracle of the goddess Buto — and TamiatMs, at the mouth 
of the Phatnitic arm ; its modern representative Damietta occupies a 
site about 5 miles higher up the river. 

§ 12. Heptanomis was the central district of Egypt, and contained, 
as its name implies, 7 nomes ; ^ it extended from Cercasorum in the 
N. to Hermopolis in the S. Under the emperor Arcadius it 



9 More than seven nomes were occasionally assigned to Middle Egypt ; Strabo 
assigns sixteen, and Ptolemy adds an eighth, the Arsinoite. 



Chap. XV. 



HEPTANOMIS— TOWNS. 



273 



received the name of Arcadia. The width of the valley fluctuates; 
near Hermopolis it is contracted on the E. side of the river, and 
tolerably broad on the AY. Lower doAvn, the hills diverge still more 
to the AY., and embrace the district of Arsinoe, returning to the 
river on the X. side of it. Below this it again expands until it 
attains, near Cercasorum, almost the breadtli of the Delta. This 
district comprised the greatest works of Egyptian art — the Pyramids, 
the Labyrinth, and the artificial district formed by the canal of 
Balir-Jusuf. It is also remarkable for its quarries and rock- 
grottoes ; of the first we may notice the Alabastrites E. of Hermo- 
polis ; the quarries of veined alabaster 9 miles to the X., chiefly 
used for sarcophagi ; and tlie quarries E. of Memphis, whence they 
obtained the stone for casing the Pyramids. The most remarkable 
grottoes were tliose of Speos Artemidos, Beni-Hciss'n^ and of 
Koum-el'Ahmar more to the X. The towns were numerous and 
important : Memphis, the earliest metropolis of Egypt, and the 
capital of one of the nomes, stood near the X. boundary ; while the 
following towns from X. to S. represented the capitals of the other 
six nomes — Arsinoe, Heracleopolis, Aphroditopolis, Oxyrynchus, 
and Hermopolis. « 

Memphis,^ the Xoph of Scripture^ stood on the Y\. bank of the Xile, 
15 miles S. of Cercasorum. Its origin was ascribed to Menes, and it 
was the first capital of the whole of Eg}"pt. The site of the town was 
originally a marsh, formed by a southerly bifurcation of the ]S"ile. 
Menes diverted the branch into the main stream, by means of an 
embankment. The town was some' 15 miles in circumference, much 
of the area being, however, occupied by gardens, and by the soldiers' 
quarters, named the AVhite Castle." The soil was extremely pro- 
ductive, and ancient winters dilate upon its green meadows, its canals 
covered with lotus-flowers, its vast trees, its roses, and its wine. Its 
position was highly favourable. The Arabian and Libyan hills con- 
verge here for the last time, and it could thus command the trade of 
the valley of the Xile. It was centrally placed as regards Upper 
Egypt and the Delta, and sufficiently near the border to have* com- 
munication with Syria and Greece. It was quite the Pantheon of 
Egypt, and possessed temples of Isis,^ Proteus, Apis, Serapis, the Sim, 
the Cabeiri, and particularly of Pthah, or Hephsestus. It was visited 
by Solon, Hecateeus, Thales, Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Sicu- 
lus. Its site is at 2Iitranieh, and its remains consist of blocks of 



1 The Egyptian, name signified "the place of good." 
2 Te canit, atque simni piibes miratur Osirim 

Barbara, Memphiton plangere docta bovem. — Tibull. i. 7, 27. 
Neu fuge linigeree Memphitica templa juvenciTe. — Ov. Art. Am. i. 7 7. 
Hie quoque deceptiis Memphitica templa nequentat, 

Assidet et cathedris mcpsta juvenca tui?. — Mart. ii. 14. 
Barbara ryramidum sileat miracula Memphis. — Mart, de S2)ccf. i. 1. 
Regia pyramidum, Caesar, miracula ride : 

Jam tacet Eoum barbara :\[emxphis opus. — Id. viii. 3(3. 



274 



EGYPT. 



Book ill. 



granite, a large colossus of Rameses II., broken obelisks, columns, and 
statues, spread over many hundred acres of ground. Memphis was 
the seat of the 3rd, -ith, 6th, 7th, and 8th dynasties. The Shepherd 
Kings retained it as the seat of civil government. The house of Rameses, 
the 18th dynasty, though they made Thebes their capital, paid great 
attention to Memphis. Under the 25th dynasty it again became the 
seat of a native government. It sufiered severely from the Persians 
under Cambyses. In the reign of Artaxerxes I. the Persians took 
refuge here after their defeat by Inarus, and were besieged for a year. 
After the expulsion of Xectanebus II. it sunk to the position of a* 
provincial citj, and in Strabo's time a large portion was in rmns. 
Kear Memphis at a place now called Geezeh, are the three celebrated 
Pyramids ; the largest, attributed by Herodotus to Cheops, was 
originally 756 ft. square at its base, and 48 > ft. high ; it covered about 
the same space as Lincoln's Inn Fields ; its dimensions are now reduced 
to 732 ft. square, and 460 ft, high. The second, attributed to 
Chephren, was formerly 707 ft. square, and 454 ft. high ; its dimen- 
sions now being 690 and 446. The third, attributed to Mycerinus, 
whose coffin has been found there, was 354 ft. square, and 218 high ; 
these are now reduced to 333 and 203. On the S. of this are three 
small pj^ramids, one of which has the name of Mencheres (^Mycerinus) 
inscribed upon it. Another cluster of three also stands E. of the 
great pyramid. The object for which they were built is uncertain : 
they probably served for tombs, and tlieir uniform position, facing the 
cai'dinal points, makes it probable that they were used for a.stronomical 
purposes. About 200 ft. N. of the second pyramid is the Sphinx, cut 
out of the solid rock ; it bears the name of Thothmes IV. of the 18th 
dynasty, and appears to have been an object of divine worship. 
Arsinoe, otherwise called Crocodilopolis, from the divine honours here 
paid to the crocodile, stood S.W. of Memphis, between the river and 
Lake Moeris. The surrounding region was the most fertile in Egypt, 
and produced, in addition to grain of all sorts, dates, figs, roses, and 
olives. Near it were the necropolis of crocodiles, and the celebrated 
Labyrinth. 3 Its ruins are at JledineUel-Faoum. Heracleopolis Magna, 
Anasieh, was situated at tfhe entrance of the valley of the Fyoum, and 
was the royal residence of the 9th and 10th dynasties. The ichneu- 
mon was worshipped there. Oxyrynchus derived its name from the 
worship of a fish of the sturgeon species. A Roman mint existed 
there in the age of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. Some broken 
columns and cornices at Bekneseh mark the site of the town. Hermo- 
polis Magna, L'shmoon, stood on the borders of Upper Egypt, and was 
a place of resort and opulence. A little S. was the castle, at which 
the river boats paid toll. On the opposite side of the river was the 
necropolis, at the well-known grottoes of Beni Hassan. The god Thoth, 
or Mercury, was worshipped at Ilermopolis. The portico of his 
temple still exists, and consists of a double row of pillars, six in each. 
Antinoopolis, nearly opposite Hermopolis, was built by the emperor 
Hadrian, a.d. 122, in memory of Antinous, to whom divine honours 
were paid. The ruins at Eiiseneh attest its former magnificence. 

We may further notice briefly — Acantlms, Dashour, about 14 miles S. 



^ The LabjTinth was a stadium in length, and had twelve courts, six facing 
the N., and six the S. The chambers in it contained the monuments of the 
kings who built it, and the mummies of the crocodiles. 



Chap. XV. 



THEBAIS. 



275 



of Memphis, the seat of a temple of Osiris^ enclosed with a hedge of 
acanthuses— Cynopolis, Samallas, S. of Oxyrynchus, and so named 
from the worship of the dog-headed deity AnuVjis — Nilupolis, near 
Heracleopolis Magna, built on an island in the Nile — and Aphrodito- 
polis, Atfyeh, a considerable town, a short distance from the E. bank 
of the river. 

§ 13. Thebais was the most southerly division of Egypt, ex- 
tending from Hermopolis Magna in the X. to Syene in the S., and 
at certain periods beyond the latter town to Hiera Sycamina. It 
was divided into 10 nomes, though occasionally a greater number is 
given. The cultivable soil between Syene and Latopolis is a 
narrow strip of alluvial deposit, skirting the banks of the Xile, 
and bounded by steep walls of sandstone. These are succeeded 
below Latopolis by limestone rocks, wdiich continue to the head of 
the Delta. The valley expands into plains at Latopolis and Thebes, 
but below these points it contracts to a narrow gorge. The soil was 
remarkably fertile, though the ordinary fall of rain was very small. 
The population was probably of a purer Egyptian stamp than that 
of the Delta. The towns were very numerous, and attained the 
highest importance in early times. Among them Thebes stands 
foremost as the metropolis of Upper Egypt, and the seat of the 
most magnificent temples and palaces of Egypt. Coptos held high 
rank under the Ptolemies as the entrepot of Indian commerce. 
Among the more remarkable objects of art we may notice the 
temples of Apollinopolis Magna, the temples of Athor and Isis at 
Tentyra, the canal of Jusuf commencing at Diospolis Parva, the 
necropolis of Abydos, the sepulchral chambers at Lycopolis, and the 
superb portico of Hermopolis Magna. The chief supply of stone 
was obtained from the sandstone quarries of Silsilis, below Ombos. 




Pavilion of Rameses III. at Thebes. (From W ilkinson.) 



276 



EGYPT. 



Book 111- 



Tliebse,^ the Is o- Amnion of the Bible, and the Diospolis Magna of the 
Greeks and Komans^ stood on both sides of the Isile, at a point where 
the hills on each side recede from the river, leaving a plain some 12 
miles wide from E. to W., and about the same in length from X. to S. 
The poj^nlation chiefly lived on the E. bank ; on the W. were the 
temples. 6 Vv"ith theu' avenues of sphinxes^ and the necropolis. The site 
is now partly occupied by four villages — L"j:or and Kanvk on the E. 
bank. Gourndi and Jfedinet Al>oo on the W. The western portion, 
which was named Pathyris, as being under the protection of Athor, and 
was the " Libyan Suburb " of the Ptolemaic age, contained the following 
buildings : — the Menephthium, or temple and palace of Setei-Meneph- 
thah ; the Memnonium,'' or Ramesium^ occupying a succession of 
terraces at the base of the hills, containing the colossal statue of 
Rameses,^ and numerous chambers adorned with hieroglyphics ; the 
Amenophium, or temple of Amunoph III., the Memnon of the Greeks, 
and near it the colossal statues Ti'iua and Cha.nvi, rising to a height of 
•30 ft. above the plain, the most easterly of which was the celebrated 
vocal Memnon ^ ; the Thothmesium, a temple erected by several 
sovereigns of the name of Thothmes ; and the southern Ramesium, 
adorned with sculptures relating to Rameses lY. The necropolis 
extends for 5 miles along the Libyan hills, the most interesting 
portion being that which contains the Royal Sepulchres. On the E. 
side of the river the most conspicuous objects are : — at Luxor, the 
obelisk of Rameses IIL, the fellow to which stands in the Place de hi 
Concorde at F'iris : two monolithal statues of the same monarch ; a 
court, a douljle portal and colonnades attached ; and at K'/rnak the 
palace of the kings, containing the great court, the great hall, 329 ft. 
long, by 175 broad, and So high, and other chambers, one of which has 
the great K''rn Tablet sculptured upon it. The quarters of Karnak 
and Luxor were connected by an avenue of andro-sphinxes. These 
various buildings were erected at vastly different periods, commencing 
with Sesortasen I., and descending through the Amunophs, Rameses, 
and Thothmes, down to the time of the Ptolemies, and even the Roman 
emperors. The period of the eminence of Thebes commenced with 



^ The name is derived from the Coptic Ap, "head," which with the article 
became Tape : the more correct form of the name is therefore T?iehe, as given by 
Pliny. 

^ ovb' ocra Qrj^a.^ 

Atyt»77Tta?, c9l irXeiaTa Sojuot? kv KrrjfJ-aTa KeiTai, 
Al 6' eKaroixTTukoC etcri, Sltikoctlol 6' av' kK.da-n)v 
'Ai'epe? e^ot^revcrt, crvv i—TroLcrLv Ka\ oxecr^tv — HoM. II, VS.. 381. 
The " one hundred gates" of the poet were not (as we should naturally suppose) 
entrances throusrh the walls of the town, but the propyltea of temples. Thebes 
does not appear even to have been surrounded by a wall. 

" The word Memnonium appears to be a Greek corruption of Miamun, attached 
to the name of Eameses II., and hence applied to the buildings erected by that 
monarch at Thebes and Abydos. 

^ The weight of this gigantic statue has been estimated at 887 tons b\ cwt. 
9 The statue of Memnon was fractured by an earthquake before Strabo's time : 
Juvenal refers to its condition : — 

Dimidio magicEe resonant ubi Memnone chordae. — Sat. xv. 5. 

The statue was said to utter a metallic sound a little after sunrise ; this was no 
doubt produced by a deception of the priests : in the lap of the statue is a stone 
which, when struck, emits a metallic sound. 



Chap. XV. 



TOAVXS OF TIIEBAIS. 



277 



the 18th dynasty, when the Hyksos were expelled from Lower Egypt, 
and continued for nearly 8 centuries, from 1600 to 800. Its decline 
may be attributed to the rise of Mempliis, and to the gradual increase of 
communication with the Greeks and other foreigners. In the Persian 
era it ceased to hold rank as a metropolis. Its chief buildings were 
destroyed by Cambyses. It suffered severely after its capture by 
Ptolemy Lathyrus iu B.C. 86 ; but it continued to exist until the 
irruption of the Saracens, and was a considerable place in the 4th cent. 
A.D. Lycopolis, E'SijO'it, was S.E. of Hermopolis, and vras so named 
from the worship of Osiris under the form of a wolf : in the adjacent 
rocks are chambers containing mummies of wolves. This, or Abydus, 
on the Bahr- Yns"f about 11 miles AV. of the Xile, was the birth-place 
of Menes, and the burial-place of Osiris, and ranked next to Thebes 
itself in point of importance. It had sunk before Strabo's time. The 
ruins at Arab jt-el- Mat foon consist of a large pile called the ^'^ Palace of 
Memnon," erected by Rameses 11. of the 18th dynasty ; and a temple 
of Osiris, built by Rameses the Great ; the celebrated Tahlct of Ahydm, 
now in the British Museum, was discovered here in 1818 ; it contains a 
list of Egyptian kings prior to Rameses the Great. Tentyra stood 
about 38 miles X. of Thebes, and probably derived its name from the 
goddess Athor, or Venus, Tuij-n-Athor, meaning the abode of Athor." 
Its inhabitants abhorred the crocodile, and hence arose sanguinary 
conflicts with the inhabitants of Ombos, one of which Juvenal seems 
to have witnessed.^ The remains of the to^\^l at iJen JeroJ- are striking, 
though of a late period of Egyptian art. The chief buildings are — th^ 
temple of Athor, the portico of which has on its ceiling the so-called 
Zodiac," which, however, is probably a mythological subject, executed 
in A.D. 35 ; the chapel of Isis ; and the Typhonium, so named from the 
representations of the Typhon on its walls. The inscriptions range 
from the time of the later Ptolemies to Antoninus, the names of the 
Caesars from Tiberius to Antoninus, being most frequent. HermontMs, 
Erment, stood 8 miles S.W. of Thebes, and was celebrated for the 
worship of Isis, Osiris, and their son Horus. Its ruins show its former 
magnificence : the chief building, the Iseum, was erected by Cleopatra 
(B.C. 51-29), to commemorate the birth of her son Csesarion. Latopolis, 
Esneli, derived its name from the large fish lato, under which form 
the goddess iNeith was worshipped. Its temple was magnificent ; but 
the jamb of a gateway is the only relic of the original structure ; the 
other remains belong to the Macedonian and Roman eras, the names of 
Ptolemy Euergetes and Epiphanes, of Vespasian, and Geta, appearing 
in the sculptures. ApoUinopolis Magna stood about 13 miles below 
the Lesser Cataract, and became under the Romans the seat of a bishop's 
see, and the head-quarters of the Legio II. Trajana. The remains at 
Edfoo consist of two magnificent temples ; the larger one foimded by 
Ptolemy Philometor, and dedicated to Xoum, 424 ft. long, by 145 
wide, and having a gateway 50 ft. high ; the lesser one founded by 



1 Inter finitimos vetus atque antiqua simultas, 
Immortale odium, et nunquam sanabile vulnus 
Ardet adliiic Coptos et Tentyra. Summus utrimque 
Inde furor vulgo, quod nuniina vicinoruni 
Odit uterque locus, cum solos credat habendos 
Esse deos, quos ipse colit.' — Jrv. xt. 3 5. 
Terga fugce celeri prcestantibus omnibus instant 
Qui vicina colunt uinbrosse Tentyra palmae. — Id. xv. 76. 



278 



EGYPT. 



Book III. 



Ptolemy Physcon. Antaeopolis, on the E. or right bank of the river, 
was so named from the worship of Antaeus, introduced from Libya. 
The plain adjacent to it wa,s the traditional scene of the combat 
between Isis and Typhon. Under the Christian emperors it was an 
episcopal see. Chemmis, or as it was later called^ Panopolis (the 
Greek Pan representing the Egyptian Chem) was celebrated for the 
worship ^f Pan, and also of Perseus, who was said occasionally to visit 
the place. The modern name Ekhnim is a corrupted form of Chemmis. 
Coptos, Kovft, stood about a mile from the river, and was the spot 
where the route for Berenice on the Red Sea left the valley of the 
Nile. Subsequently to B.C. 266, when Berenice was built, it was a 
prosperous and busy place, and remained so down to the latest period 
of the Roman Empire. Ombi was about 30 miles X. of Syene, and 
was devoted to the worship of the crocodile-headed god Sevak. The 
remains of two fine temples still exist, mainly of the Ptolemaic age, 
with a few specimens of an earlier date : the larger one was a kind of 
Pantheon, the smaller was sacred to Isis : they stand on a hill, and 
present an imposing appearance. Syene,^ Assouan, was the most 
southerly town of Egypt, and stood on a peninsula immediately below 
the Great Falls. The granite quarries about it produced the fine 
stones out of which the colossal statues and obelisks of Egypt were 
cut. Syene ^ was important both as a military and commercial post. 
Opposite Syene is the small island of Elephantine, which commanded 
the navigation of the river from tlie S. : it was thus regarded as the 
key of the Tliebaid, and hence was garrisoned by the successive owners 
of Egypt, whether Egyptians, Persians, Macedonians, or Romans. Its 
fertility and verdure present a strong contrast to the sterility that 
surrounds it. The most striking remains on it are a temple of Kneph 
built by Amenoph III., and the Kilometer. About 6J miles above 
Sj^ene were the two small islands of PMlae ; the lesser one, to which 
the name was more particularly applied, was reputed the burial- 
place of Osiris, and hence regarded as specially sacred. Both islands 
abound in temples and monuments, erected for the most part by the 
Ptolemies. The chief temple, dedicated to Ammon Osiris, was at the 
S. end of the small island, and was approached from the river through 
a double colonnade ; the walls are covered with sculptures repre- 
senting the history of Osiris. The Pharoahs kept a strong garrison on 
the island. Philse was also the seat of a Christian Church. 

On the coast of the Red Sea there were two ports of consequence — 
Myos-Hormos and Berenice, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus for the 
purposes of the Indian and South African trade. The first was 
probably so named from the pearl-mussel found there ( Harbour of 



2 Its position, very nearly under the tropic of Cancer, is frequently noticed 
by Luc an. 

Calida medius mihi cognitus axis 
JEgypto, atque umbras nusquam flectente Syene. — ii. 587. 
Nam quis ad exustam Cancro torrente Syenen 

Ibit, viii. 851. 

Cancroque suam torrente Syenen, 
Imploratus adest. x. 234. 

3 It was the place to which Juvenal was banished. 

^ Qua dirimunt Arabum populis ^Egyptia rura 
Regni claustra Philge. Luc. x. 312. 



Chap. XV. 



OASES. 



279 



the Mussel"), the second after the mother of Philadelphus. They 
stood respectively at 27^ and 23^ 56' N. lat. The more southerly 
position of Berenice rendered it ultimately the most prosperous of the 
two places. It stood on a small bay at the extremity of a deep gulf, 
named Sinus Immundus. Myos-Hormos seems to have declined in the 
reigns of Vespasian and Trajan. 



1 he Memnouium at Thebes during the Inundation. (From Wilknison.) 

§ 14. Three of the Oases were closely connected with Egypt. 
Oasis Magna, El-Khargeh, or as it was sometimes simply termed 
" Oasis," lies in the latitude of Thebes. It is 80 miles long, by 
about 9 broad ; and is bounded by a high calcareous ridge. None 
of the monuments on it reach back to the Pharaonic era, the 
principal buildings bespeaking the Macedonian or even the Eoman 
period. It was a place of exile for political offenders, and for 
Christian fugitives. It was visited by Cambyses on his expedition 
against the Ammonians. The great temple, 142 ft. by 63, and 
about 30 in height, was dedicated to Ammon ; the other remains 
are a remarkable necropolis, and a palace of the Roman era. Oasis 
Parva, El-Dahkel, lies N. of Oasis Magna, from which it was 
separated by a high ridge, and contains several warm springs. It 
has a temple and tombs of the Ptolemaic era. Under the Pomans 
it was celebrated for its wheat ; now its chief productions are dates, 
and other fruits. Ammonium, El-Siioah, was about 20 days' 
journe}^ distant from Thebes, from which point it was most easily 
accessible, though it was also approached from Para3tonium. This 
Oasis is about 6 miles long, b}^ 3 broad, w^ell irrigated by water 
springs (one of which " the Fountain of the Sun," was particularly 
celebrated for the apparent coldness of its water), and remarkably 
fertile in dates, pomegranates, and other fruits, which were largely 
exported. The oasis derived, however, its chief celebrity from the 




280 



EGYPT. 



Book 111 



temple^ and oracle of Jupiter Ammon, wliich ranked with those of 
Delphi and Dodona, and "was visited by Alexander the Great. The 
ruins of the temple exist at U/nmehe'da, and probably belong to the 
Persian era of Egyptian history. The walls were covered with 
hieroglyphics, and the colours still remain in some places. The 
soil of the oasis is strongly impregnated with salt. 

Histor;i of L'gypt — The history of Egypt may be divided iuto four 
periods, viz. — the Pharaonic, down to u.c. 525 : the Persian, from 525 
to 332 ; the Macedonian or Hellenic, from 332 to 30 ; and the Roman 
from B c. 30 to a.d. 640. 

1. The first of these, the Pharaonic, may be divided into three 
portions : — the old monarchy, extending from the foundation of the 
kingdom to the invasion of the Hyksos ; the middle, from the entrance 
to the expulsion of the Hyksos ; and the new, from the re establish- 
ment of the native monarchy Ijy Amosis to the Persian couc|uest. 

(1.) The Old MniirirchAj, — Memphis was the most ancient capital, the 
foLmdation of which is ascribed to Menes, tlie first mortal king of 
Egypt. The names of the kings, divided into dynasties, are handed 
down in the lists of Manetho,'^ and are also known from the works 
which they executed. The most memorable epoch in the history of 
the Old r^lonarchy is that of the Pyramid kings, placed in Manetho's 
fourth dynasty. Their names are found upon these monumeuts : the 
builder of the great pp'amid is called Suphis by Manetho, Cheops by 
Herodotus, and Khufa, or Sloifn, in an inscription upon the pyramid. 
The erection of the second pyramid is attributed by Herodotus and 
Diodorus to Chephren; and upon the neighbouring tombs has been 
read the name of KUafra, or Sh <fre. The builder of the third pyramid 
is named Mycerinus by Heiodotus and Diodorus; and in this very 
pyramid a coffin has been found bearing the name Menhnra. The most 
powerful kings of the Old Monaixhy were those of ^lanetho's 12th 
dynasty: to this period are assigned the construction of the Lake of 
Moeris and the Labyrinth. 

(2.) Tiie Middle Monordvi. — Of this period we only know that a 
nomadic horde for several centuries occupied and made Egypt tri- 
butary; that their capital was Memphis; that in the Sethroite nome 
they constructed an immense earth-camp, which they called Abaris; 
that at a certain period of their occupation two independent kingdoms 



^ Yentum erat ad templum, Libycis quod gentibus unum 
Inculti Garamantes habent : stat eorniger illic 
Jupiter, ut memorant, sed non aut fulmina vibrans, 
Aut similis nostro, sed tortis cornibus Ammon. 
Non illic LibycEe posuerunt ditia gentes 
Templa, nec Eois splendent donaria gemmis. 
Quamvis .Ethiopum populis, Arabumque beatis 
Gentibus, atque Indis unus sit Jupiter Ammon, 
Pauper adhuc Deus est, nulUs violata per serum 
Diritiis delubra tenens : morumque priorum 
Jsumen Romano templum defendit ab auro. — Lrc. ix. 511. 

* Manetho was an Egyptian priest who lived under the Ptolemies in the 3rd 
century b.c, and ^vrote in Greek a history of Egypt, in ^vhich he divided the kings 
into thirty dynasties. The work itself is lost, but the lists of dynasties have been 
preserved by the Christian writers, 



Chap. XV. 



HISTORY. 



281 



were formed in Egypt, one in the Thebaid, which held intimate rela- 
tions with Ethiopia; another at Xois, among the marslies of the Nile; 
and that, finally, the Egyptians regained their independence, and ex- 
pelled the Hyksos, who thereupon retired into Palestine. 

(3.) The Xe»: Moimrchy extends from the commencement of the 18th 
to the end of the 3<)th dynasty. The kingdom was consolidated by 
Amosis, wdio succeeded in expelling the Hyksos, and thus prepared the 
way for the foreign expeditions ^ which his successors carried on in Asia 
and Africa, extending from Mesopotamia in the former to Ethiopia in 
the latter continent. The glorious era of Egyptian history was under 
the 19th dynasty, when Sethi I., B.C. 1322, and his grandson, Rameses 
the Great, B.C. 1311, both of whom represent the Sesostris of the Greek 
historians, carried their arms over the whole of Western Asia and 
southw^ards into Soudan, and amassed vast treasures, which were ex- 
pended on public works. Rameses originated the project of connecting 
the Red Sea with the Nile. He is further known as the builder of the 
rock temples of Ahoo-simhel, as well as of temples at Xapata, Tanis, 
Thebes, Memphis, and other places. Under the later kings of the 
19th dynasty the power of Egypt faded: the 20th and 21st dynasties 
achieved nothing w^orthy of record; but with the 22nd we enter upon a 
period that is interesting from its associations with Biblical history, 
the first of this dynasty, Sheshonk I. (Sesonchis\ B.C. 990, being the 
Shishak who invaded Judaea in Rehoboam's reign and pillaged the 
temple (1 Kings xiv. 25): the extent of his rule is marked by the forces 
he commanded, consisting of Libyans, Sukkiims (who are supposed to 
be the Troglodytes from the western shores of the Red Sea ), and Ethi- 
opians (2 Chron. xii. 3). In the reign of Osorkon I. the expedition of 
Zerah, the Ethiopian, took place (2 Chron. xiv. 9); this expedition is 
nowhere else noticed, and it appears almost unavoidable that we 
should identify Zerah with Osorkon. The 25th dynasty consisted of 
Ethiopians, the two first of whom, Sabaco and Sebichus, ruled over 
the whole of Egypt, while the third, Taracus, was restricted to Upper 
Egypt. The second of these monarchs is the So with whom Hoshea, 



6 We find in inscriptions the names of foreign nations subdued by the Egyptian 
monarchs. Of these the most important are : JVashi, undoubtedly the negroes ; 
the name survives in Nasamones = i\T<s7a Amun, "negroes of Amnion;" Cush, 
as in Scripture, the Greek Ethiopia ; SJiaso, the general name of the Arabs : 
Falishta, the Philistines, who were connected with the Egyptians by descent, as 
is implied in the name Caphthor, mentioned in the Bible as the primitive seat of 
the Philistines (Jer. xlvii. 4; Am. ix. 7) : Xhita, or Shefa, Hittites, to whom 
belonged the fortress of Atesh, or Kadesh, perhaps Ashteroth-Karnaim : Sliaire- 
tana, supposed to be the Sharutinians who lived near Antioch : Tokkari, a people 
whose residance is unknown, represented as wearing helmets similar to those in 
the sculptures of Persepolis : FlcIo, a nation probably from the northern part of 
Assyria : Fount, probably dwelling on the borders of Arabia : Shari compare 
Scriptural Shur), a tribe of Northern Arabia : Rot-n-no, probably in Northern 
Syria; the name may be connected with Aradus : Xahraij/u undoubtedly the 
Naharaim of Scripture (Mesopotamia), with the town Xinieu Xinevch"; : Shinar, 
the Scriptural Shinar, Babylonia: Tocrsha, JIashoash .Moschi ? , and Kufa, Asiatic 
raceswhose residences have not been identified : Asmaori (Samaria V] : Lemanon, 
a Syrian tribe about Lebanon : Xanana, the Canaanites : lastly, Hi/ksos, with 
regard to whom great doubt exists ; the name is of Arabian origin, and may 
signify either "Shepherd kings" or "Arab kings;" but whether they were 
Canaanites, Arabians, or Philistines, is not agreed. 



282 



EGYPT. 



Book HI. 



king of Iferael, made a treaty (2 Kings xvii. 4\ in whose reign Egypt 
came into collision with Assyria. Taracus, the Tirhakah of Scripture, 
succeeded So in the rule of the Thebaid, while native princes governed 
Lower Egypt. The Assyrian war was continued in his reign, and the 
sieges of Libnah and Lachish by Sennacherib, which took place in each 
of the two expeditions noticed in Scripture (2 Kings xviii. 13, 17), had 
reference to the Egyptian rather than the Jewish campaign. It was pro- 
bably during the reign of Tirhakah that the dodecarchy prevailed in 
Lower Egypt: these twelve contemporaneous rulers were probably the 
heads of the nomes. The >S]thiopian dynasty in Upper and the dode- 
carchy in Lower Egypt were followed by the re-establishment of a 
native djmasty in the person of Psammetichus I., B.C. 671. He intro- 
duced Greek auxiliaries into his army, to the great dissatisfaction of 
the native troops, who seceded in a body, and settled to the south of 
Meroe. The long siege of Azotus, stated at twenty-nine years (Her. ii. 
157), and the threatened invasion of the Scythians, were two chief 
events of his i^eign. His son jSTeco, or Necho, B.C. 617, made a vain 
attempt to regain the supremacy which Egypt had once enjoj^ed over 
Western Asia: he defeated Josiah at Megiddo (2 Kings xxiii. 29 ), but was 
himself utterly defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish (Jer. xlvi. 2). 
Psammetichus II., or Psammis, B.C. 601, passed an uneventful reign of six 
years, and was succeeded by Apries, the Pharaoh-Hophra of the Bible, 
B.C. 595, the king with whom Zedekiah, king of Judah, entered into 
alliance. He was successful in the early paii: of his reign, capturing 
Gaza and Sidon, and obliging the Chaldcean army to retire from Jeru- 
salem; but his attempt on Cyrene was a failure, and terminated in the 
revolt of his troops, and his own deposition and death : it would appear 
from some passages in the Bible (Is. xix. 2; Jer. xliii. 10, xliv. 1, 30) 
that Nebuchadnezzar undertook an expedition into Egypt. Amasis, 
B.C. 570, who deposed and succeeded Necho, cultivated friendly rela- 
tions mth the Greeks, and gave them Naucratis as an emporium: his 
works of art, particularly the monuments at Sais, were numerous and 
splendid. Psammeuitus came to the throne just as Cambyses reached 
the frontier of Egypt, B.C. 525. He was defeated at Pelusium, and 
afterwards besi<^ged and captured at Memphis; and from this time 
Egypt formed an integral part of the Persian empire. 

II. The Persian Era. — The 27th dynasty consisted of eight Persian 
kings, who were satraps of the Persian emperor. The chief events 
during this period were the two revolts in 488 and 456, the first of 
which delayed the second invasion of Greece. The 28th dynasty con- 
tains only one name, Amyrt^eus the Saite, who reigned over the whole 
land, and whose sarcophagus is preserved in the British Museum. 
The 29th contained four, and the 30th three kings, the last of whom, 
Nectanebus II., was dethroned by the generals of Darius Ochus. 

III. The Hellenic Era. — This commences with the conquest of Egypt 
by Alexander the Great (b.c. 332). On the dissolution of the Mace- 
donian empire in 323, Egj^pt fell into the hands of Ptolemy Soter, the 
founder of the dynasty of the Lagida?. The early kings of this dynasty 
were engaged in frequent contests with the kings of Syria. Soter him- 
self (323-283) conquered Phoenicia and Coele-Syria ; Philadelphus (283- 
247) secured peace by giving these provinces as the marriage-portion of 
Berenice, the wife of Antiochus Theus ; Euergetes (247-222) took up 
arms to revenge the death of Berenice, and reduced the Syrian pro- 
vinces to the confines of Bactria and India; Philopator (222-205; de- 



Chap. XV. 



HISTORY. 



283 



feated Antiochus the Great at Rapliia, and thus regained the disputed 

possessions which had previously been conquered by the Syrians ; but 
under Epi^Dhanes (205-181; they were finally lost, and the attempt to 
regain them under Philometor 'LS 1-146; ended in the total defeat of 
the Egyptians at Pelusium in 170. The succeeding reigns of Euer- 
getes II. (146-117), Lathyrus ^117-107, and again 89-81), Alexander I. 
and Cleopatra (107-90), and Auletes (80-51), are chiefly notorious for 
the profligacy of the successive sovereigns and the frequent insurrec- 
tions of the Alexandrians. The disputes that prevailed opened the 
door for the interference of the Romans, and the last of these kings 
was restored to his throne by A. Gabinius, proconsul of Syria. In the 
reign of his successors, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, the Alexandrian war 
arose, in which Ceesar took the part of Cleopatra, and Ptolemy perished 
in 47. Cleopatra thenceforward reigned in conjunction mth another 
brother : her eventful life was terminated by her own hand in ou, and 
the dynasty of the two Ptolemies ended. As to the internal state of 
Egypt under the Hellenic monarchs, it was on the whole prosperous. 
Commerce was fostered not only by the foundation of Alexandria, but 
subsequently by the opening of the Indian trade through the Red Sea 
by Philadelphus ; literature flourished greatly at Alexandria ; even the 
old Egyptian edifices came in for a share of royal patronage, and many 
of the temples were either restored or enlarged. 

IV. The Roman Era, — For a long period Egypt enjoyed peace and 
prosperity under the Roman emperors, who treated it generally with 
consideration, and aided in the maintenance of the religious edifices. 
In the reign of xlurelius a serious rebellion occurred ^a.d. 171-175): 
in 269 the country was for a few months occupied by Zenobia, queen 
of Palmyra ; and thenceforward troublous times set in through the 
resistance offered to Aurelian in 272, Probus in 276, and Diocletian 
in 285. The religious disputes of the Arians and Athanasians form 
prominent topics in the history of this period ; and the extent to which 
monasticism prevailed on the banks of the Nile exercised a prejudicial 
influence on the country. In a.d. 379 Paganism was denounced by an 
imperial edict, and all the temples were overthrown. The only subse- 
quent events were the subjugation of Egypt by Persia in a.d. 618 ; and 
its conquest by Amron, the general of the Khaliph Omar, in 640. 




The Ruins and Vicinity of Pbilaj. (From Wilkinson.) 



284 



ETHIOPIA. 



Book III. 



II. — .Ethiopia. 

§15. Ethiopia, in its strictly territorial sense/ was bounded on 
the N. by Egypt, on the W. by the Libyan Desert, on the S.- by the 
Abyssinian highlands, and on the E. by the Indian Ocean and the 
Red Sea, from Prom. Prasum in the S. to Prom. Bazimn in the N. 
It embraces Nitbia, Sennaar, Korclofan, and northern Abyssinia, 
It is for the most part a mountainous country, rising gradually to- 
wards the S. Water is abundant there, and the country seems to 
have been famed for its fertility in ancient times. In addition to 
various kinds of agricultural produce, it possessed some articles of 
great commercial value, particularly gold, ebony, and ivory. 

Name. — The Greeks derived " ^Ethiopia" from aXQu), and accord- 
ing to which it wonld betoken the laud of the darJ:-coiriplexioned. It 
is probable, however, that it was a Greecized form of Etliosli, the name 
by which the Egyptians described it. 

§ 16. The mountain-ranges of this vast district were but imper- 
fectly known. A lofty chain slarts the sea-coast, and shuts out the 
interior from easy access to the sea. On the W. a range, named 
^tMopici Montes, forms the natural limit on the side of the desert. 
Far away to the S. were the Lunae Montes, reputed to contain the 
sources of the Nile. The sea-coast was tolerably well known from 
the visits of merchants. The Straits of Bah-el-Mandeh are not 
noticed under any specific name. Two bays only are described, viz. : 
Adulicus Sinus, AnnesJpy Bay., in the Red Sea ; and Avalites Sin. 
somewhat S. of the Stj-aits. Of the promontories we may notice — 
Bazium, Iias-el-Xasche/^ nearly in the parallel of Syene ; Aromata, 
C. (ruardafui, the most easterly point of Africa ; and Prasum, C. 
Belgado, in the extreme S. The positions of others that are 
noticed on the sliores of the Indian Ocean, such as Zingus, Noti 
Cornu, and Ehaptum, are not well ascertained. The chief river is 
the iNile, which has been already described as dividing into two 
branches in this part of its course, to one of which (probably the 
Blue Kile) the name of Astapus was given, and which also receives, 
near Meroe, an important tributary, now named the Tacazze, and 
probably formerly the Astaboras. The lakes, in which the Nile was 



1 The name ^Ethiopia was sometimes used in a broader sense to signify all the 
inhabitants of interior Africa, and in this case the inhabitants of .^:thiopik proper 
were distinguished as the .Ethiopians beyond Egyp^. We have already (p. 19) 
referred to the mythical J^^thiopians. 

2 Ethiopia was the most southerly land known to the ancients : hence Lucan 
describes it as— 

jEthiopuraque solum quod non premeretar ab ulla 

Signiferi regione poll, nisi poplite lapso 

Ultima curvati procederet ungula Tauri. — iii. 253. 



Chap. XV. 



IXHABITANTS. 



285 



reputed to have its sources, fell witliin the limits of ^Ethiopia : in 
addition to these we have to notice the lake Coloe, or Pseboa, Dem- 
hea, through which the xlstapus flows. 

§ 17. The inhabitants of this vast region were a mixture of 
Arabian and Libyan races with the genuine Ethiopians. They 
were divided into a number of tribes, designated according to their 
diet or employment, such as the Rhizophagi, " root-eaters," Acrido- 
phagi, " locust-eaters," &c. The residences of these tribes are un- 
certain, with the exception of the following four : — The Blemmyes 
and Mega^bari, between the lied Sea and the Astaboras ; the Icthyo- 
pliagi, " fish-eaters," on the coast of the Red Sea, X. of the Bay of 
Adule; and the Troglodytes, "cave-dwellers," in the mountains 
skirting the Red Sea, S. of Egypt. The Macrobii, " long-lived," 
had a settled residence, but its locality cannot be considered as known. 
The Sembritse are deserving of notice, as being in all probability the 
descendants of the Automoli, noticed by Herodotus (ii. 30) as the 
war-caste of Egypt, who deserted in the reign of Psammetichus, 
B.C. 658. The Sembrita3 appear to have lived on the Astapus, not 
far from Auxume, which has been derived by some from the Egyp- 
tian name of the caste " Asmach." The Nubse^ originally lived ou 
the western bank of the Xile, S. of Meroe, in Kordofan : they were 
the water-carriers and caravan-guides engaged in the trade between 
Egypt and Inner Africa, and derived their name from the gold 
(" noub " in Egyptian) imported from Kordofan. Originally they 
were isolated tribes, but in the Srd'cent. a.d. they were consolidated, 
and in the reign of Diocletian (about a.d. 300) were transferred by 
the Romans to the Nile, as a barrier against the Blemmyes : they 
thus gave to that district the name of Niihia, which it still retains. 
The country may he considered as divided into the following dis- 
tricts ; — DodecasdioBiius, in the N., extending for 12 scJiceni (as its 
name implies) from Phi las to Pscelcis : by the Romans it was an- 
nexed to Egypt ; Ethiopia Proper, or the kingdom of Meroe, which 
extended southwards from Pscelcis to the junction of the Blue and 
White Niles ; Eegio Auxomitarum, between the upper course of the 
Blue Kile and the Red Sea, nearly coextensive with Abyssinia; 
and Barbaria or Azania, Ajan^ the coast-district from the promontory 
of Aromata to that of Rhaptum : the latter name, according to 
Ptolemy, applied more particularly to the interior. The southern 
portion of ]\Ieroe was named the " Isle," as being bounded on three 



° His siniUi, inmitem testantes corpora solem, 
Exusti Ycncre XiibiP. Non a?rea cassis, 
Nec lorica riget ferro, iiec tenditur arciis ; 
Tempora multiplici mos est defendere lino, 
Et lino munire latus, scelerataque snecis 

Spicula dirigere, et ferrum infamare veneno. — Sil. Ital. iii. 268. 



286 



ETHIOPIA. 



Book III. 



of its sides by rivers, viz. ; the Xile on the W., the Astapus or 
Blue Xile on the S., and the Astaboras on the X.E. It was 
bounded on the E. by the Abyssinian highlands, and on the "W. of 
the Xile was the desert of Bahiouda. This district was rich ^ in 
productions of every kind — minerals, animals, and vegetables; and 
its fertility, combined with its central position, led to the high 
prosperity which it attained. 

§ 18. The towns of ^Ethiopia, with which we are acquainted 
through the Greek historians and geographers, may be distinguished 
into two classes : the genuine ^Ethiopian towns, which were chiefly 
situated in the valley of the Kile ; and . the Greek emporki on the 
shores of the Red Sea. The latter belong to the period of the Ptole- 
mies, and include Ptolemais-Theron, Adule, Arsinoe, and Berenice 
Epideires. From these an active trade was carried on, not only with 
the interior, but with Arabia, Western India, and Ceylon. These 
towns flourished until the Saracen invasion in the 7th cent. a.d. Of 
the ^Ethiopian towns, the southern capital Meroe was undoubtedly 
the first in importance. The remains of temples and pyi'amids prove 
the existence of numerous towns in the same district. XapSta * 
comes next, and as the northern capital of Ethiopia was even more 
important in relation to Egypt. Numerous important towns were 
erected by the Pharoahs between XapSta and the Egyptian frontier, 
the history of which is lost, but the ruins remain, testifying to the 
former grandeur of the temples :^ these are found at Dendoor, a short 
distance S. of Talmis ; at 'Derr ; at Ahoosimhcd or Ipsamhol (perhaps 
the ancient Aboccis), about two days' journey below the Secoud 
Cataract ; at Semneh, above the Great Cataract, a place probably in- 
tended to guard the Xile ; at Soleh, below the Third Cataract ; and at 
numerous other places. Subsequently to the fall of Meroe, Auxume 
rose to importance as a seat both of art and of commerce. Most of 
the towns of the interior were entrepots for the Central African 
trade : to this circumstance Meroe, Auxume, and Xapata owed their 
wealth. Some of the towns in Dodecaschoenus were border-fortr'esses, 
and are hence noticed in connexion with the campaigns of Petronius. 



* Late tibi gurgite rupto 

Ambitur nigris Meroe fecunda colonis, 
Lteta comis ebeni : quoe. quamvis arbor e multa 
Frondeat, DP^tatelu nulla sibi mitigat umbra : 
Linea tarn rectum mundi ferit ilia Leonem. — Lrc. x. 302. 
^ The pyraiuids and temples near Gelel-el-Birkel are supposed to mark its site ; 
-^liile the thirty-five pyramid? of Xouri stand eight miles higher up. 

6 These temples were chiefly built by the Egyptian monarchs : the temple of 
the Sun at Derr. and the richly sculptured temples at Aboosimbel are of the date 
of Ranieses the Great. At Hassaia is a temple bearing the sign-manual of 
Thotlimes III. These buildings probably survived to a late age, and Tvere 
beautified or en^.arged at various eras : at Dendoor, for instance, there are re- 
mains of the Augustan age. 



Chap. XV. 



TO^v^'s. 



287 



0.) In Dodecaschcenus. — Talmis stood on the left bank of the Xile, 
about five days' journey S. of Philse. The ruins of it at Kalahsche are 
hiixhly interesting, consisting of a rock-temple dedicated to Manduls, 
with bas-reliefs and beautiful sculptures. This temple was originally 
built by Amunoph II., was rebuilt by one of the Ptolemies, and repaired 
in the reigns of Augustus, Caligula, and Trajan. A fac-simile of these 
sculptures stands in the British Museum. A curious Greek inscription 
of Silco, probably one of the kings of the Xubfe who protected the 
Roman frontier, has been found there. Another temple of great interest 
belongs to the Pharaonic era. Pselcis, on the left bank of the Xile at 
Dahlitli, was one of the strongholds which Petronius took from the 
^Ethiopians, and constituted a Roman fortress ^b.c. There is a 

temple of Hermes Trismegistus at Da.J:J:e]i, founded by Ergamenes, a 
contemporary of Ptolemy I'hiladelphus. Kiera Sycaminus was an ex- 
tensive mart on the southern frontier, probably at Wa.rlij MaJiarroJioli. 
The lesser towns in this district were — Parembole. iJehot, a fortress ou 
the Ee:yptian border, with a temple of I sis founded by Ashar-Amun, 
and adorned hj Auixustus and Tiberius, of which there are considerable 
remains ; TapMs, Tena, with large stone-quarries near it : Tutzis, the 
ruins of which are at Gerf Hossoyn, consisting of a rock-temple of the 
reign of Rameses the Great, with numerous figures : Tachompso, on an 
island opposite Pselcis, and hence named Contra-Pselcis, when the 
latter place rose to importance : its position cannot be ascertained, as 
no island exists opposite the site of Pselcis : the lake noticed by Hero- 
dotus ;ii. "29 Avas merely a reach of the Xile. 

I/i J£fliiojjla Proper. — Napata, the northern capital, was situ- 
ated probably at the E. extremity of the gi^ea.t bend which the Nile 
makes in about Uh X. lat., and near Gehel-el-Birliel, where are found, 
on the left bank of the Xile, two temples dedicated to Osiris and 
Amnion, richly decorated with sculptures, and some pyramids. The 
two Egyptian lions which now adorn the British Museum were brought 
from this spot. Judging from its ruins, Xapata must have been a 
very wealthy place, in consequence of its being the terminus of the 
routes from Gagaudes in the X.AV., and Meroe in the S.E. It was the 
capital of .Etuiupia under the Sabacos and Tn^haka, who extended 
their sway over Upper Egypt : and it was the most southerly point 
that the Romans reached. It sunk after its capture by Petronius, 
B.C. 22, The town of Meroe stood about 9u miles S. of the jimction 
of the Astaboras with the Xile, at Dankalah, Avhere its site is marked 
by some pyramids. In addition to this, ruins of cities, whose names 
have perished, extend for a considerable distance near the Xile be- 
tween 16^ and 17^ X. lat., consisting of numerous temples, colonnades^ 
and mounds of bricks. The architecture bespeaks a late age of Egyp- 
tian art. Meroe was the seat of a powerful state, in which the priest- 
hood exercised great influence, while the sceptre was often held by 
females, with the official name of Candace. When the Egyptian mon- 
archs extended their sway over Xonhern JEthiopia, Meroe remained 
independent. In the time of the Romans, however, it was an unim- 
portant place. In the same district were two towns named Primis, 
Parva, and Magna, the former of which, also named Premnis, is placed 
near the northern frontier at Ujrira, and was a fortress captured by 
Petronius, and afterwards retained by the Romans as an advanced post ; 
the other was to the S. of Xapata, not far from Mer^.e. Auxume stood 
E. of the Astaboras. in about 14^ 7' X. lat., and is represented by 
Axnrn, the capital of Ticjre: it was a place of considerable trade, and 
attained a high degree of prosperity after the fall of Meroe in the 1st 



288 



ETHIOPIA. 



Book III. 



or -nd cent, of our era. From tlie fact of Greek being spoken there, 
it was not improbably a colony of Adule. The most interesting relics 
of the old town are an obelisk '3 j feet high, and a square enclosure 
with a seat, reputed to be the throne of the old kings. Auxume was 
the seat of a bishoprick, as we learn from a rescript of Constantius 
Xicephorus about a.d. 356. 

(3.^' On the Coast. — Adule, TTiuUa. on the bay of the Red Sea named 
after it, is said to have been founded by fugitive slaves froua Egypt. 
Under the Prmians it served as the port of Auxume, and it was then a 
place of extensive trade. It possessed a famous inscription, named 
Jln,iU:!n::tfu:,i AduJit^AuUni. copied by Cosmas in the 6th cent, a.d., in 
which the proceedings of Ptolemy Euergetes are recorded. Ptolemais 
Theron, originally a town of the Troglodytes on the Red Sea, was se- 
lected by Pcol--.my Philadelphus i^B.c. 282-24:6; as the spot whence 
elephant-luuumg should be prosecuted : it hence became a place of large 
trade, both in elephants and in ivory. Its position is uncertain, but it 
was probably not far from Adule. Equally uncertain is the position 
of Sabse in the same neighbourhood, one of the places at which the 
Saba?a:is uf the Bible dwelt, while another place of the same name 
stood oil the opposire coast of Arabia. 

Of the other towns on the coast we may briefly notice — Arsinoe, a 
port in the cotmtry of the Troglodytes, once called Olbia; Berenice 
Panchrysus, in the Troglodyte country, named the '"All-golden," 
from the mines of Jihel OUaln near it; a second Arsinoe, near the 
entrance of the Pe'l Sea ; and Berenice Epideires, deriving its surname 
from its position on a neck " of land at the Straits of Bah-el-Mandeh : 
it was also called Deire : Ptolemy Philadelphus favoured it, and named 
it after his sister Berenice. 

(4.) On the Indian Ocean. — Malao, probably at Berhera, was a mart 
for gum. cAttle, slaves, and ivory. Ehapta wa^ the collective name of 
several vilhiges (probably opposite the isle of Pata), so called from the 
" sewed'' boats, i.e. fastened by fibres instead of nails, which were used 
there : ifc was the most distant trading station known on this coast. 

History. — .Ethiopia was intimately connected with Egypt, and not un- 
frequentiy vras under the same sovereign. Among the predecessors of 
Sesortasen vrere eighteen ^Ethiopian kings. Sesortasen himself is said 
to have conquered .Ethiopia. The loth dynasty took refuge there 
diu'ing the occupation of the Hyksos. The 16th and 18th dynasties also 
conqtiered it ; and the monuments of Thothmes L, II., III., and IV., 
prove the extent of their sway to have reached as far as Xapata. In the 
8th cent. B.C. an .Ethiopian dynasty extended their sway over Lower 
Egypt, tiuaer the kings Sabaco, Sebichus ,the So of Scrij^ture and 
Taracus ^Tirhakah . In the reign of Psammetichus (b.c. 63o) the whole 
of the war-caste of Egypt migrated to .Ethiopia, and settled probably 
in the district we have assigned to them. Cambyses endeavoured to 
conquer .Ethiopia, but failed : nevertheless the Persian occupation of 
the Xile-valle}- opened the country considerably : and subsequently, 
under the Ptolemies, the arts and commerce of the Greeks were fully 
introduced. In the reign of x^ugustus an ^Ethiopian army advanced 
to the borders of Egypt : they were repulsed by Petronius, and pursued 
as far as Xapata. The Roman supremacy was acknowledged from that 
time (B.C. 23) until Diocletian's reign vA.d. 28tl:-o05). The frequent 
notices of Ethiopia in the Old Testament have been already referred 
to. In the Xew Testament, the only occasion on which the name 
occurs is in connexion vrith the conversion of the eunuch of Queen 
Candace. 




Paiins of Cyrene. (From Hamilton.) 



CHAPTEE XVI. 

Marmaeica, Cyeexaica, Stktica, Africa Propria. Xumidia. 
MAURETA^'IA, Libya Interior. 

I. Maemaeica. § 1. Boundaries ; inhabitants ; towns. II. Cyeexaica. 
§ 2. Boundaries and position. § 3. Promontories ; hills, § 4. 
Inhabitants : towns ; history. § 5. The Xasamones ; Oasis of 
Augila. III. Syetica. §6. Boundaries: physical features. §7. 
Inhabitants ; towns ; islands. IT. Afeica Peopeia. § 8. Bound- 
aries. § 9. Position and physical character. § 10. Mountains ; 
rivers. § .11. Inhabitants ; tovrns. § 12. Carthage. § 13. The 
Roman divisions : tov>uis ; history. V. Xumidia. § 14. Boundaries. 
§ 15. Mountains: rivers. § 16. Inhabitants; towns; history. 
VI. Maeeetaxia. § 1". Boundaries. § 18. ^Mountains ; rivers. 
§ 19. Inhabitants; towns; history. VII. Libya Ixteeioe. § 2U. 
Boundaries ; physical features. § 21. Inhabitants. § 22. Islands 
off the coast of Africa. 



I. — Marmarica. 

§ 1. Marmanea vras a barren and sandy strip skirting tlie Medi- 
terranean from the valley of the Xile in the E. to Cyrenaica in the 
W. : it ar.svN-ers to the modern Desert of Barlmli. It Avas divided by 

A^C. GEOG. O 



290 



MAE^IAEICA — 



CYEEXAICA. 



Book IIL 



Ptolemy into two jDarts, Libvcus Xomos in the E., and Marmaricus 
Xomos in the W., the point of separation being at the Catabathmus 
Magnus. The chief physical featm-es in this district are the two 
singular ^' descents *' {KardSaBjioL^ Ahc.haJi), where the land 
slopes off from a considerable elevation on the shore down to the 
interior : they were named Catabath.mus Magnus, which rises to 
900 feet, and which extends towards the Oasis of Ammonium in the 
S.E. : and C. Minor 500 feet high, more to the E. near Para^tonium. 
The only river is the Paliurns, Temineh, on the W. border. The 
Marmaridae, after whom the district was named, are not noticed by 
Herodotus, but appear as the principal tribe in these parts between 
the age of Philip of ]Macedon and the third cent, of our era : the 
limits assigned to their abode by the ancient geographers vary 
considerably. The chief towns were Taposiris, " the tomb of Osiris," 
about 25 miles from Alexandria, where Justinian constructed a 
town-hall and batlis ; Apis, about 12 miles "W". of Par^etonimn ; 
and Paraetonimn or Ammonia, -Sa/'efo?^/?, -possessing a fine harbour. 
Alexander started from this point to visit the oracle at Ammon, 
B.C. 332 ; and Antony stopped here after the battle of Actium : it 
was fortified by Justinian. There were numerous lesser ports, one 
of which, Plynus, was probably the same as Panormus ; another 
owed its name, Menelai Portns, to the tradition that Menelaus 
landed there ; while Chersonesus Magna stood near the promontory 
of the same name on the border of Cyrenaica, and was named 
"Magna in contradistinction to *'C. Parva" near Alexandria. 

11.— CVEEyAlCA. 

§ 2. The district generally called Cyrenaica after its chief town 
Cyrene, and occasionally Pentapolis after the five confederate towns 



' It is not improbable that the Gilig-ammae of Herodotus are the same people 
as the MarmaridaB of hater writers : no subsequent ^iter notices the Giligammge. 
The MarmaridGe are frequently noticed by the later Latin poets : 

Gens unica terras 
Incolit a saevo serpentum innoxia morsu, 
Marmaridae Psylli : par lingua potentibus herbis : 
Ipse cruor tutus, nullumque admittere virus, 
Yel cantu cessante, potest. Lrc. ix. S91. 

Misti Garamante periisto 
Marmaridae volucres. Lrc. iv. 679. 

Marmaridae, medicum valgus, strepuere catervis : 
Ad quorum cantus serpens oblita veneni, 

Ad quorum tactum mites jacuere cerastae. — Sil. Ital. iii. 300. 
The Adyrmachidfe of Herodotus, whom vre have already noticed (p. 38^ as living 
on the coast, appear to have retired into the interior : they are noticed by Silius 
Italicus — 

Yersicolor contra caetra. et falcatus ab arte 

Ensis Adyrmachidis ac laevo tegmina criire. — iii. 278. _ 



Chap. XVI. PHYSICAL CHAEACTEE. — IXIIABITAXTS. 291 



on it, extended along the coast of the Mediterranean from Cher- 
sonesus Magnus in the E., where it touched Marmarica to Aras 
Philenorum at the bottom of the Greater Syrtis in the W. The 
portion of this territory which was actually occupied by the Greeks 
consisted of the table-land and the adjacent coast, which here 
projects in a curved form into the sea to the N.E. of the Syrtis. 
The position and physical character of this region were highly 
favourable. It lies directly opposite Peloponnesus at a distance of 
200 miles. Its centre is occupied by a moderately elevated table- 
land, which sinks down to the coast in a succession of terraces, and 
is throughout clothed with verdure and intersected by mountain 
streams running through ravines filled with the richest vegetation. 
Eain is abundant ; and the climate is tempered by the sea breezes 
from the N., and by ranges of mountains, which shut out the heat 
of the Sahara from the S. It produced corn, oil, wine, dates, hgs, 
almonds, and other fruits, and especially the plant sUjjluvm or 
laserpitiuTii, whence the medical gum called laser was extracted, 
and which was the emblem of the country. Its honey and horses 
were also famed. 

§ 3. The most striking physical features in this district are the 
prom^ontories, of which we may notice from E. to W., Chersonesus 
Magna, Bas et-Tln ; Zephyrium, 0, Derne ; Phycus, JRas Serri, the 
most northern headland in this part of Africa ; and Boreiim, lu's 
Teyonas, on the E. coast of the Syrtis. The range of hills, which 
runs parallel to the coast of the S^Ttis, was named Herculis Arense, 
"the sands of Hercules ;" S.W. of these Avere the Velpi Mts., and 
more to the E., on the S. frontier, the Bsscolicus Ms. The only 
river was the small stream Lathon, which joins the sea X. of 
Boreum. Xear it was the little lake called Triton or lacus Kes- 
peridum, which some of the ancients confounded with that at the 
bottom of the Lesser Syrtis. 

§ 4. The inhabitants of this district in the age of Herodotus were 
the Libyan tribes of the Giligamma3 in the E., the AsbystcT in the 
centre, and the Auschisa^ in the W. Tliese were driven from the 
coast by Greek settlers who first entered under Battus, the founder 
of Gyrene, B.C. 631, and who gradually gained possession of the 
whole coast, erecting, in addition to Cyrene, Apollonia which served 
as its port, Teuchira and Hesperides on the coast of the Syrtis, and 
Barca about 12 miles from the X. coast. These five formed the 
original Pentapolis. Under the Ptolemies, various changes took 
place : the name of Hesperides was supplanted by that of Berenice, 
and Teuchira by Arsinoe. Barca sank and its port assumed its 
position under the name of Ptolemais : Cyrene also waned before 
the growing prosperity of its port Apollonia. Henceforward the 
Pentapolis consisted of the cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptolemais, 

2 



292 



CYEEXAICA. 



Book HI. 



Arsinoe, and Berenice. The country continued to flourisli under 
the Eomans until the time of Trajan, when the Jews who had 
settled there in large numbers under the Ptolemies, rose and mas- 
sacred the Eomans and Cyrena?ans. From this time it declined, 
and the ruin of the Greek towns was completed by the Persian 
Chosroes in a.d. 616. 




Kuins of Ptolemais, the porr of Barca. (From Hamilton.) 



Taking the towns in order from E. to W., we first meet with Apol- 
lonia, originally only the ^^ort of Cyrene, but afterwards the more 
important town of the two : it was the birthplace of Eratosthenes, the 
geographer. Its site at JIarsa SousaJi is marked by the splendid ruins 
of several temples, the citadel, a theatre, and an aqueduct. Cyrene, 
founded by colonists from Thera.^ stood on the edge of the upper of 



s The foundation of Cyrene is described in the follo'^ing lines, Calliste being 
the -poetical designation of Thera : the city is dignified with the title "divine," 
and its tutulary goddess represented as seated on a golden throne : — 
Kac. Aa/ce5at- 

H9e<TLV, ev nore KaA- 

XicTTOv oLTTcoK-rjcrav xp6v<o 
tsacrov evQev 8' vjx^.L Aarot- 

5a5 €770pev AtjSua? ttsSlov 
Suv Oeojv Tt/u-ats 60eA.- 

Aetv, aarv xpucroOpoi'Ov 
Atavifxeiv Oelov Kvpai'a? 

'Op963ovkoi' ixYirw ecbevpo/ueVot?.— Pi>'D. Fyfh. ir. 457. 

In 



Chap. XVI. 



TOWXS. 



293 




Coin of Cyrene. 



two terraces some 1800 feet above the sea, from which it was 10 miles 
distant ; the spot was selected in consequence of a beautiful fountain, 
named Cyre,-^ which bursts forth there and which the Greeks dedicated 
to Apollo. Its commerce 



was considerable, particu- 
larly in silpliium} and it 
held a distinguished place 
in literature, as the birth- 
place of A]istippus, the 
founder of the Cyrensean 
school ; of Carneades, the 
founder of the New Aca- 
demy at Athens ; and of 
the poet Callimachus. Its 
ruins at Grennah are very 
extensive, and contain remains of streets, aqueducts, temples, theatres, 
and tombs. In the face of the terrace, on which the city stands, is a 
vast subterraneous necropolis, Cyrene was governed by a dynasty, 
named the Battiadae,^ in 
which the kings bore alter- 
nately the names of Battus 
and Arcesilaus, from B.C. 
630 to about 430, after 
which it became a repub- 
lic. It was made a Ro- 
man colony with the name 
of Flavia. Ptolemais was 
erected by the Ptolemies, 
and was peopled with the 
inhabitants of Barca on 
the former site of the port of that town. Its ruins are in part covered 
by the sea. Barca stood on the summit of the terraces which overlook the 
V^. coast of the Syrtis, in the midst of a well-watered ^ and fertile plain. 




Coin of Barca. 



In anotlier passage of the same poet we have other characteristics of the place 
noticed — its fertility, the white colour of its chalk cliffs, and the celebrity of 
its horses : — 

Xpy^crei' olKLcrTrjpa Bdrrov 
KapiTO(f)6pov xitjSva?, Upav 
Nacroi/ cos rjSrj AtTrcbv 
'KTLcra-etev evdpixarov 

II6A.tv ev apyLvoevTL /xacrrco. — Id. Pytli. iv. 10. 
9 01 6' ovTco TTrjY^? KvpTjs kbvva.vTO neXdcrcrai 
Awpteeg. Callim. Hymn, in Apoll. 88. 

1 Quam. niagnus numerus Libyssae arenae 
Laserpieiferis jacet Cyrenis, 
Oraculum Jovis inter sestuosi, 

Et Batti veteris sacrum sepulcrum. — Catull. vii. 3. 

2 Et iniquo e Sole calentes 

Battiadas late imperio sceptrisque regebat. — Sil. Ital. ii. GO. 
Nec non Cyrene Pelopei stirpe nepotis 

Battiadas pravos fidei stimularit in arma. — Sil. Ital. iii. 252. 
^ The epithet arida in the following passages must be hokl to refer, not to the 
actual site of the town, but to the neighbouring desert table-hmd : — 

Adfuit 



294 



CYEEXAICA. 



Book III. 



It was founded about B.C. 554. by some disaffected citizens of Cyrene 
joined by some Libyans, and it soon became so powerful as to deprive 
Cyrene of her supremacy over the western district. In B.C. 510 it was 
besieged by the Persians at the instigation of Pheretima, mother of 
Arcesilaus III., and after a siege of nine months was taken and its 
inhabitants transplanted to Bactria. The name however survived, and 
is somewhat vaguely applied by Yirgil-^ to a Libyan tribe in the neigh- 
bourhood. Barca still forms one of the divisions of Tripoli. Ten- 
cMra or Taucliira, afterwards Arsinoe, was particularly noted for the 
worship of Cj^bele. It was founded by Cyrene, and its site is still 
called Tocliira. Hesperides, afterwards Eerenice, derived its fii^st 
name from the notion that the fabled gardens of the Hesperides^ were 
found in the fertile districts of Cyrene,^ and its second from the 
wife of Ptolemy Euergetes, who raised it to a state of commercial 
prosperity. Off the northern coast is the small island of Platea, on 
which the Thereeans first settled. 

History. — The early history of Cyi^enaica has been already given : 
it was subjected to Egypt by Ptolemy son of Lagus, B.C. 321. The 
last of the Cyrengean kings, Apion, bequeathed it to the Romans B.C. 95, 
who gave the cities their freedom, but, in consecjuence of their dis- 
sensions, reduced it to a province ^probably in B.C. 75), and united it 
with Crete, B.C. 67. In Constantine's division it was constituted a 
distinct province. Its connexion with Biblical history is briefly told, 
^^"e have already mentioned that vast numbers of Jews were settled 
there : these visited Jerusalem periodically, as on the day of Pentecost 
(Acts ii. 10). One of them, named Simon, was selected to carry our 
Saviour's cross to Calvary (Luke xxiii. 26). 

§ 5. In the interior, S. of Cyrene, dwelt the important tribe of 
the Nasamones, ^vho extended their territory as far as the shores of 
the Syrtis westward, and inland to the Oasis of Augila : they had 



Adfuit imdosa cretus Berenicide miles 

Xec, tereti dextras in piig-nani armata dolone, 

Destituit Barce sitientibus arida venis. — Sil. Ital. iii. 249. 

^Eterniimque arida Barce. — Id. ii. 62. 

4 Hinc deserta siti regis lateque furentes 

Bareaei. ^n. iv. 42. 

5 Fuit a urea silva, 
Divitiisque graves et fulvo germine rami, 
Yirgineusque chorus, nitidi custodia luci, 

Et nuiiquam somuo damnatus lumina serpens, 
Eobora complexus rutilo curvata metallo. 
Abstulit arboribus pretium, nemorique laborem 
Alcides : passusque inopes sine pondere ramos, 
Eetulit Argolico fulgentia poma tyranno. — Lrc. ix. 360. 

^ The following extract from a modern writer justifies the selection as a matter 
of taste : " The rest of the journey (to Grennah) was over a range of low undu- 
lating hills, offering perhaps the most lovely sylvan scenery in the world. The 
country is like a most beautifully arranged Jardin Anglais, covered with pyra- 
midal clumps of evergreens, variously disposed, as if by the hand of the most 
refined taste ; while bosquets of junipers and cedars, relieved by the pale olive 
and the bright green of the tall arbutus tree, afi'ord a most grateful shade from 
the midday sun. '■ — Hamilton's Wanderings in Africa^ p. 31. 



Chap. XVI. 



SYETICA EEGIO. 



295 



a bad reputation among tlie Eomans as wreckers." The Oasis 
of Augila lies due S. of Cyrene between the 29^ and 30" of X. lat., 
and was in ancient times the source whence the Kasamonians 
obtained their annual supply of dates, which they carried north- 
wards to their head-quarters near the sea. It consists in reality 
of three oases, the largest of which retains the name of AuJilaJi, and 
is still famous for its dates. Each of the oases is a small hill 
rising out of an unbroken plain of red sand. 

III. — Stetica Eegio. 

§ 6. Syrtica was a narrow strip of coast land extending along 
the ^lediterranean Sea for about 100 miles between the Greater and 
Lesser Syrtes. Its character is sufnciently attested by its name 
Syrtis (from the Arabic serf '-'desert '') : it is so overwhelmed with 
sand that men and even vessels are sometimes buried beneath the 
accumulations carried by storms. The Syrtes are the two large 
bays which form the angles of the Syrtic sea, as already described. 
The dangers connected Avith the navigation of this sea existed 
chiefly in the imaginations of poets. ^ The most important pro- 
montories were Ceplialae or Trieron, Cefalo, at the W. extremity of 
the Greater Syrtis, and Zeitha, at the E. extremity of the Eesser, 



" Hoc tarn segne solum raras tamen exserit lierbas, 
Quas Nasamon gens dura legit, qui proxinia pouto 
ZnucIus rura tenet, quern inandi barbara damnis 
Syrtis alit. ^'anl littoreis populator areiiis 
Imminet, et nulla portus tangente carina 
>'ovit opes. Sic cum toto commercia mundo 
Naufragiis Xasamones babent. Lrc. ix. 438. 

Hoc coit sequoreus Xasamon, invadere fluctu 
Audax naufragia, et prtedas arellere ponto. — Sil. Ital. iii. 320. 

8 Syrtes rel primam mundo Xatura nguram 
Cum daret, in dubio pelagi terraeque reliquit : 
(Nam neque subsedit penitus, quo stagna profundi 
Acciperet, nec se defendit ab tecjuore tellus ; 
Ambigua sed lege loci jacet in via sedes : 
^Ec^uora fracta vadis, abruptaque terra profundo, 
Et post multa sonant projecti littora fluctus. 
Sic male deseruit, nuUosciue exegit in usus 
Hanc partem Natura sui : i vel plenior alto 
Olim Syrtis erat pelago, peEituso^ue natabat ; 
Sed rapidus Titan ponto sua lumina pascens 
.Ilquora subduxit zonce vicina perusta? : 
Et nunc pontus adbuc PhoEbo siccante repugnat. 
Mox ubi damnosum radios admoverit oevum, 
Tellus Syrtis erit : nam jam brevis unda superne 
Imiatat, et late periturum deficit sequor. — Luc. ix. 303. 

Tres Eurus ab alto 
In brevia et Syrtes urget, miserabile visu ; 
niiditque radis, atque aggere cingit arena?. — .I^n. i. 110. 



296 



SYETICA EEGIO. 



Book III. 



There are two small rivers — the Cinyps^ in. the E., which has not 
been identified; and the Triton,^ el-Ramraah, in the W., which 
formerly flowed through a series of lakes, Libya palus, Pallas, and 
Triton! tis : it now gains the sea by a direct course, and the three 
lakes are merged in one named Shibk-eULowdeaJi. The most 
valued productions of this country were the lotus, and a species of 
precious stone known as Syrtides gemrnce. 

§ 7. The native tribes occup^dng this district in the time of 
Herodotus were the Lotophagi about the Syrtis Minor, and the 
Gindanes more to the W. The former were so named from the 
custom, which still prevails there, of eating the fruit and drinking a 
wine extracted from the juice of the Zizyplius Lotus or jujube tree. 



^ The CinyiDS 'svas famed for the fine goats' hair produced about it : 
Xec minus interea barbas incanaque menta 

Cinyphii tondent hirci, setasque comantes. — Yirg. Georg. iii. 311. 

Eigetque barba, 
Qualem forficibus metit supinis 
Tonsor Cinyphio Cilix marito. — Mart. vii. 95. 

Its banks were also prorerbially fertile : — 

Cinyphiae segetis citius nunierabis arista. — Ov. ex Pont. ii. 7, 25. 
It was frequently used as a synonym for African generally, e.g. : — 

Cinyphias inter pestes tibi palma nocendi est. — Luc. ix. 787. 

Cinyphiumque Jubam. Ov. Met. xv. 755. 

1 The Triton and its lakes were connected with some of the Greek legends : it 
was there that the Argonaut Euphemus, the ancestor of Battus, received the 
promise of a settlement in Africa : — 

rov TTore 
TptTcovtSo? ev 7rpoxoac9 
At/xi/as ^eo) avept et5oju.eV(j> 
Vaiav StSoP'Tt ^etVta 
UpuipaOev Eu(^a/uL09 KarajSa? 
Aetar'. PiXD. Fyth. iv. 35. 

It is doubtful whether the term Triton-born, applied to Pallas, originally re- 
ferred to this lake : it is more probable that in Homer and Hesiod the Boeotian 
stream is meant. The later poets, however, undoubtedly connected Pallas with 
the African river, which Euripides hence describes as — 
ACfxviqg t' evvSpov TpLToovLaSog 
Ilorviav aKTav^ Ion. 871. 

So also the Latin poets — 

Hue, qui stagna colunt Tritonidos alia paludis, 

Qua virgo, ut fama est, bellatrix edita lympha 

Invento primam Libyen perfudit olivo. — Sil. Ital. iii. 322. 

Torpentem Tritonos adit illeesa paludem. 

Hanc, ut fama, Deus, quem toto littore pontus 

Audit ventosa perflantem marmora concha, 

Hanc et Pallas amat : patrio quEc vertice nata 

Terrarum primam Libyen (nam proxima coelo est, 

rt probat ipse calor) tetigit : stagnique quieta 

Yultus vidit aqua, posuitque in margine plantas, 

Et se dilecta Tritonida dixit ab unda. — Luc. ix. 347. 



Chap. XVI. 



TOAVXS. 



which according to the Homeric legend ^ produced a state of dreamy 
forgetfulness. In addition to these, the Xasamones, Psylli, and 
Maca3 roamed over portions of the district. Egyptian, Phoenician, 
and Cyrena3an colonists settled on the coast and intermixed with 
these Libyan tribes. Ptolemy mentions, in place of these, numerous 
tribes whose names are not noticed by any other writer. The chief 
towns were the Phoenician^ colonies of Leptis Magna, QEa, and 
Sabrata, which having received Roman colonists became important 
places, and gave to the whole region the name of Tripolitana, which 
still survives in the modern Tripoli. 

Leptis Magna was favourably situated on a part of the coast where 
the central table-land descends to the sea in a succession of terraces^ 
as at Cyrene. It possessed a roadstead, well sheltered by the pro- 
montory of Hermaeum.^ The old Phoenician city was situated simi- 
larly to Carthage, upon an elevated tongue of land at the point ^vhere 
a small river discharges itself into the sea ; the remains of sea walls, 
quays, fortifications on the land side, and moles are to be seen on its 
site, which is still called Lehda, At a later period a new city, named 
Neapolis, grew up on the W. side of the old town, which henceforth 
served as the citadel alone. 
This became the great em- 
porium for the trade with 
the eastern part of Interior 
Africa, and under the Ro- 
man emperors, particularly 
Septimius Severus who was 
a native of the place, it was 
adorned with magnificent 
buildings, and flourished 
until the 4th cent, a.d., 
when it was much mjured 
by a native tribe named Ausuriani. Though partly restored by Justinian, 
it never recovered this bloAV. Its ruins are deeply buried in the sand, and 
a small village, Legatali, occupies its site. (Ea became a Roman colony 
about A.D. 50 and flourished for 30u years, when it was ruintd by the 
Ausuriani. On its site stands the modern capital Tripoli : a very joerfect 
marble arch, dedicated to M. Aurelius Antoninus and L. Aurelius Verus, 
is the principal relic of the old town. Sabrata, or Abrotomim, was a 




Coin of Leptis. 



- Ov8' dpa XooTGcfidyoL fjL-qSou9' erapotcrtv G\e9pov 
'H/xerepot.?, aAAa cr(f)t SoVav Xoorolo TrdcracrOaL. 
Toiv 8' ocTTL? AcDTOto (i)dyoL /y.eAtrjSea Kap-ov, 
OvK er' d—ayyeL?'ML irdkiv if]Qe\&v. ov5e vieaQaL' 
'AAA' (xvrov ^ovXovro juer' di'Spdcrc AuiToddyoicrL 

AcoToy epe-ToixevOL jxeveixev, x'ocrrov re ,\a9ea9aL. — HoM. OcL ix. 92 = 
2 The PhcEuician origin of the first and last of these towns is iraiilied in the 
following lines : — 

Sahrata turn Tyrium vulgus, Sarranaque Leptis, 
CEaque Trinacrios Afris permixta colonos. — Sil. Ital. iii. 25G. 
•* Proxima Leptis erat, ciijns statione quieta 

Exegere hieniem, nimbis flammisque carentom. — Lvc. ix. 94S. 

o 3 



^ 298 



AFEICA PEOPEIA. 



Book III. 



considerable mart for the trade of the interior. In the Roman period, 
it was chiefly famed as the bii'thplace of Flavia Domitilla, wife of Vespa- 
sian: extensive rnins of it remain at Tripoli Veccliio. Of the less 
important towns we may notice Tacape, Kliahs, at the innermost point of 
the Lesser Syrtis, noted for its hot sulphur-baths, in a fertile district, 
but with a bad harbour ; ZucMs, in the same neighbourhood, noted for 
its purple dyes ; and Automala, on the borders of Cyrenaica. Off the 
coast were the islands of Meninx, Jerhah, S.E. of the Lesser Syrtis, 
occupied by the Lotophagi, and hence named Lotophagitis ; and Cer- 
cina, Karkenah, and Cercinitis, Jerhah, at the N.AY. extremity of the 
same gulf, which lay so close together that they were joined by a mole. 

IV. — Africa Propria. 

§ 8. The Roman province of Africa, in its restricted sense,^ em- 
braced that portion of the continent which lies between the Lesser 
Syrtis in the E., the desert of Sahara in the S., the river Tusca in 
the W., and the Mediterranean in the IST. It answers nearly to the 
modern Tunis. The name was used in a broader sense to include 
Syrtica in the E., and Numidia in the W., and sometimes even 
some portions of Mauretania beyond the Am psaga, which formed the 
W'Cstern limit of Numidia. 

§ 9. The position and physical character of this country deserve 
particular notice. It occupies that great angle on the northern 
coast of Africa, of which Mercurii Prom., C. Bon, is the apex, and 
wdiicli is formed by the southerly deviation of the coast, at right 
angles to its general course, in the neighbourhood of the Lesser 
Byrtis. It thus approaches very near the continent of Europe, 
standing directly opposite the southern peninsula of Italy and the 
island of Sicily, from which it is about 90 miles distant, and in 
easy communication with the coasts of Spain. As regards the 
Mediterranean, it stands just at the junction of the two great basins, 
eastern and western, into which that sea is divided, and thus com- 
manded the navigation of each, forming as it were a new^ starting 
point for the commerce of the PhoeniciaDs, without which they per- 
chance might have been confined, as the Greeks generally were, to 
the eastern alone. As regards Africa, this district is shut off from 



5 The limits of the Eomaii province varied at different periods : as originally 
constituted in b.c. 146, it consisted of the possessions of Carthage at that time, 
t. c. the districts of Zeugitana and Byzacium : the rest of the old Carthaginian 
possessions were handed over to the Numidian kings. In the Jugurthine war 
the Romans gained Leptis Magna and some other towns in Syrtica. In the civil 
war Ctesar added Numidia, as far as the Ampsaga, under the title of New Africa. 
In B.C. 30 Augustus restored this to Juba, but resumed it again in b. c. 25, and 
fixed the western boundary at Saldse, thus including a portion of Mauretania also 
in Africa. Finally, Caligula gave up this latter portion, and refixed the boundary 
at the Ampsaga. In the 3rd cent, (probably in Diocletian's reign) the whole was 
re-arranged into four provinces — Numidia, Africa Propria or Zeugitana, Byza- 
cium, and Tripolis. The term Africa was occasionally applied to all of these. 



Chap. XVI. 



MOUXTAIXS -~ INHABITAXTS. 



291i 



the general body of the continent by the range of Atlas in the S., 
and the desert regions of Syrtica in the E. The country was also 
highly favoured in regard to climate and soil. The gi'eat range of 
Atlas forms a barrier between it and the sands of the Sahara, and 
provides an adequate amount of moisture. On the X. side it 
descends in a series of terraces towards the sea, and offers a most 
fertile soil to the agriculturists. In the southern district only does 
the desert approach the sea, and the soil become unfruitful. The 
grain produced a liuiidredfold,*^ the vine a double vintage, and fruit 
of every kind grew in the greatest profusion. 

§ 10. The mountains were ofisets from the great chain of Atlas, 
some few of which only received special names, as Ms. JovXs S. of 
Carthage ; Cima, which runs parallel to the northern coast ; and 
Mampsarus in the S.AV. The promontories are — Brachodes at the 
K.W. point of the Lesser Syrtis ; Prom. Mercurii, C. Bo-/i,ihe X.E. 
point; Prom. Apollinis or Pulchrum, C. Farina, at the W., as Mer- 
curii is at the E. of the bay of Carthage; and Prom. Candidimi, 
C. Blanc, X. of Hippo. Two bays must be noticed — Sinus Nea- 
politanus, G. of Ra/nnia/net, on the E. coast; and the S. Carthagi- 
niensis betAveen the promontories of Mercury and Apollo on the X. 
coast. The chief river is the Bagradas, Jlej'erdaJi, which rises in 
Mount Mampsartis and llows in a X^.E. course into the bay of Car- 
thage : its lower course" has been much altered through the soil it 
has brought down, and its mouth has been removed some 10 miles 
northward. 

§ 11. The inhabitants of this district in the time of Herodotus 
were the native Libyan tribes named the Maxyes and Zaueces in the 
S. ; the Gyzantes, undouljtedly the same as the later Byzantes and 
Byzacii, on the AV. coast of the Syrtis ; and the MacMyes in the S.E. 
near the Triton, perhaps the same as the Maxyes already mentioned. 
In addition to these the Phcenicians were settled at various spots 
on the coast. In the Roman period the Phoenicians and Libyans 
had intermixed, and their descendants formed a distinct race, named 
Libyphoenlces, whose settlements were chiefly about the river Ba- 
gradas. The towns of this district were in almost ever}' instance 



6 Byzacia cordi 

Eura niagis, centum Cereri fruticantia culmis, 
Electos optare clabo inter praemia campos. — Sil. Ital. ix. 204. 

" The character of this river is well described in the following passages : — 
Priniaque castra locat cano procul eequore, qua se 
Bagrada lenfus agit, siccae sulcator arenae. — Luc. iv. 587. 
Turhidus arentes lento 2^ede sulcat arenas 
Bagrada, non uUo Libycis in finibus amne 
Victus limosas extendere latius undas, 

Et stagnante vado patulos involvere campos. — Sil. Ital. vi. 140. 



300 



AFEICA PEOPEIA. 



Book III. 



founded by the Phoenicians. The names alone sometimes indicate 
this: as in the case of Carthage, from earth, "a to^vn;" Leptis, 
" fishing station and Utica, ancient." Others, as Neapolis and 
Hadrumetum, are known on other grounds to have belonged to 
them. Aspis alone is doubtful, as its existence cannot be traced 
earlier than the time of Agathocles. Under the Carthaginians, the 
metropolis was Carthage. After its destruction Utica succeeded to 
that position ; and after the separation of Byzacium, Hadrumetum 
became the capital of the latter division. The towns appear to have 
enjoyed a large degree of prosperity under the Romans, which they 
retained until the entrance of the Yandals. The history of Car- 
thage is in reality prior to the existence of the Roman province of 
Africa, and therefore deserves a special notice. 




Map of the site of Carthage. 



§ 12. The city of Carthage stood on a peninsula on the W. side 
of the Sinus Carthaginiensis between two bays, that on the S. being 
the present G. of Tunis, and that on the a lagoon, now called the 
Salt Lake of Sokra. The peninsula is formed by a line of elevated 
ground attaining the height of 300 ft. at its western, and 400 ft. 
at its eastern extremity, the two points being named (7. Camart 
and C. Carthage, Inland it slopes down and was contracted to 
an isthmus between the two bays. The circuit of the peninsula 



CHAP. XVI. 



CARTHAGE. 



301 



was about 30 miles. Great changes have been effected on its site 
through the deposits of the river Bagradas : the northern bay has 
become partly a higoon, and partly firm land; the southern bay, 
once a deep and open harbour, is now a lagoon about 6 ft. deep, and 
with a very narrow entrance. The isthmus which connected the 
peninsula with the mainland has been enlarged from 25 stadia, 
which was its width in Strabo's time, to 40. On the S. side, on the 
other hand, the sea has somewhat encroached, and has covered a 
portion of the ancient site ; the coast-line has receded considerably 
inland to the N. of the town. Finally the river Bagradas itself, 
which formerly joined the sea about 10 miles to the N., is now 20 
miles distant. 

The original city of the Phoeniciaus probably stood on the S.E. of 
the jDeninsula, near C. Carthage. From this point a tongue of land 
(the Taenia of Arrian) stretched to the S. Th^ port was on the S. side 
of the peninsula, and consisted of an outer ^ and inner harbour, con- 
nected together by a channel and with an entrance from the sea 70 feet 
^Yide. The outer one (h) was for merchant vessels, and the inner^ 
named Cothon (a), from an island in it, for ships of war, of which 220 
could be put up in separate docks. ^ The latter was probably entirely 
excavated. Adjacent to the port on the W. stood the Forum, contain- 
ing the senate-house, the tribunal, and the temple of Apollo ; and 
to the N. of the port was the Byrsa, or citadel, containing the temple of 
yEsculapius on the highest point. ^ The whole town was surrounded 
with walls to the extent of 360 stadia, the strongest defences being on 
the land side, where there was a triple line, each 30 cubits high, with 
strono^ towers at intervals. AYater was conveyed to the city by ?m 
aqueduct 50 miles long, and was stored in vaulted reservoirs. The 
suburb of Megara, or Magalia, stood W. of the City Proper. 

Name. — Carthage derived its name from the Phoenician word Carth, 
" di. city:" it appears to have been fully called Cartli-Hadesliotli, "new 
• city," in contradistinction perhaps to Utica ''the old city." This 
name the Greeks converted into Kapx'^^^^? ^iid the Romans into Car- 
thago : the inhabitants were named sometimes after the city, but more 
usually after the mother country; the Greeks calling them 4>otVi/ces, and 
the Latins Foeni. At a late period the epithet Vetus was added, in 
order to distinguish it from its colony Carthago Nova in Spain. 



^ According to Mannert the outer port was a portion of the Lake of Tunis^ and 
the entrance to it was i?iside the Taenia. The recent researches of Dr. Davis have 
led him to the conclusion that the ports were more to the N., and that the outlet 
from the outer port was by a channel communicating directly with the open sea. 
He states that the remains of Scipio's mole are still visible at the entrance of this 
channel {Cartilage, p. 128). 

9 In the final siege of the city, Scipio constructed an embankment across the 
entrance of the harbour (D), whereupon the Carthaginians opened a new entrance 
(E) to the inner harbour. 

1 Dr. Davis has transferred the site of the Byrsa from the HiU of St. Louis, on 
which Mannert places it, to a height near the sea, more to the X.E., where he 
has discovered ruins which he identifies with the temple of .Esculapius, consisting 
of massive walls arranged in the form of a temple, together with a staircase lead- 
ing up to it. 



302 



AFEICA PPvOPEIA, 



Book III. 



History. — Carthage was a colony of Tyre, established probably about 
100 years before the foundation of Rome as an emporium j ointly by 
the merchants of the mother city and of Utica. Tradition assigned 
its origin to Dido,^ who on the death of her husband fled from Tyre 
and purchased of the natives as much ground as she could enclose 
with a bull's hide:^ the latter part of the legend originated in the 
Phoenician word Bozrali fortress/' which the Greeks confounded with 
^vpcra a hide." Carthage soon rose to a supremacy over the older 
Phoenician colonies, and herself planted numerous colonies on the 
coasts of Africa, from the Greater Syrtis in the E. to the most southerly 
parts of Mauretania in the W., as well as in Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, 
and on the coasts of Gaul and Spain. The district which formed the 
proper territory of Carthage extended over Zeugitana and the strip of 
coast along which lay Byzacium and the Emporia. Her wealth was 
dei'ived partly from agriculture and partly from commerce, and her 
population is said to have been 700,000 at the time of the Third 



val of 24 years an abortive attempt was made by C. Gracchus to colonize 
the place from Rome under the name of Junonia. Julius Ca3sar renewed 
the attempt in 46 ; and it was successfully accomplished by Augustus 
in 19, who sent 3000 colonists there. The new town which probably 
occupied the site of the old one, though placed by some at Megara, 
became one of the most flourishing towns of Africa, and the seat of a 
Christian church which could boast of Cyprian and Tertullian as its 
bishops. In a.d. 439 it was made the Vandal capital. It was retaken 
by Belisarius in 533, and finally destroyed by the Arabs in 647. 

§ 13. The Romans divided Africa into two portions — Byzacium 



^ I'rbs antiqiia fuit, Tyrii teniiere coloni, 

Carthago, Italiam contra, Tiberinaque longe 

Ostia ; dives opiim, studiisque asperrima belli. — i. 12. 
- Condebat primee Dido Carthaginis arces, 

Instabatque operi subducta classe juventus. 

Molibiis hi claudimt portus : his tecta domnsque 

Partiris, justoe Bitia venerande sencctee. — Sil. Ital. 11. 406. 
3 Devenere locos, ubi nunc ingentia cernes 

Mocnia, surgentemque novae Carthaginis arcem : 

Mercatique solum facti de nomine Brrsam, 

Taurine quantum possent circumdare tergo. — .En. i. 365. 

Fatali Dido Libyes adpellitur oree : 

Tum pretio niercata locos, nova moenia ponit, 

Cingere qua secto permissum littora tauro. — Sil. Ital. i. 23. 




Coin of Cartbag-: 



Punic War. Carthage be- 
came the great rival of 
Rome, and was engaged in 
a series of wars with that 
power. In the first (b.C. 
•264—241) she lost Sicily 
and the Liparian islands : in 
the second (b.c. 218 — 201) 
she lost the whole of her 
foreign supremacy; and in 
the third (b.c. 150—146) 
she was taken and utterly 
destroyed. After an inter- 



Chap. XVI. 



TOWNS. 



303 



or Byzacena in the S. (named probably after the Byzantes or 
Gyzantes, a native tribe of that district), and Zeugitana in the N. 
(said to be named after a mountain called Zeugis, whose position is 
unknown). The line of division between the two was coincident 
with the parallel of 36^ N. lat." The division was not authori- 
tatively recognized until the time of Diocletian, nor does the name 
of Zeugitana occur in any writer earlier than Pliny. We adopt the 
division more for the purpose of convenience, than for any im- 
portance attaching to it in connexion with classical literature. We 
shall describe the towns of Byzacium in the first instance. 

I. Towns in Byzacium. (i.) On the Coast from 8. to N. Thenae was 
opposite to Cercina, and became a Roman colony with the name of 
^lia Augusta Mercurialis. Thapsus stood on the edge of a salt. lake; 
it was strongly fortified, and celebrated for Csesar's victory over the 
Pompeians in B.C. 46:^ its ruins are at Demass. Leptis surnamed 
Minor, in order to distinguish it from Leptis in Syrtica, was a flourish- 
ing Phoenician colony in the district of Emporia, just within the S.E. 
headland of the Bay of Neapolis. Under the Romans it became a 
libera eivitas and perhaps a colony. Hadrumetum, the capital of By* 
zacium, stood just at the S. entrance of the Bay of Neapolis. It was 
a Phoenician colony, and under the Romans a libera eivitas and a 
colony. It was surrounded by a fertile district and became one of 
the chief ports for the export of corn, and is further known as the 
birthplace of Caesar Clodius Albinus. Having been destroyed by the 
Vandals, it was restored by Justinian with the name of Justiniana. 
The remains at Susa consist of a mole, several reservoirs, and fragments 
of pillars, (ii.) In the interior. Thysdrus, between Thense and Thapsus, 
a Roman colony, is known as the place where the Emperor Gordianus 
set up the standard of i^ebellion against Maximin. Extensive ruins, 
especially a fine theatre, exist at Jemme. Capsa, Cafsa, in the S., 
stood on an oasis surrounded by an arid desert : it was the treasury of 
Jugurtha and was destroyed by Marius, but was afterwards rebuilt and 
made a colony. Thala or Telepte lay K.W. of Capsa, and had a 
treasury and arsenal in the Roman period. Suifetula was centrally 
situated, N.E. of Thala, at a spot where several roads met. The mag- 
nificent ruins at Sfaitla prove its importance. 

II. In Zeugitana, (i.) On the Sea-Coast. Neapolis &tood on the bay 
named after it, and was the nearest point to (Sicily. It was a Phoe- 
nician factory and afterwards a Roman colony : some remains exist at 
Nabel. Aspis or Clypea was so named from the ^' shield-like " form of 
the hill ^ on which it was built, and which stood S. of Prom. Mercurii. 
It possessed a sheltered harbour, and, being backed by a large plain, it 
was the most convenient landing-place on this part of the coast : whether 
a Phoenician town existed on the spot is uncertain, but the later town 
was built by Agathocles, B.C. 310. In the First Punic War the troops 
of Manlius and Regulus lauded here in 256, and took ship again in '255. 
In the second, it was the scene of a naval skirmish in 208, and of 



* Et Zama et uberior Rutulo nunc sanguine Thapsus. — Sil. Ital. iii. 261. 
5 Turn, quse Sicanio praecinxit littora muro, 
In clypei speciem curvatis turribus, Aspis. — Id. iii. 243. 



304 



AFRICA PEOPEIA. 



RX'K in. 



Masiiiissa's naiTow escape in •20-4. In the thii'd, it was besieged to no 
purpose by Piso both by land and sea in 148. Txuies was a strongly 
fortilied town about 15 miles S.W. of Carthage at the head of the bay. 
which is now named after its gi^eat represent-ative Tunis. Tltica was 
situated at the mouth of the western branch of the Bagi'adas. near the 
promontory of Apollo, and 27 miles X.W. of Carthage. It possessed a 
good artificial harbour, and was strongly defended both on the land 
and the sea side. It was founded by the Tyiians 2S7 years before 
Carthage.^ but soon became independent of the mother country. It 
appears as the ally or dependent of Carthage in the Roman treaties of 
B.C. 509 and 348, as well as in that formed between Hannibal and 
Philip of [Macedon in 215. In the two first Punic wars it generally, 
though not consistently, aided Carthage : but in the thu'd it seceded, 
and hence rose high in favour with the Romans," who made it their 
cliief emporium and the seat of government. The name is associated 
with numerous events in the Afiican wars of the Romans, but especially 
with the death of the younger Cato. It was made a free city and, 
imder Hadrian, a colony : and was endowed ^vith the Jus Itahcum by 
Septimius Severus. It was also the seat of a Chi'istian bishoprick. 
It was destroyed by the Saracens. The remains of temples and castles 
at D?/ar mark the site of the town. The most interesting relic is an 
aqueduct, carried over a ravine on a treble row of arches near the 
town. Hippo, surnamed Diaxrhytus, Bizerta, stood on the W. side of 
the outlet of a large lake, and derived its second name, according to 
the Greek version, from the inimdations to which it was liable, though 
not improbably it had m reality a Phoenician origin. The town was 
fortified by Agathocles, and was made a fi'ee city and colony by the 
Romans, ii.) In the interior. Zama, Jama, stood five days' jouraey 
S.W. of Carthage, and is renowned as the scene of Scipio's victory over 
Hannibal in B.C. 202. It was a very strong place, and was selected as a 
residence by Juba. It was probably made a colony by Hadi-ian. Vacca 
or Vaga was an important town S.W. of Utica at Bayjah : it was 
destroyed by Metellus. but afterwards restored by the Romans. 
Justinian fortified it and named it Theodoria. 

History. — After the fall of Carthage and the constitution of the 
Roman province, the coimtry was the scene of important events in the 
civil war of Pompey and Cssar. particularly of the battle of Thapsus, 
and again in the wars of the second triumvirate. Subsequently to this 
the province remained quiet and prosperous, the most serious dis- 
turbance being the insurrection under the two Gordians, a.d. 238. 
The struggles of Constantine and his competitors extended to this 
region, and were followed by fresh commotions under his successors. 
The African pro^sinces were united to the western empke in a.d. 395. 
and were disjoined in the reign of Valentinian III. The introduction of 
the Vandals by Boniface in 429 in suppoin: of the Donatist schism 
proved fatal to the prosperity of the province; they held it for about 
100 years, when they were exterminated by Belisaiius under Justinian, 
in 534. That emperor expended immense sums on the towns, but 



^' Proxima Sidoniis. Utica est effusa maniplis 

Prisca situ veterisque ante arces condita Byrsae. — Sil. Ital. iii. i?41. 

' AVe may conclude from the following line Vkicli Horace addresses to his 
book^ that Roman literature was cultivated there : — 

Aut fugies rticam, aut vinctus niitteris Ilerdam. — Hon. Ep. i. 20, 13. 



Chap. XVI. 



305 



the incursions of the Arabians rendered the tenure of the African 
provinces dithcult, and a series of struggles ensued commencing in 
'347 and terminating with the final withdrawal of the Romans in 709. 

VI. — XUMIDIA. 

§ 14. The iDOiindaries of Numidia were the river Tusca in the E., 
the Ampsaga in the W., the Mediterranean in the X., and the 
range of Atlas in the S. It lay between the Eoman province of 
Africa on the E. and Manretania on the AV., and corresponds to the 

rnO'lern Mgeria. The maritime district is remarkably fertile, and 
produced Iiesides the usual grain crops, every kind of fruit. Its 
marble was particularly celebrated, being of a golden yellow hue 
with reddish veins. The interior consists of a series of elevated 
plains, separated from, each other by spurs of the Atlas range, and 
adapted only to a nomad population, partly from the severity of 
the climate in vrinter, and partly from the nature of the soil which 
yields a luxuriant herbage only in the early spring. 

§ 15. The mountain ranges emanate from Mount Atlas, and 
occasionally were known by special names, as Thambes, which con- 
tained the soiu'ces of the Paibricatus, and Aurasiiis in the S.AV. 
The coast line is broken by numerous promontories of which we 
may notice from E. to AY. — Hippi Prom., Bas el HcrndoJi : Stobormm, 
C. Ferro ; and Tretum, Sela Bus. Tlie most important bays are 
the Sinus Olchacites, ^r. of Estoro.lt ; and the deep and extensive 
Numidicus Sin,, which has no specific name in modern times. 
The chief rivers vrere the Tusca, on the eastern boundary ; the 
Rubricatus or Ubus, Seihouse, which flows E. of Hippo Regius ; and 
the Ampsaga, Vrad-el-Kiluir^ on the borders of Manretania. 

§ lb. Tlie general name for the inhabitants of this district was 
Numidas, a Latinized form of the Greek vofxa^es, " nomads.*' This 
describes generically their character as known to the Eomans. 
They are described as living^ ("^ery mnch as their modern repre- 
sentatives the Kabyles) in Magolia^ i.e. huts made of branches over- 
spread with clay, and as excelling in the management of the horse.^ 



^ Virg-il g-ives a most graphic description, applicable alike to the ancient >'u- 
miclian and the modern Kahyle : 

Quid tibi pastores Libyee, quid pascua rersii 
Proseqaar, et raris haliitata mapalia tectis ? 
Saepe diem noctemque et totum ex ordine mensem • 
Pascitur, itque pecus longa in deserta sine ullis 
Hospitiis : tantum campi jacet. Omnia secum 
Armentarius Afer agit, tectumque, Laremque, 
Armaque, Amycli"eumque canem, Cressamque pharetram. 

Georg. iii. 339. 

^ Et Xumidoe infreni cingunt, et inhospita Syi-tis. — ^En. i\. 41. 
Hie passim exsultant Xomades, gens inscia freni ; 
Quels inter geniinas per ludum mobilis aures 
Quadrupedem flectit non cedens Airga lupatis. — Sil. Ital. i. 215. 



306 



NUMIDIA. 



Book III. 



They were sometimes more specifically called Maurusii Numid®, 
while later writers used the general name of Mauri. They were 
divided into numerous tribes, of which the most important were 
the Massyli^ who lived between the river Ampsaga and Prom. 
Tretum ; and the Massaesyli who, though living W. of the Ampsaga, 
were of Numidian origin. The towns of Numidia first came into 
notice in the period of the Eoman wars in Africa. The names of 
several of them furnish indications of a Phcenician origin, as in the 
case of the capital Cirta, which we have already noticed as a Phce- 
nician word, and again in those where the worship of Yenus was 
carried on, as Ajjhrodisium and Sicca Yeneria. Hippo and Collops 
were their principal stations on the coast. Y^hen Numidia fell 
into the hands of the Komans, the chief towns were endowed with 
various privileges as free cities and colonies ; and some were very 
much enlarged and adorned with magnificent buildings, as we know 
from the ruins of Constantia, Lambese, Theveste, and others. The 
ruin of the Xumidian towns was caused by the Yandals in the 
middle of the oth cent, of our era. 

(i.) On the Coast from E. to TF. — The first town of importance was 
Hippo, surnamed Regius, as being the residence of the Xumidian 
kings; 2 it stood W. of the Ubus on a bay to which it communicated 
its name. It was originally a Tynan, and in later times a Roman 
colony ; but it owes its chief interest to St. Augustine who was bishop 
of it, and who died shortly before its destruction by the Yandals in 
A.D. 430. Its ruins are S. of Bonali, Rusicade, which served as the 
harbour of Girta, was at the mouth of the small river Thapsus and at 
the head of the Sinus Olchacbites. Its site is at Stora. Out of its 
materials FhilippeviUe was partly built. Collops Magnus or Cullu, 
Chllo, stood on the \V. side of the Sin. Olchachites, and was celebrated 
for its purple- dyeing establishments. 

(ii.) In the Interior. —BvlIIq. Regia, near the E. frontier, probably 
derived its surname from being a residence of the jSTumidian kings. 
Under the Romans it was a liherum oppidum; the name J5omZ still attaches 
to its ruins. Cirta was beautifully situated on a steep rock, round the 
base of which flowed a tributary of the Ampsaga. It was the residence 
of the kings of the Massyli, who possessed a splendid palace there : 
it was the strougest fortress in the country, and the point where the 
lines of communication centred. Hence it is frequently mentioned in 
the history of the Punic, Jugurthine, and Civil wars. Under the 
Romans it was a colony with the surname of Julia. It was also called 
Colonia Sittianorum from Sittius, to whom it was given. Having 
fallen into deca^y, it was restored by Constantine with the name 
Constantina, which its site still retains in the slightly altered form of 
Constantlneh. The finest relic is a triumphal arch, now in Paris. 
Lambese lay near the confines of Mauretania, and was the station of 



1 Massy lique ruunt equites. — ^n. iv. 132. 
Et gens, quae nudo residens Massylia dorso 

Ora levi fleetit frenorum nescia virga. — Luc. iv. 682. 

2 Antiquis dilectus regibus Hippo. — Sil. Ital. iii. 259. 



CiiAP. XVI. TOWNS — HISTORY.— MAURETAXIA. 



307 



an entire legion : its ruins at Lemha are magnificent, coDsisting of the 
remains of an amphitheatre, a temple of ^Esculapius, a triumphal arch, 
&;c. Theveste was situated not far from the frontier of Byzacium. 
It was a Roman colony, and a centre of communication for the interior 
districts. Its history is unknown, but the extensive ruins of it at 
Tehessa prove it to have been an important town. Sicca Veneria stood 
on the river Bagradas, and derived its surname from the worship of 
Venus. It was built on a hill, and was a Roman colony; its site is 
supposed to be at Kaff. 

Of the less important toAvns we may briefly notice : on the coast, 
Tabraca^ at the mouth of the Tusca, the scene of the death of Gildo; 
and Aphrodisium, a port and Roman colony near Hippo Regius. In 
the interior : Tibilis, 5-4 miles E. of Cirta, %vith hot baths in its neigh- 
bourhood ; Tagaste, the birthplace of St. Augustine,' S.E. of Hippo 
Regius; and Naraggera, AV. of Sicca, the spot where Scipio had an 
intervie\v with Hannibal before the battle of Zama. The positions of 
Tbirmida, where Jugurtha murdered Hiempsal, and Sutbul, where the 
former had a treasury, are wholly unknown. 

History. — The Romans became acquainted with the Xumidians in 
the First Punic War, when they served with great effect in the Car- 
thaginian ranks. In the Second Punic War they joined Rome, in re- 
ward for which their prince I\Iasinissa was made king of a territory 
extending from the ]\Iulucha in the W. to Cyrenaica in the E., the 
proper territory of Carthage excepted. Masinissa Avas succeeded by 
Micipsa, who associated with himself his sons Adherbal and Hiempsal, 
and his brother's illegitimate son Jugurtha. The latter murdered 
Hiempsal, and declared war against Adherbal, who sought the aid of 
Rome. Tiie dispute was settled for a time, but broke out again. 
Adherbal was murdered, and Jugurtha in turn was put to death by 
the Romans, B.C. Iu6. After the reigns of Hiempsal II. and Juba I., 
Numidia was made a province by Julius Caesar in B.C. 46. Xumidia 
holds a conspicuous place in ecclesiastical history as the head-quarters 
of the Donatist heresy : violent disputes followed, and the entrance of 
the Vandals completed the ruin of the country. 

VI. — MAURETA^'IA. 

§ IT. Mauretania was bounded by the river Ampsaga on the E., 
the Mediterranean on the X., the Atlantic on the W., and the range 
of Atlas on the S. It corresponds to the western part of Algeria 
and the empire of ^lorocco. Under the Romans it was divided into 
two large portions — Caesariensis and Tingitana, named after their 
respective capitals, Ca^sarea and Tingis, and separated from each 
other by the river Mulucha. It may be described generally as the 
highlands of X. Africa, the level of the land rising from the Mediter- 
ranean to Mt. Atlas in three great steppe, each of which stretches out 
into extensive plains. These plains, though deficient in wood, pos- 
sessed a soil of extraordinary fertility, wdiich, aided by the cultiva- 
tion bestowed on them in ancient times, rendered Mam-etania the 



Quale?, iimbriferos ubi pandit Tabraca saltiis, 

In vetula scalpit jam mater simia bucca. — Jw. x. 194. 



308 



MAUEETAXIA. 



Book III. 



" granary of tlie world." The iDrodnctions specially noticed by 
ancient writers were — elephants, now no longer found there ; croco- 
diles, which could hardly have existed in such a country ; scorpions ; 
and copper, which is still found there. 

§ 18. The mountain- chains of this province are all connected with 
the great range of Atlas, and have a general direction from X.E. to 
S.W. The special names attached to them are devoid of interest, 
^vith the exception of Atlas lyimor, which is inappropriately given 
by Ptolemy to a range parallel to the Mediterranean Sea. The most 
important of the ranges is that which, striking northwards from the 
main chain of Atlas, forms the watershed between the rivers wliich 
seek the Mediterranean, such as the Molochath, and those which, 
like the Subur, seek the Atlantic. S. of the Subur, this range 
sends out numerous ramifications towards the Atlantic, which 
formed a natural division between the N. and S. portions of ancient 
Mauretania, as it still does of Jlorocco, The promontories from E. 
to W. are — lomnium, Bas-aUEatanir ; ApoUinis, near Caesarea ; 
Metagonium, Bas-cd'Harshah, forming the W. point of the bay into 
which the Muliiclia falls ; Rusadir, C, Tres Foveas, the most marked 
projection along this coast ; Abyla, Jehel-el-Mina, the southern of the 
Pillars of Hercules, opposite to Calpe in Spain ; Cotes or Ampelusia, 
C. SjK'.rtel, the extreme W. point of Mauretania ; Solois, C. Can fin, 
more to the S.W. ; Herculis Prom., C. Mogador ; and TJssadium, 
Osent. The chief rivers on the ]Sr. coast are — the Ampsaga, on the 
E. border ; the Usar or Sisar, probably the Ajehhy ; the Cliiiialaph, 
SheUif, the most important of all, joining the sea, after a nortl:i- 
westerly course, near Prom. Apollinis ; the Muluclia, probably the 
same as the Molocath, and the Malva, now the Midinui, which joins 
the sea near Metagonium Prom. : and on the AY. coast, flowing into 
the Atlantic, the Subur, Snhu, joining the sea 50 miles S. of Lixus ; 
the Sala, Bu-Fiegrah, still more to the S. ; the Pbutb, Wadi/ Tensift ; 
and the Lixus, Al-Haratch. 

§ 19. The inhabitants were known generally as the Maurusii or 
Mauri,"^ whence the modern Moors. Tradition assigned to them an 



^ The notices of this people among the Latin poets are frequent : the chief points 
that attracted attention ^vere their dark colour and their skill in archery : — 

ISIaurus concolor Indo. — Lrc. iv. 678. 
Xigri manus ossea Mauri. — Jrv. v. 53. 
Mauro obscurior Indus. — Id. xi. 125. 
Integer ritee, scelerisque purus 
Non eget Mauri jaculis neque arcu, 
Nec venenatis gravida sagittis, 

Fusee, pharetra. Hoe. Carm. i. 22, 1. 

Et heerens 

Loricae interdum Maurusia pendet arundo. — Sil. Ital. x. 401. 

Horace 



Chap. XVI. 



INHABITANTS — TOWNS. 



309 



Asiatic origin; and, according to Procopiiis, an inscription on two 
pillars at Tipasa pronounced them to be Canaanites who had fled from 
Joshua. They were divided into a vast nimiber of tribes, of 
which we need only notice the powerful Massaesyli on the borders of 
Numidia. The towns were exceedingly numerous, partly perhaps 
on account of the insecurity of the country, which necessitated de- 
fences even for the villages. No fewer than one hundred and 
seventy-nine episcopal towns are enumerated, the majority of them 
being probably insignificant places. The Eomans instituted a vast 
number of conunercial colonies even before they took possession of 
the country.^ Augustus founded three in Tingitana, namely, Julia 
Constantia, Julia Campestris, and Banasa Yalentia : and eight in 
Caesariensis. Claudius added two in the former, and two in the 
latter ; and there were subsequently added two and eleven in the 
respective provinces : thus making a total of twenty-eight. The 
capitals were Ca?sarea and Tingis, and, after the subdivision of Ca^sari- 
ensis, Sitifa, while Salda served as the chief port of this district. In 
addition to the Eoman tovv^ns, the Carthaginians planted a nimiber 
of colonies on the AV. coast, which fell into decay with the power of 
Carthage itself. 

(1). Toicns in Ciesariensis. — Igilgili, Jijeli, stood on a headland on 
the coast of the Numidicus Sinus. It possessed a good roadstead, and 
was probably the emporium for the surrounding country. Said© pos- 
sessed a spacious harbour, and was a Roman colony. It was an im- 
portant point on this coast, having formed the boimdary at one time of 
the kingdom of Juba, and at another of Sitifensis. A flourishing city^ 
Bujeljali, occupied its site in the Middle Ages. Icosiuin, the ancient 
representative of Algiers, ranked as a Eoman colony, and was endowed 
by Vespasian with the Jus Italicum. Jol or Caesarea. as it was named 
in honour of Augustus, was originally a Phoenician colony, and after- 
wards the capital of Bocchus and Juba II., the latter of whom beauti- 
fied it, and gave it its new name. Under the Eomans it became the 
capital of Csesariensis and a colony. It was burnt by the Moors in the 
reign of Valens, but was again restored. The magnificent ruins at Zer- 
sliell, in 2^ E. long., mark its site. Cartenna, Tenez, was a Eoman colony, 
and the station of a legion. Siga was a commercial town at the mouth 
of a river of the same name. Neither the river nor town iiave been 
identified. It was destroyed in Strabo's time, but was afterwards re- 
stored. In the interior, Sitifis was the most important town in the 
eastern district, and became the capital of Sitifensis. It stood near the 
frontier of Numidia at Setif. Tubusnptus stood about IS miles S.E. of 
SaldEe, and was a Eoman colony under Augustus, Auzia, Hamzah, was 
near the Gariphi Mts., and was a considerable town imder the Eomans. 



Horace uses the term Mauriis as tantamount to African : — 
Barbaras Syrtes, ubi Maura semper 

^^^stuat unda. — Carm. ii. 6, 3. 
^ The colonies in Tingitana were connected with the trade of Spain : so close 
was the connexion bet^veen the two countries that in the later division of the 
empire by Theodosius Tingitana was attached to Bcetica. 



310 



LIBYA INTEEIOR. 



Book III. 



(2). In Tingitana. — On the coast we meet with. Rusadir, a Roman 
colony near Metagonium Prom. Tingis, Tangier, W. of Abyla, ranked 
as the capital of the province, and a Roman colony. Its origin is car- 
ried back to the mythic age. Zilia, Azzila, 24 miles from Tingis, was 
originally a Phoenician town, afterwards a Roman colony with the name 
of Julia Constantia. Lixus, at the mouth of the river of the same name, 
was a great trading station on this coast, and a Roman colony. Lastly, 
Thymiateriuni, probably at Mamora, was the first Carthaginian colony 
planted by Hanno. The position of Banasa on the Subur is uncertain, 
some authorities representing it as a maritime, others as an inland 
town : in the former case its site corresponds to MekecUah, in the latter 
to Mamora, It was a Roman colony, with the name of Valentia. Volu- 
bilis was a town of considerable importance on the Subur, 35 miles 
from Banasa. Near its site are the splendid ruins of Kasr Faraun, 

Pharaoh's Castle," with Roman inscriptions. Babba, which Augustus 
constituted a colony with the title of Jiilia Campestris, has been vari- 
ously placed on the Guarga, one of the tributaries of the Subur, and on 
the more northerly Wadi al Khous. 

History. — The Romans first became acquainted with Mauretania in 
the Punic and Jugurthine wars. In the latter, Bocchus is noticed as 
king: he was succeeded by his two sons, Bogudes and Bocchoris, who 
took different sides in the wars of the Triumvirate. Their territory was 
handed over to Juba 11. in B.C. 25, in exchange for Numidia. His son 
Ptolemy succeeded to the throne, and was put to death by Caligula in 
A.D. 41. In the following year Claudius divided the country into the 
two provinces of Csesariensis and Tingitana. Twenty-one colonies 
were planted in these provinces, besides several Municipia and Ojypida 
Latina. About a.d. 400 we find Tingitana forming a portion of the 
diocese of Spain ; and CiPsariensis, which was still attached to the dio- 
cese of Africa, subdivided into Mauretania Prima, or Sitifensis, and 
Mauretania Secunda, or Ccesariensis. The Vandals seized these pro- 
vinces in 429 ; Belisarius recovered them for the Eastern Empire. In- 
cursions of the Moors followed ; and the Arab conquest in 698-700 
finally dissevered the connexion between Mauretania and Rome. 

YII. — Libya Ikterior. 

§ 20. Under the somewhat indefinite term Libya Interior is in- 
cluded the vast region lying S. of the conntries we have hithertx) 
been describing, from the Atlantic in the W. to Ethiopia in the E. 
The limit southwards was fixed at no definite point : it advanced 
with the advance of commerce and navigation, until in the age of 
Ptolemy it reached the 11^ N. lat. on the western coast. The in- 
formation that we have in reference to it is unimportant, being 
restricted merely to the names of the various physical features. We 
shall therefore confine ourselves to a very brief notice of them. 

(1.) Mountain Chains. — Mons Ater, Ilaruscli, running from E. to W., 
and separating Phazania from the Roman province of Africa ; Usargala, 
more to the W., a continuation of Atlas, S. of Numidia and Mauretania; 
Girgiri, Tihesti, running to the confines of Numidia; Sagapola, 
running parallel to the coast of the Atlantic, and containing the sources 
of the Subur ; Mandrus, more to the S., reaching to the parallel of 
the Fortunatse Insulce ; Capbas, containing the sources of the Daradus, 



Chap. XVI. 



TOWXS. 



311 



and its ^vesterly prolongation Ryssadiuin, terminating in a headland of 
the same name^ 0. Blanco: and Theon Ochema, Sierra Leone. Nume- 
rous ranges ni the interior highlands, as far S. as the latitude of Sierra 
Leone, are noticed by name in Ptolemy's writings : these, however, 
have not been identified. 

02.) Promontories, on the W. coast from X. to S. — Gannaria, C. JNVt ; 
Soloentia, C Bojador ; Arsinarium, C. Corveiro, the most westerly 
point of the continent; Ryssadium, C. Blanco; Catharon, C. iJcirca; 
Hesperion Ceras, C. Verde : and Notium, C Boxo. 

(o.; Birers. — The Siibur, Sus (probably the same as the Chretes of 
Hanno and the Xion of Scylax;, which enters the sea just below the 
most western projection of Atlas ; the Daradus, Bio de Ouro, dis- 
charging itself into the Sinus Magnus, and said to have crocodiles in 
it ; the Stachir, probably the St. Antonio : the Nia or Pambotus, Senegal, 
frequented both by the hippopotamus and crocodile; and the Masitholus, 
Gambia, Some few rivers of the interior are noticed, which were said 
to discharge themselves into vast inland lakes : of these the Gir^ and 
the Nigir are probably branches of the great river Xiger. of which some 
reports had certainly reached the ancients. The Gir is described as 
having a course of above 3';") miles, with a further curvature to the X. 
of lijij. The lakes connected with the Xigir were designated Libya 
Palus, and Nigritis, probably the modern LH'jheli : and with the Gir. 
Nuba, LaJ:e Tchad, and Chelonides, perhaps Fittre. 

§ 21, The inhabitants of the interior were but very imperfectlj- 
known to the ancients. The races that come most prominently for- 
ward are — the Gaetuli, ^dio lived in the AV. between the Atlas range 
and the l ^asin of the Xigir ; the Garamantes, whose district lay S. of 
the Syrtes ; and the Nigritse, about the rivers Gir and Xigir, and 
their lakes. 

The first of these, races, the Gfetulians, folloAved a nomad life, and 
were reputed a warlike and savage race. They first came under the 
notice of the Romans in the Jugurthine war, when they were serving as 
cavalry under Jugurtha Some of them remained in Xumidia under 
the Roman government ; but they became so troublesome that an expe- 
dition was sent against them under Lentulus. surnamed Gfettilicus, in 
the year a.d. 6. Thenceforward they are described as living in the 
desert S. of Mauretania, They were not themselves negroes, but some 
of the tribe intermixed with negroes, and were hence named Melano- 
gpetilli. The Gaetulians seem to be the progenitors of the great abori- 
ginal people of modern Africa, named Amazergh, of which the Berbers 
and Tuar-'c}:s are the branches most generally known. Garamantes 
was a name applied generally to all the tribes inhabiting that part of 
the Great Desert which lay E. of the sources of the Bagradas and Mount 
Usargala, and S. as far as the river Gir. The name was, however, more 
specifically applied to tlie people of Pbazania, Fezzan, a very large 
oasis lyins: S. of the great Syrtis. This oasis and its inhabitants are 
described by Herodotus, and most of his statements are borne out by 
modern investigation. It is surrounded by hills of stone and sand. 



Gir notissimu? amnis 
^^^thiopiim simili mentitus gurgite Nilum 

Clavdiax. Laud. S^iK i. 252. 



312 



LIBYA IXTEEIOE. 



Book III. 



attaining a height of 1200 feet, and intersected by lidges from 300 to 
600 feet high. It is deficient in water, and hence not above one-tenth 
of it is cultivable. Its chief produce is dates. Salt is abundant, and 
is applied as manure to the date-trees. White clay is used for arable 
land, and this is probably what Herodotus' informants mistook for 
salt. The story of the oxen with the long forward horns has a founda- 
tion in the practice which still prevails of giving artificial forms to the 
horns. The Troglodyte Ethiopians, whom the Garamantes hunted, 
have their representatives in the Tihhoos. who are still hunted by the 
chieftains of Fezzan. The Eomans, from whom our next notice of these 
peo^^le is derived, found them troublesome neighbours, and sent an 
expedition against them under Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus, B.C. 19. 
Ethnologically they were allied to the Ga3tulians. Their chief town 
was Garama, Glierma, whence a considerable trade was carried on. 
The Nigrit© lived on the banks of the ISTigir in the modern >S'o?/^7a?L 
Very little was known of them. Their chief town was Nigeira, perhaps 
Gona. 

§ 22. Off the W. coast of Africa lie the Insulse Fortunatse, 

Canaries, and Madeira, to which the name, oiiginally connected 
with the mythic idea of the isles of the blessed,'" was not unna- 
turally transferred, when the ancients became acquainted with the 
existence of islands in the fancied position of Elysium, and blest 
with so delicious a climate. These islands became known to the 
Romans about B.C. 82, through the reports which Sertorins received 
at Gades from some sailors. The geographers describe only six in- 
stead of seven islands, viz. : Junonia or Autolala, Madeira ; Jnnonia 
Minor or Aprositns, Lanzarote ; Canaria or Planaria, Grau Can aria: 
Nivaria or Convallis, Teneriffe ; Capraria or Caspiria, Gornera ; and 
Pluitalia or Plnvialia, Ferro. Ptolemy selected this group as the 
point through which he drew his first meridian : one of the islands 
(Ferro) was used for the same purpose by geographers down to a 
late period. The Purpurariae Insulae, described by Pliny, were |:)ro- 
bably the above-noticed Lanzarote, with the smaller ones of Graciosa 
and Alegranza. 

The isle of Cerne, ofi" the W. coast, has been variously identified 
with Fedellah in SB^ 40' jS^ lat., with Agadir in 30^ 20', and vrith 
Argil in in 20° S. : the latter is the most probable view. Off" the E. 
coast an island named Menuthias has been variously identified with one 
of the islands of Zanzibar, and with Madagascar. The probability is 
that the island has been incorporated with the coast at SJiarnha. about 
80 miles S. of the river Govind. 



Europa. (Fi-om an ancient Gem.) 



BOOK IV. 

E U E P E. 

CHAPTER XYII. 

EUROPE. 

§1. Boundaries; Name. §2. General Features. §3. Internum Mare 
§ 4. Externum Mare. § 5. Mountains. § 6. Rivers. § 7, Climate 
and Productions. § 8. Commerce. § 9. Inhabitants. 

§ 1. The heimdaries of Europe, though better known than those 
of the two other continents, were nevertheless not accurately fixed 
until a late period of ancient geography : in the extreme N. indeed 
the true boundary remained a problem even in the days of Ptolemy, 
and the vast regions of Northern Russia were a terra incognita. 
It was, however, generally believed that the continent was bounded 
on that side by an ocean, the exact position of w^hich was unknown, 
but which was supposed to extend eastward from the northern 
point of the Baltic Sea. In the N."\Y. the British Channel foiTQcd 
the limit ; in the W. the Atlantic Ocean ; in the S. the ]\Iedi- 
terranean Sea ; in the S.E. the chain of seas connecting the Medi- 
terranean with the Euxine, viz. the Plellespontus, Propontis, and 
Thracian Bosporus; and in the E. the Pontus Euxinus, the Palus 

AXC. GEOG. p 



314 



EUEOPE. 



Book IV, 



Mseotis, and the river Tanais.^ The boundary on this side was 
very fluctuating in the early days of ancient geography, as we have 
already had occasion to observe. The modern boundary is more 
to the E., and. is fixed at the river Ural and the Caspian Sea. 

Name. — The name ^' Eurdpa " (EvpdoTrr]) may be derived either from 
a Semitic word Oi^eb, "the sunset," or from the Greek words evpvs wxj/, 
the 'byroad-looking" land. The first accords best with the westward 
progress of the human race^ and the probability^ that the Phoenicians 
were the first civilized nation of Asia who had communication with 
the coasts of Europe : it is also supported by the analogy of the clas- 
sical Hesperia, the ' ' western land " of Europe, and by the probable 
origin of Arabia, '' the western land " of Asia. The second accords 
best mth the early use of the term in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo,^ 
where it seems applied to the broad open land of Northern Greece as 
distinct from the Peloponnesus and the islands of the ^gean Sea. 
The mythological account-^ that it was derived from Europa, the 
daughter of the Phoenician king Agenor, was probably based on the early 
intercourse established by the Phoenicians with the shores of Greece. 

§. 2. The general configuration of the continent of Europe is 
remarkable for its extreme irregularity.^ In these respects it pre- 
sents a strong contrast to the other continents. If we compare the 
African with the European coast-line, we find the former straight 
and unbroken, the latter varied by the projection of three important 
peninsulas as well as by a vast number of lesser sinuosities. Or, if 
we compare the interior of Asia with that of Europe, we find the 
former spreading out into extensive plains and abounding in elevated 
plateaus, while the latter is intersected in all directions by rivers 
and mountains, and broken up into valleys. Contrasted with 
Africa, we may describe Europe as the continent of peninsulas ; 
contrasted wdth Asia, as the continent of valleys. Hence in a 
great measure arose the social and political characteristics of the 
continent. Easily accessible by sea, it was well adapted for com- 
merce and colonization ; inaccessible by land, it gained security 



Hence Lucan describes the Tanais as — 

Asiaeque et terminus idem 
Europse, mediae dirimens confinia terrae. — iii. 274. 



3 According to this, Europa was carried off by Zeus under the form of a bull 
from Phoenicia to Crete. The story is told at length by Oyid {Met. ii. 839, seq.), 
and is alluded to by Horace : — 

Sic et Europe niveum doloso 
Credidit tauro latus, et scatentem 
Belluis pontum mediasque fraudes 



* Hence Strabo (ii. 126) describes Europe as 7ro\v<rxvf^ov€aTdT7} the " most 
variously figured of the earth's divisions. 




HoM. Hymn, in Apoll. 290. 



Palluit audax. 



Carm. iii. 27, 25. 



Chap. XVII. 



MARE INTERNUM. 



315 



for the growth and consolidation of its institutions, ''i'hese natural 
advantages, combined with its admirable geo;j;rapbical position, its 
climate, and its productiveness, rendered it the central seat of power 
to the whole civilized world. 

§ 3. In describing the seas which waish the shores of Europe, we 
shall commence w^ith that one with which the ancients were most 
familiar and which they designated Mare Nostrum from its proxi- 
mity to them, or Mare Internum, in contradistinction to the sea 
outside the Pillars of Hercules. The importance of this sea in the 
early ages of history cannot be over-estimated ; it lay in the centre 
of the civilized world, touching the three continents of Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, which it united rather than separated, furnishing 
a high-road for' the interchange of commerce and the arts of social 
life. Its size was unduly magnified by the geographers : its real 
length is about 2000 miles, its breadth from 80 to 500 miles, and 
its line of shore, including the Euxine, is 4500 leagues. It is 
divided physically into three basins — the Tyrrhenian or western, 
the Syrtic or eastern, and the ^g^an or northern. The line of 
demarcation between the two first is formed by a submarine ledge 
connecting 0, Bon in Africa with Sicily, and between the second 
and third by a curved line connecting the S. points of the peninsulas 
of Greece and Asia Minor, the course of which is marked by the 
islands of Cythera, Crete, and Rhodes. 

The subdivisions of this sea in ancient geography are numerous, the 
waters about each particular country being generally named after 
it. We have already noticed those connected with the continents 
of Asia and Africa. Adjacent to the coasts of Europe were the follow- 
ing : (i.) ill the Tyrrhenian basin, Mare Hispanum, Ibericum, or Ealea- 
ricum, between the coast of Spain and the Balearic Isles ; M. Gal- 
licum, G. of Lyom, along the S. coast of Gaul ; M. Sardoum or 
Sardonicum, about Sardinia ; M. Ligusticum, G. of Genoa, in the X.W. 
of Italy ; and M. Tyrrhenum,^ along the W. coast of Italy, sometimes 
named also M. Inferum,*^ ''the loicer sea/' in contradistinction to the 
Adriatic, which was designated M. Superum, '^the upper sea." (ii.) In 
the Syrtic basin, M. Sieiilum^ or Ausonium, about the E, coast of 
Sicily, its limits eastward not being clearly defined; M. Ionium,^ 



^ Gens inimica mihi Tyrrhenum navigat aequor. — Yieg. ^n. i. 67. 
Caementis licet occupes 

Tyrrhenum omne tuis et mare Apulicuni. — Hoe. Car)n. iii. 24, 3. 
6 An mare, quod supra, memorem, quodque alluit hif ra / 

YiRG. Georg. ii. 158. 
^ The term Siculum Mare is somewhat indefinitely used : Horace extends it to 
the sea W. of Sicily, and even over the TjTrhenian Sea : 
Nec Siculum mare 
Pceno purpureum sanguine. — Carm. ii. 12, 2. 
Nee Sicula Palinurus unda. — Id. iii. 4, 28. 
8 The name "Ionian" is derived by .Ilschylus from lo ; the extent of the sea 

P 2 



316 



EUROPE. 



Book IV. 



between Southern Italy and Greece as far N. as Hydruntiim in the 
former^ and Acrocerannia in the latter; and M. Adriaticum, or, as the 
poets named it Hadria,^ the limits of which were gradually extended 
from the upper portion of the Adriatic over the whole of that sea and 
sometimes even over the Ionian Sea. In the ^gsean basin, now the 
Archipelago, M. Creticum, to the of Crete ; M. Myrtouin,^ named 
after the small island of Myrtus and extending along the eastern coast 
of Peloponnesus ; and M. Thracium, along the coast of Thrace. 

§ 4, The Mare Internum was connected at its western extremity 
with the Mare Externum by a narrow channel formerly named 
Fretum Gaditanum,^ now the Straits of Gihraltar, at the neck of 
which stood the projecting rocks of Calpe on the European, and 
Abyla on the African coast, generally regarded by the ancients as 
the Herculis Columnse, ^ " Pillars of Hercules." The names by which 



was not well defined, the passages quoted below from Euripides and Pindar 
showing that it was extended by the Greeks as far W. as Sicily. 

Xpovoi' 6e rov fxek\ovra tt6vtlo<; /av^os 
cra0a)? knLcrraa' , 'lovio? KeKk-qcrtrai, 

rr)<; crrj? Tropeta? ixvriiJ.a rot? TracTLV /SpoTOtg. — ^EsCH. From. 839. 
Kat Kev €v vavalv fx6?^ov 'I- 

ovLav reixvojv 6d\acrcrav, 
'ApeOovaau eirl 

Kpdvav . PiND. Fi/th. in. 120. 

'lovLOv Kara, ttovtov eAara 
TrAevcrao'a, nepLppvTOiv 
vTrep CLKapiiicTTOiv TreSttov 

2t/<eAta? . ^SCH. Phcen. 208. 

The Latin poets altered the quantity of the first syllable for scansional con- 
venience, e. g. — 

Nosse quot lonii veniant ad littora fluctus. — Yirg. Georg. ii. 108. 
Jactari quos cernis in lonio immenso. — Ov. Met. iv. 534. 

9 The Adriatic had but an ill fame among the mariners of Italy on account of 
the violent gusts which swept over it ; Horace repeatedly alludes to this : — 
Quo [i. e. noto) non arbiter Hadriae 
Major, tollere seu ponere vult freta. — Carm. i. 3, 15. 
Auster 

Dux inquieti turbidus Hadrice. Id. iii. 3, 4. 

Improbo 

Iracundior Hadria. Id. iii. 9, 22. 

1 Nnnquam dimoveas, ut trabe Cypria 
Myrtoum pavidus nauta secet mare. — Id. i. 1, 13. 
* These straits are referred to by Horace : — 
Horrenda late nomen in ultimas 
Extendat oras, qua medius liquor 

Secernit Europen ab Afro. Id. iii. 3, 45. 

The violence of the current is characterized by an old poet quoted by Cicero : 
Europam Libyamque rapax ubi dividit unda. — De Nat. Beor. iii. 10. 

3 Much doubt existed in ancient times both as to the nature and position of the 
" Pillars of Hercules." It was usual to erect columns or pillars at the extreme 
point reached by any traveller ; and hence the pillars of Hercules denoted the 



Cjiap. XVII. 



OCEANS — MOUNTAINS. 



317 



the ancients described the Atlantic Ocean were numerous. Tlie 
Greeks described it as rj e^ca Bakacra-a, "the onter sea," with special 
reference to the sea ivithin the Pillars of Hercules ; also as rj ^ArXav- 
TLSy " the Atlantic," in reference to the mountain Atlas in the W. 
of the world ; and again as ''^Keavos 'EanepLos, " the western ocean"; 
and lastly as rj fxeyak-q Sakao-aa, "the great sea." The Latins not 
unfrequently described it simply as Oceanus, and sometimes Oceani 
mare^ The Northern Ocean was described by various names in- 
dicating either its position as 6 ^opeios cjKecwos, Oceanus Septentrio- 
nalis, &c. ; or its character as a frozen sea, as rj TreTrrjyvla OaXacrcra, 
Mare Concretum, M. Pigrum, &c. 

The subdivisions of these oceans w^re as follows. In the Atlantic, 
Oceanus Gaditanus, just outside the pillars of Hercules ; 0. Cantaber, 
B. of Biscmj ; 0, Gallicus, off the N.W. coast of Gaul, at the mouth 
of the English Channel; and Mare Britannicum, the E. part of the 
channel as far as the Straits of Dover. In the Northern Ocean, M. Ger- 
manicum or Cimbricum, German Ocean, united by the Fretum Gallicum, 
Straits of Dover, with the M. Britannicum; and M. Sarmaticum, or 
Suevicum, Baltic Sea, united with the German Ocean by the Sinus 
Lagnus, Little Belty and the Sinus Codanus, Kattegat, and subdivided 
into the Sinus Venedicus, Gulf of Dantzic, and M. Cronium, Kurisches 
ffq^near Memel. 

§ 5. The mountain system of Europe is clearly defined. A series 
of ranges traverses the continent from E. to W., dividing it into 
two unequal portions, of which the northern is by far the most 
extensive, but the southern the most important in ancient geography. 
There is thus far a general similarity between the continents of 
Asia and Europe ; so much so indeed that we may regard the 



farthest limit to which, the achievements of the god were carried : but whether 
these pillars were artificial or natural, and, if the latter, whether they were 
rocks or islands, seems to have been involved in much doubt. The earliest notice 
of them in Greek poetry- is by Pindar, who regarded them as the ultima ThuJe 
of his day, beyond which the fame of his heroes could not advance. 

Nuj/ ye Trpb? k<T\aTia.v ©17- 

poiv aperatcrtv iKavixiv aTrreTat 

OlicoQev 'Hpa/cAeo? crrriXav. to nopao) 

A' ecrrt <70(j)0L<s a^arov 

Kacro^ot?. ov fjJqv fitw^to. /ceivb? elr\v. — Pind. Olyinp. iii. 77. 

OuKert Trpocrw 
'AjSotrai/ aA.a Kiovtov 
'Yirep 'Hpa/cAeo? Trepav eu/xapec. 
'Hpw? 9€og a? e9r}K€V 
NavTtAta? ecr;( aras 

Mctprvpas K\vTa<:. Id. Nem. iii. 35. 

* Simul ipsa precatur 

Oceanumque patrem rerum Nymphasque sorores.— Yirg. Georg. iv. 381. 
Usque ad Hyperboreos et mare ad Oceanum. — Catull. cxv. 6. 
Et quas Oceani refluum mare lavit arenas. — Ov. Met. vii. 267. 



318 



EUROPE. 



Book IV. 



mountain systems of the two continents as but parts of a single 
grand system, the point of union between them being at the 
Thracian Bosporus. There is, however, this marked distinction 
between the two continents : in Asia the central mountain range 
is remote from the sea ; in Europe it is closely contiguous to it. 
The most important links in the European range from E. to W. 
are — Haamus, and its continuations between the Euxine and the 
Adriatic Seas ; the Alps, between the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian 
Seas ; and the Pyrenees, between the Tyrrhenian Sea and the 
Atlantic Ocean. 

Haemus,5 properly so called, rises on the shores of the Euxine near 
Mesembria. and runs in a westerly direction to the valley of the Strymon, 
where it divides into the diverging ranges of Scomius and Scardas. 
A lateral range, which leaves it not far from the Euxine, and whicli 
runs parallel to the co?st of that sea, terminates at the entrance of the 
Thracian Bosporus. The name seems to be connected with the Greek 
Xe?^a and the Sanscrit himan, in which case it betokens the rough 
and stormy character of the range.^ From its westerly extremity a 
series of ranges connects Hamus with the Alps ; occasionally all of 
these were included under the geneml name of Hnemus. but tliey 
were more properly linowu by the specific names of Scardus between 
Macedonia and Moesia. Bebii Montes between Illyria and Moesia. Adrius 
and Albanus in Xortheru Illyria. The great range of the Alpes con- 
nects with the Illyriau ranges at the head of the Adriatic Sea, and 
curves round in the form of a bow to the Ligurian shore near Genoa. 
The name is probably derived from a Celtic word Alb or Alp ''a 
height." This range was bat imperfectly known until the time of 
the Roman empire it was then thoroughly explored and crossed by 



^ The height of Haemus was over-estimated by the ancients : it does not ex- 
ceed 3000 ft. 

6 Homer refers to the cold of Haemus in the following Une : 

Seu'ar' e(/)' tTnroTroAcov ©prjKwv opea VLcfyoema. — 77. xiv. 227, 

So also Virgil : 

O qui me gelidis in vallibus Heemi 
Sistat, et ingenti ramorum protegat umbra. — Georg. ii. 488. 
Heemus, as the chief mountain in Thrace, was regarded as the original seat 
of music : 

I'nde Tocalem temere insecutae 

Orphea silvee, 
Arte materna rapidos morantem 
Fluminum lapsu^;, celeresque ventos, 
Blandum et auritas fidibus canoris 

Ducere quercus. Hor. Carm. i. 12, 7. 

" The Alps are described at length in tlie two following passages :— 
Sed jam praeteritos ultra meminisse labores 
ConspectEe propius demsere paventibus Alpes. 
Currcta gelu canaque aeternum grandine tecta, 
Atque aeri glaciem coliibent : riget ardua mentis 
^Etherii facies, surgentique obvia Phoebo 
Duratas nescit flammis moll ire pruinas. 



Quantum 



Chap. XVII. 



MOUNTAINS. 



319 



various frequented routes. The description of these and of the various 
subdivisions of tlie range will fall most appropriately under the 
head of Italy. The Pyrenaei Montes^ rise on the shores of the 
Mediterranean, and run in a westerly direction to the Bay of Biscay, 
forming the boundary between Gaul and Spain. The chain is thence 
continued in a direction parallel to the S. coast of the Bay of Biscay 
to the shores of the Atlantic ; the western prolongations were known 
as Saltus Vasconum and Mons Vinnius or Vindius. The name is 
probably derived from the Celtic word hryn '^a mountain." 

From the central range already described emanate subordinate 
ranges towards the S. which, extending deeply into the Mediterranean, 
form three extensive peninsulas. The most westerly of these is Spain, 
which owes its existence to the various ramifications of the Pyrengeaii 
range, taking for the most part a south-westerly direction, and so 
communicating a quadrangular form to that peninsula. The central 
one is Italy, which is supported by a single range, the Apennini 
Montes, an offset from the Alps, which forms the back -bone of the 
country, passing through its whole extent, and giving it a direction 
towards the S.E. The third or most easterly springs similarly from 
Hsemus, and may be said to have its base extending from the Adriatic 
to the mouth of the Danube, but as it proceeds southwards narrows 
into the peninsula of Greece ; the central range of this peninsula may 



Quantum Tartareus regni palientis liiatus 
Ad manes imos atque atrae stagna paludis 
A supera tellure patet ; tarn long^ per auras 
• Erigitur tellus, et coelum intercipit umbra. 
NuUum ver usquam, nullique aestatis honores. 
Sola jugis habitat diris, sedesque tuetur 
Perpetuas deformis Hiems : ilia undique nubes 
Hue atras agit, et mixtos cum grandine nimbos. 
Jam cuncti flatus ventique furentia regna 
Alpina posuere domo. Caligat in altis 

Obtutus saxis, abeuntque in nubila moutes. — Sil. Ital. iii. 477. 

Sed latus, Hesperise quo Rheetia jungitur oroe, 
Prgeruptis ferit astra jugis, panditque terennam 
Tix sestate viam. Multi seu Gorgone visa 
Obriguere gelu : multos hausere profundae 
Yasta mole nives, cumque ipsis ssepe juvencis 
Naufraga candenti merguntur plaustra baratbro. 
Interdum glacie subitam labente ruinam 
Mons dedit, et tepidis fundamina subruit Aiistris 

Pendenti malefida solo. Clal-d. de Bell. Get. 340. 

The earlier poets refer to the great height of the range, and the consequent 
severity of the climate, in general terms : 

Turn sciat, aerias Alpes et Norica si quis. — Virg. Georg. iii. 4 74. 
Furius Mhernas cana nive eonspuet Alpes. — Hor. Sat. ii. o, 41. 
Fontis, et Alpino modo quae certare rigori. — Ov. Met. xiv. 7 94. 
Occasionally, the term was extended to the Pyrenees : 

Nunc geminas Alpes, Apenninumque minatur. — Sil. Ital. ii. 333, 
^ At Vyven^ei frondosa cacumina montis. — Sil. Ital. iii. 415. 

Biniar is iugdi ninguida Pyreneei. — Alson. JEpist. xxiv. 69. 
Jamque Pyrenseae, quas nunquam solvere Titan 
Evaluit, flux ere nives. Luc. iv. 83. 



320 



EUROPE. 



Book IV. 



be observed to leave Hsemas iu about 42° N. lat. and 21° E. long., 
and may be traced through Pindus and the other Greek ranges down 
to the island of Cythera. 

The northern projections from the main range are not in themselves 
unimportant, but fall into districts that were little known to the 
ancients. The ranges of Germany are the most prominent of these, 
consisting of the Hercjmia Silva, under which name most of the w^estern 
ranges of Germany were at one time included, but which was after- 
wards restricted to the range connecting the Sudetes with the Car- 
pathians ; the Sudetes, in the N.W. Bohemia, where the name is still 
retained; and Carpates, the range which encloses Hungary on the N. 
and E.;, and w^hich is still known as the Carpathians. It may be 
observed generally of these northern ranges that they run parallel to 
the main chain, thus contrasting strongly with the southern ranges 
which are nearly at right angles with it. 

§ 6. The rivers of Europe are numerous and important in com- 
parison Avith the size of the continent. They fall, however, for the 
most part into the northern districts, with which the ancients did 
not become acquainted until a late period : those of the peninsulas of 
Greece and Italy have necessarily (with the exception of the Po) short 
courses. The description of the rivers will fall more appropriately 
under the heads of the countries through Avhich they flowed, with 
the exception of some few ^vllich come ])rominently forward as 
boundaries of countries, and which hold an important place in the 
history and political geography of the continent. These rivers have, 
with but slight variation, retained their ancient names to the present 
day: they are the Danube, the Bhine, the Visttda, the Tyras or 
Dnieper^ and the Tanais or Don. 

The Ister or Danubius*^ rises in Mous Abnoba,i the Blach Forest, 
and flows with a general easterl}^ direction into the Euxine Sea. In 
its upper course it formed the boundary between Germany on the N., 
and Rhaetia, Noricum^ and Pannonia on the S. It then skirted the 



9 The former of these names more properly belonged to the Greeks, the latter 
to the Romans. The Latin poets, however, frequently used the Greek form, e.g. 

Arsit Orontes 

Therm odonque citus, Gangesque et Phasis et Ister. — Ov. 3Ief. 11. 248. 
Quaque Istrus Tanaisque Getas rigat atque Magynos. 

TiBULL. iv. 1, 146. 

The name Danubius contains the root dan "water," which also appears in 
Rho-^fa«-us, Eri-dati-ns, Taw-ais. 

1 The early Greeks had very indefinite notions as to its sources. Pindar repre- 
sents it as flowing through the country of the Hyperboreans : 

"Icrrpov aTTo (JKiapav irayav eveiKev 

' AlX(f)LTpVU)VLd8ag, 

Mvajxa roiv OvXvfXTrCa KakkiCTTOv adkoiv 
AufJLOv 'YTrep/Sopetoi/ TretVat?. Olymp. iii. 24. 

Hesiod knew of it simply as a large river : 

"ZTQvixova MatavSpov re, /cat ''lo-rpov KakkLpeeOpov. — Tlieog. 338. 



Chap. XVII. 



RIVERS - CLIMATE. 



321 



E. frontier of the last-mentioned country in a southerly direction, 
dividing it from Dacia, and then, reverting to its easterly course, sepa- 
rated Dacia from Moesia. For a long period it formed the boundary 
of the Roman empire.^ The Khenus rises in the Alps and flows with a 
general northerly direction into the German Ocean. In its upper 
course it deviates to the W. between the Lacus Brigantinus and the town 
of Basilia, Bale ; and in its lower course it again inclines towards the 
W., and traverses a low country, where its channels have shifted at 
various times. A description of this part of its course will be given 
hereafter. The Rhine formed the boundary between Gaul and Ger- 
many, and was the great frontier of the Roman empire against the 
German tribes. ^ The Vistula is noticed as the boundary of Germany 
on the side of Sarmatia. Little was known of its course : it is described 
as rising in the Hercynia Silva and discharging itself into the Baltic 
Sea. The Tyras"^ formed the southern boundary of Scythia in the 
time of Herodotus, and the division between Dacia and Sarmatia in 
the time of the Roman empire. It is described as rising in the Car- 
pathian ranges and flowing into the Euxine. Little was known of its 
course.^ The Tanais derived its importance from being regarded as 
the boundary between Europe and Asia.^ Its source, unknown to 
tlie ancients,' is in a lake in the provmce of Toula ; it flows first in 
a S.E. and then in a S.W. direction, and discharges itself into the Palus 
Mseotis. 

§ 7. The climate of Europe, particularly of the southern portion 
of the continent, with which the ancients were best acquainted, 
presents a favoin-able contrast to that of the other continents. Sur- 
I'ounded by water, it is equally free from the extremes both of heat 



- Hence we read in Horace : 

Xon, qui profundum Danubimn bibunt, ^ 
Edicta rumpent Julia. Carm. iv. 15, 21. 

3 The name is sometimes applied to the tribes living on its E. bank : — 

Alter enim de te, Rhene, triumphus adest. — Ov. ex Pont. iii. 4, 88. 

Non vacat Arctoas acies, Khenumque rebellem 

Pandere. Stat. Sih. i. 4, 88. 

* The modern name Dniestr appears under the form Danastris in the later 
writers of the Eoman empire. The ancient name is still in use among the Turks 
raider the form Turah 

^ Ovid refers to the rapidity of its stream : 

XuUo tardior amne Tyras. — Ex Pont. iv. 10, 50. 
^ See note ^ (page 314^. Hence, also, the epithet in Horace : 
Extremum Tanaim si biberes, Lyce. — Carm. iii. 10, 1. 
••^ Lucan places it in the Rhipaean mountains : 
Qua vertice lapsus 
Rhipgeo Tanais diversi nomina mundi 
Imposuit ripis. Lrc. iii. 272. 

Virgil assigns to it a similar locality : 

Solus Hyperboreas glacies Tanaimque nivalem 

Arvaque Rhipoeis nunquam vlduata pruinis 

Lustrabat. Georg. iv. 517. 

p 3 



322 



EUEOPE. 



Book IV 



and cold, and is adapted to mature all the most valued productions 
of tlie vegetable world. The southern peninsulas^ produced corn, 
Vvine, and oil, and admitted of the introduction of many foreign 
plants, such as the cherry, the orange, peach, fig, and mulberry. 
The northern districts, being covered with extensive forests and 
morasses, were not so favoured in point of climate, and to this 
circumstance v/e may partly attribute the unwillingness of the 
Greeks and Eomans to penetrate them. There can be no question 
that a vast improvement has taken place in this respect through 
the progress of cultivation. 

§ 8. The commerce of Europe, though prosecuted on a most 
extensive scale, does not present many topics of interest in con- 
nexion with ancient geography. Being carried on chiefly by sea, 
it did not conduce to throw open the interior of the continent to 
the same extent as we have witnessed in the cases of Asia and 
Africa. There were, however, two exceptions to .this general 
assertion ; viz. the tin and the amber trade, which both led to the 
formation of commercial routes. In regard to the first of these jdio- 
ductions, Diodorus Siculus tells us (v. 22) that the merchants 
conveyed the tin from Britain to the coast of Gaul, and that it was 
thence carried on pack-horses to Marseilles (probably by the valleys 
of the Seine, Saone, and Bhone). Amber was found on the shores 
of the Baltic, and was conveyed thence by an overland route to 
the head of the Adriatic, where it was shipped for various parts : 
the extent of country traversed by this route will appear from a 
glance at the map, and it is a matter of regret that we are not in 
possession*8f the details relating to the course followed. 



8 Virgil thus eloquently contrasts the superior climate of southern Europe with 
that of Asia : 

Seel neque Medorum silvae, ditissima terra, 
yec pulcher Ganges, atque auro turbidus Hermus, 
Laudibus ItalifB certent ; non Bactra, neque Indi, 
Totaque thuriferis Panchaia pinguis arenis. 
Hsec loca non tauri spirantes naribus ignem 
Inrertere, satis iinmanis dentibus hydri ; 
yec galeis densisque virum seges horruit hastis : 
Sed gravidae fruges, et Bacchi Massicus humor 
Implevere ; tenent oleae, armentaque laeta. 
nine bellator equus campo sese arduus infert ; 
Hinc albi, Clitumne, greges, et maxima taurus 
Victima, saepe tuo perfusi flumine sacro, 
Romanos ad templa deum duxerc triumphos. 
Hie ver assiduum, atque alienis mensibus aestas ; 
Bis gravidae pecudes, bis pomis utilis arbor. 
At rabidae tigres absunt, et saeva leonum 
Semina ; nec miseros fallunt aconita legentes ; 
Nec rapit immensos orbes per humum, neque tanto 
Squameus in sijiram tractu se colligit angMi^. — Georg. ii. 136. 



Chap. XV^I. 



IXHABIT.INTS. 



323 



§ 9. The population of Europe belonged in the main to the 
Japhetic or Indo-European branch of the human race. The 
divisions of this great family and their mutual relations present 
many unsolved problems. Without going into these questions, we 
may point out the following races as among the most important : 
(i.) the Celts and Cimmerians, who entered this continent from the 
steppes of Caucasus, and, passing round the head of the Black Sea, 
spread themselves over the whole of Europe and ]_jermanently 
settled in the West. The countries occupied by them in classical 
times were Gaul, the British Isles, portions of Spain, Eh^etia, parts 
of Pannonia, and Xoricum. (ii.) The Sclavonians, or, as the 
ancients denominated them, Scythians and Sarmatians, who occupied 
the east of Europe as far as the Oc/e?^ westward, (iii.) The Teutons, 
who arrived at different epochs : (1) as Low Germans, from the 
regions between the Oxus and Jaxartes, and established themselves 
in the X.W. of Europe, and (2) as High Germans, who, displacing 
the Celts and Sclavonians, occupied the middle highlands of Ger- 
many, and are found in classical times E. of the Rhine and N. of 
the Danube, (iv.) The Gra^co-Latin stock, which probably crossed 
from Asia Minor by way of Thrace and the ..Eg^ean Isles. In 
Greece it was known by the name of Pelasgian ; the Phrygians, , 
early Thracians, and Macedonians, belonged to this race. The 
element which Italy had in common with Greece, also belonged to 
it. (v.) The Iberians, who formed the basis of the population in 
Spain and in the S.W. angle of Gaul, were of the same races as the 
modern Basques, and therefore did not belong to the Indo-European 
tamily. (vi.) The Illyrians, or progenitors of the modern Shijje' 
tares. Of the two but little is known. 



Mount Aibos. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

THRACIA AND MACEDONIA. 

I. Theacia. § 1. Boundaries and general description. § 2. Moun- 
tains. § 3. Rivers. § 4. Inhabitants. § 5. Towns ; Roads ; History ; 
Islands. H. Macedonia. § 6. Boundaries; Xame. § 7. Mountains. 
§8. Rivers. §9. Inhabitants. §10. Towns; Roads; St. Paul's 
Travels: History. 

I. Thracia. 

§ 1. The l^oundaries of Thracia^ in the Roman era were — on the 
E. the Euxine and the Bosporus ; on the S. the Propontis, Hellespont, 
and ^gaean ; on the W. the river Xestiis, dividing it from Mace- 
donia ; and on the X. Mount Ha?mus, dividing it from Moesia. At 
an earlier period the district X. of Hfemus to the Ister was included 
within the limits of Thrace ; and in the earliest times the name was 
still more broadly applied to all Eui'ope X. of Greece. The surface 
of Thi'ace is generally mountainous, and the coast of the ^gfean is 



1 The poetical form of the name is Thraca : 

Gemit ultima piilsu 
Tliraca pedum. Virg. JSn. xii. 334. 

Thracane vos, Hebrusque nivali compede vinctus. — Hoe. Ep. i. 3, 3. 



Chap. XVIII. GENERAL DESCRIPTION —J^AME. 



325 



extremely irregular. The soil was fertile,^ particularly in corn (which 
was exported to Athens and Rome) and in millet. The climate is 
described as very severe : ^ nevertheless the grape ripened there, and 
we cannot but suppose that the accounts of the ancients as to the 
climate are somewhat exaggerated. Horses w^ere abundant, and a breed 
of a white colour was famous.'* Cattle and sheep formed the chief 
wealth of the inhabitants of the interior, while large amounts of gold, 
existing between the Strymon and Xestus, enriched the inhabitants 
of the coast, as well as foreign settlers, particularly the Phoenicians 
and Athenians. Certain kinds of precious stones were also found, 
particularly one named Thracia gemma. 

Name. — The most probable derivation of the name is from the ad- 
jective Tpax^'tct, ^'rugged/' indicative of the character of the country. 
The transfer of the aspirate from the middle to the beginning of the 
word gives us the form Qpr^iKLrj. 

§ 2. The chief mountain-range in Thrace is Hsemus, which skirts 
the northern frontier and sends out three lateral ridges towards the 



2 Homer characterizes it by the epithet ipL^ioka^. 

"PCyfxov, OS e/c ©pTj/cTj? eptj3(oAa/cos etATjA-ov^et. — II. XX. 485-. 
He also represents cargoes of wine as coming from Thrace ; 
nAetat TOt olvov KKiaCai., rov tTje? 'AT(at(Si^ 
'H/xdrtat ®prjKrj9€V in evp4a ttoj/tov ayovcnv — II. ix. 71. 

3 There is some ground for this belief: several historians (Xen. A nab. xii. 4, 3; 
Florus, iii. 4 ; Tac. A?in. iv. 51) relate events which imply an unusual degree of 
cold. But the exaggerated descriptions of the ancients were doubtless connected 
with the poetic fiction of Haemus being the residence of the north wind. To the 
north of that chain the climate was supposed to be particularly mild. As an 
instance of exaggeration we refer to the passage commencing with the following 
lines, in which the country about the Thracian Rhodope is introduced 

At non, qua Scythise gentes, Mseotiaque unda, ^ 
Turbidus et torquens flaventes Ister arenas, 
Quaque redit medium Rhodope porrecta sub axem. 
Hlic clausa tenent stabulis armenta ; neque ullae 
Aut herbae campo apparent, aut arbore frondes : 
Sed jacet aggeribus niveis informis et alto 
Terra gelu late, septemque assurgit in ulnas. 
Semper hiems, semper spirantes frigora Cauri. 

ViRG. Georg. iii. 349. 
Compare also the expressions quoted in note and the epigram attributed by 
some to Csesar : 

Thrax puer adstricto glacie dum ludit in Hebro. 
ToO 6t] Ka.WCcrTOv<s tTrirov? l^ov ri8e fxeyCcTTOVS' 
AevKorepoi deLeiv d'ave/xoLCTLv 6/xotot. — HoM. II. X. 436. 

Quem Thracius albis 
Portat equus bicolor maculis, vestigia primi 

Alba pedis frontemque ostentans arduus albam. — Vieg. .oE";?. v. 565 
From their skill in horsemanship the Thracians are described by Homer as 
tTTTroTroAot : 

No(T(/)tv e(f)' iTTTTo— oAcov Qpr)KO)v Ka9opu)iX€vo^ alav, — II. xiii. 4, 
So also II. xiv. 227. 



326 



THRACIA. 



Book IV. 



S.E. The most easterly of these three separates the basm of the 
Hebriis from the Euxine, and is continued in a line parallel to the 
shore of the Proi^ontis and the Hellespont to the extremity of the 
Thracian Chersonese. The most westerly, named Rhodope,^ Bespoto, 
divides the basins of the Hebrus and the Xestus. Between these a 
third range of less importance separates the upper valley of the Hebrus 
from that of the Tonzus. In addition to these we have to notice the 
isolated height of Ismarus, near the S. coast, surrounded by a district 
famed for its fine wine.^ In the S.E. a rocky ridge protrudes far into 
the sea, between the Hellespont and the JEga^an Sea, and forms a 
long- peninsula, the ancient Chersonesus Tliracica,^ now the Penin- 
sula of Gallipoli, A wall, crossing the ridge near Agora, severed 
the peninsula from the mainland : the breadth at this point is only 
36 stadia, and the length from the wall to the extreme point is 420 
stadia. The most important promontories on the Euxine are Thynias, 
N. of Salmydessus, and Philia, S. of it ; and on the ^g«an, Mastusia, 
0, Greco, the termination of the Thracian Chersonese ;^ Sarpedonium, 
C, Faxi, N. of Imbros ; and Serrium, opposite Samothrace. 



^ The poetical allusions to Rhodope refer to its height, and to its being the 
abode of Orpheus and Rhesus : 

Aut Atho aut Rhodopen aut alta Ceraunia telo 

Dejicit. Yjrg. Georg. i. 332. 

In altam 

Se recipit Rhodopen, pulsumque Aquilonibus Haemon. — Ov. Met, x. 76. 

Quam satis ad superas postquara. Rhodopeius auras 

Deflevit rates. Id. x. 11. 

Xec tantum Rhodope mirantur et Ismarus Orphea. Virg. Eel. vi. 30. 

Flerunt Rhodope'iae arees 
Altaque Pangsea et Rhesi Marortia tellus. Georg. iv. 461. 

Sometimes the name is used generally for Thrace ; e.g. 

Spicula deposito Ehodope'ia pectine torsit. Sil. Ital. xii. 400. 

'° . . . . arap alyeov aaKov exov /xe'Aavo? olvolo, 
H6eo?, 6v fxoc eSto/ce Mapojv, Euai/0eo9 vibs, 

Ipevs 'ATToAAcurog, 05 ''la-^xapov ajU-^t^ejST^Kei. — HOM. Od. ix. 196. 
Juvat Ismara Baccho 
Conserere. Virg. Georg. ii. 37. 

Fertur in Ismariis Bacchus amasse jugis. Ov. Fast. iii. 410. 
Tu quoque, O Eurytion, vino, Centaure peristi, 
Xeenon Ismario tu, Polypheme, mero. Propert. ii. 33, 32. 

Ismarise celebrant repetita triennia Bacehse. — Ov. Met. ix. 641, 
The plural form Ismara is to be observed in the second of these passages : it 
occurs also in Lucret. v. 30. 

^ It was here that Polymnestor lived, to whom Priam entrusted his son Poly- 
dorus : 

"O'i Tr]v apCcTTtiV 'KepcrovrjcrCav TrAa/ca 
STTetpet, (jiuuTTTTOv kaov evOvvuiv Sopi. — KuRIP. Hec. 8. 
* Akttj Ao^oyKiov evTrpf-Trq? KeKfjLrjKOTL 

Ma^ov<rta npovxovcra . xepo'atov Kepw?. — LycOPHK. 533. 



Chap. XVIII. 



RIVEES — INHABITANTS. 



327 



§ 3. The chief river of Thrace was the Hebrus,^ Maritza, which 
rises in the N.W., and flows first towards the S.E. as far as Adriano- 
polis, and then towards the S.W. to the ^gegan, receiving in its 
course numerous tributaries, of which the Tonzus, or Artiscus, and 
the Agrianes, on its left bank, were the most considerable. The 
Nestus, on the W. border, rises not far from the Hebrus, and in a 
S.E. course joins the sea near Abdera. Numerous small streams 
flow into the Hellespont and Fropontis : one of these, named ^gos- 
potami, " Goat Eiver," in the Chersonesus, was famed for the naval 
engagement between the Athenians and Spartans in B.C. 405, which 
took place at its mouth. Two large lakes occur on the coast — 
Bistonis, L. JBuru, E. of Abdera, the water of which was brackish ; 
and Stentoris, formed by an arm of the Hebrus. An extensive bay, 
named Melas Sinus, G. of Saros, penetrates inland W. of the Cher- 
sonesus. 

§ 4. The earliest inhabitants of Thrace appear to have been of the 
Pelasgian race;^ these were supplanted, at a time subsequent to the 
Trojan War, by an immigrant race from the north, allied to the Getse 
and Mysi. These latter are the historical Thracians whom Herodotus 
and other later writers describe. They were reputed a savage and 
bai-barous race,^ faithless and sensual, and particularly addicted to 
drinking. They were brave soldiers, and from the time of the Pelo- 
ponnesian War were much employed as mercenaries in the armies of 



^ The poetical allusions to the Hebrus refer to its northerly iDOsition eyyv^ej/ 
apKTov — its coldness — and its connexion with the history of Orpheus, the mu- 
sician's head having been carried down the stream to the sea : 

EiT}? 5' 'HSfovuju iJ.ev ev dipecrt x^'/^*^"'- IJ-^crcrco, 

'EjSpov Trap noTafJuov, rerpa/ajaeVo? eyyvOev ap/crou.— Theock. Idyl. vii. 110. 
Qualis apud gelidi cum flumina concitas Hebri 
Sanguineus Mayors clipeo increpat, atque furentes 
Bella movens immittit equos : illi sequore aperto 
Ante Notos Zephyrumque volant : gemit ultima pulsu 
Thraca pedum. Virg. u^n. xii. 331. » 

ut nee 

Fri'jidior Thracam, nec purior ambiat Hebrus. 

Hon. Ep. i. 16, 13. 

Turn quoque marmorea caput a cervice revulsum 

Gurgite cum medio portans OSagrius Hebrus 

Volveret, Eurydicen vox ipsa et frigida lingua, 

Ah miseram Eurydicen ! anima fugiente vocabat . 

Eurydicen to to referebant flumine ripae. — Yirg. Georg. iv. 523. 
• ' The Thracian tribes of the Cicones {II. ii. 846) and the Caucones 'JJ. x. 429 
were in close alliance with Priam in the Trojan War. 

2 It is hardly in accordance with the character of the Thracians that they 
should have been the inventors of music ; yet their country was the reputed abode 
of Orpheus, Eumolpus, Museeus, and Thamyris, and was regarded by the later 
poets as the cradle of music. The probability is that the term Thracian was 
originally of wider use, and was applied to certain districts in Central Greece, from 
which the associations were in course of time transferred to the northerly country. 



328 



THRACIA. 



Book IV. 



more civilized nations. As a j^eople they had no political cohesion : 
they were divided into a number of tribes, which were engaged in 
constant feuds with each other. Of these tribes we may notice the 
Odrysae, about the upper valleys of the Hebrus ; the Bessi, in the 
mountains near the som'ce of that river ; the Bistones,^ on the coast 
E. of the iS^estus ; and the Cicones,'^ in the same neighbourhood. 
Their country was divided by the Eomans into fourteen districts, the 
names of which are of no special interest. 

§ 5. The towns in Thrace of historical imjx)rtance were of foreig]i 
and not of native origin. They may be divided into two classes — 
the Greek colonies, which were exclusively on the coast ; and the 
Eoman towns of the interior, which were built on the sites of old 
Thracian toT\Tis. The coast presented many sites most admirably 
adapted to settlement, partly for commercial and i^artly for warlike 
purposes. The position of the Thracian Chersonese was most im- 
portant, as it commanded not only the passage across the Hellespont 
into Asia, but also that leading up the strait into the Euxine : it was 
one of the two keys that locked that sea, the other being the Thi*acian 
Bosporus commanded by Byzantium. The influence of this district 
on the corn-trade of Greece was therefore very great. From an early 
IXTiod the Greeks occupied the most favom-able spots : the ^legarians 
settled at Selymbria on the rroix)ntis and at Byzantiiun, and the 
latter town in tiu'n colonized Mesembria on the shore of the Euxine ; 
the ^lilesians founded Cardia on the Chersonese, Salmydessus and 
Apollonia on the Euxine ; the Samians occupied Perinthus on the 
Propontis ; while on the X. shore of the ^g^ean, ^Enus was attri- 
buted to the ^olians, Maronea to the Chians, AMera to the Teians, 
Mesembria and Stryme to the adjacent islands of Samothrace and 
Thasos. These to^Tis reached their highest prosperity in the flou- 
rishing period of Greek history. The foundation by Lysimachus of 
Lysimachia, in B.C. 309, as liis capital, is significant of the im|X)rtance 
attached to the Chersonese in a strategetical point of view. The in- 
teiior of Thrace was thrown open by the Eomans ; and several im- 
|X)rtant towns, such as Trajanopolis, Hadrianojxjlis, and Philipix)pohs,^ 



3 The name of this tribe is not unfrequentlv used for the Thracians generally : 
BLCTTOi'Lr] (^opixiyyi \iyeL-q<; r}p\€v a.oi.6^5. — Apoll. Rhot). ii. 704. 
Sanguineum veluti qiiatiens Bellona flagenum. 
Bistonas aut Mavors cigitans — Lrc. vii. 568. 

Phrygife contraria tellus, 
Bistoniis habitata viris. Ov. Met. siii. 429. 

Nodo coerces riperino 

Bistonidum sine fraude crines. Hor. Carm. ii. 19, 19. 
* 'IkioOev /xe <l>4poiv at-e/xo? Kt/coi eercrt rre/Vacrcrei' 

Icr/aapcp- evOa 8' eyio ttoAiv e'-pa^or. coA^ecja d' avrovg. — HoM. Od. is. 39. 
^ Philippolis is classed as a Eoman town, inasmuch as the Macedonians, by 
■whom, it was originally occupied, were unable to keep possession of it. 



Chap. XVllI. 



TOWNS. 



329 



were founded on the most central spots. The selection of the ancient 
Byzantium as the capital of the Eastern Empire secured to Thrace a 
large amount of prosperity in the later period of Roman history. We 
shall describe these towns in the following order : — (1.) 'i'hose on the 
sea-coast from W E. ; and (2.) those of the interior. 




Map of Constantinuple. 



(1.) Totvns on the Sea-Coast. — Abdera was situated some distance 
E. of the Xestus. It was originally occupied by a colony from Clazo- 
mense in B.C. 656^ and 
afterwards by Teians in 
541. At the time of 
the expedition of Xerxes 
it was a highly flourish- 
ing place. It was taken 
by the Athenians in 40S, 
and appears to have 
fallen to decay after 
B.C. 376, when it suf- 
fered from a war with 
the Triballi. It was the 
birth-place of the historian Hecataeus, and of the philosophers Prota- 
goras, Democritus, and Anaxarchus : its inhabitants were never- 
theless proverbial for their stupidity.^ Maronea, Marogna, was not 
far from Lake Ismaris, in a district famed for its superior wine." It 
was taken by Philip V. of Macedon in B.C. 200 ; and, on his beino- com- 
pelled to relinquish his conquests, its inhabitants were cruelly massacred 
by him. Under the Romans it became a free city, ^nus,"^ Enos, on a 
promontory S.E. of Lake Stentoris, was a very ancient town, though 



* Hence the uncomplimentary allusions in the following- lines : 

VeiTecum in patria crassoque sub aere nasci. — Jrv. x. 50. 
Si patiens fortisque tibi durusque videtur, 

Abderiiance pectora plebis habes. Mart. x. 25. 

' Cessit et ^Etntete Xeptunius incola rupis, 

^^iQXs> Maroneo fcEdatus lumina Baccho. — Tibull. iv. 1, 56. 




330 



THRACIA. 



Book IV. 




Coin of JEniis. 



its origin is uncertain.^ In the Peloponnesian War it appears as an 
ally of Athens, and subsequently came into the possession successively 

of Ptolemy Philopator 
in B.^. 222, Philip of 
Macedon in 200, and An- 
tiochus the Great : under 
the Romans it was made 
a free town. Cardia, 
Caridia, at tlie head of 
the Gulf of Melas, was 
founded by a colony of 
Milesians and Clazo- 
menians, and in the 
time of Miltiades was re- 
plenished with Athenian settlers. It was destroyed by Lysimachus ; 
and, though rebuilt, never regained any importance. It was the birth- 
place of King Eumenes. 
Sestus,^ Jaloiua, was the 
principal town of the 
Chersonesus, and stood 
on the Hellespont nearly 
opposite to Abydus. It 
owed its importance 
wholly to its position, 
as the point at which the 
straits were crossed, and 
consequently it suiJi 
when the Romans trans- 
fei-red the station to Callipolis. The bridge of boats constructed hj 
Xerxes terminated a little S. of the town. It was taken by the Athe- 
nians, B.C. 4.78, and was termed by them the corn-chest of the 
Piraeus," as giving them command of the Euxine. It was taken by the 
Spartans, B.C. 40-1: ; was blockaded by Conon without effect in B.C. 394; 
and again by Cotys, a Thracian king, with a similar result, in 362, at 
which time it had fallen into the power of the Persians. It was be- 
sieged by the Athenians in 353, when its inhabitants were massscred ; 




Coin of Cardia. 



8 ^Enus is noticed by Homer ; it coiild not therefore have been founded by 
JEnesLS, as Tirgil asserts : 

j3aA.e 8k @pr}KOiV dyb? avSpiov, ■ 
Ileiptug 'I/x^pa(rt5->7S, 09 ap' At^^o^ev elKr^KovOeL.—Il. iv. 519. 

Terra proeul vastis colitur Mavortia canipis, 
Thraces arant, aeri quondam reg-nata Lycurgo 
Hospitium antiquum Trojae, sociique Penates, 
Dum fortuna fuit. Feror hue, et littore curvo 
Mcenia prima loco, fatis ingressus iniquis ; 
^neadasque meo nomen de nomine fingo. — ^I^n. iii. 13. 
^ Sestus has been already noticed in the passages quoted under the head of 
Abydus. We may add the following, which contain references to the lives of 
Hero and Leander : 

Sestiacos nunc Fama sinus pelasgusque natatum 

Jactes. Stat. Silv. i. 3, 27. 

Mittit Abydenus, quam mallet ferre, salutem, 

Si cadat ira maris, Sesti puella, tibi, — Or. Sei^oid. xviii. 1. 



Chap. XVlir. 



TOWXS. 



331 



and lastly it surrendered to the Romans in 190. Callipolis, GalUpoli, 

stood higher up the coast, opposite Lampsacus, and became a flourishing 
place under the Romans. Lysimachia, at the X.E. extremity of the 
Chersonese, owed its name and existence to Lysimachus, who consti- 
tuted it his capital, and peopled it with the inhabitants of Cardia. 
After the death of its founder, it passed successively into the hands of 
the Syrians and Egyptians. Is was destroyed by the Thracians during 
the war of the Romans against Philip of Macedon; and, though restored 
by Antiochus the Great, never recovered its prosperity. Perinthus, 
Eshi Eregli, was built like an amphitheatre on a small peninsula 
jutting out into the Propontis. It was originally a Samian colon v, 
founded about B.C. 599. It was famed for its obstinate defeuca against 
Philip of Macedon, at which time it was a flourishmg commercial town. 
Its name was changed to Heraclea about the 4th cent, of our era. 
Selymbria, Slllvri, a colony of the Megarians, was about 22 miles E. of 
Perinthus, and just inside the wall of Anastatius. It is noticed by 
Xenophon as the place where he met Medosades, and as being taken by 
Alcibiades. The Emperor Eudoxius changed its name to Eudoxiupolis. 
Byzantium was situated 
at the extreme poiDt of 
the promontory which 
divides the Propontis 
from the Bosporus, an 
iulet of the latter, the 
modern • •' Golden Horn," 
bounding the site of 
the town on the jS". Its 
position was magnificent, 
commanding the oppo- 
site shores of Europe 
find Asia, at the same time secure and well adapted for trade, and sur- 
rounded by beautiful scenery. Its foundation is ascribed to the Mega- 
rians, ^ who sent thither two colonies in the years B.C. 667 and 628. 
The chief events in its history are — its capture by Alcibiades in 408, 
when it was in the hands of the Spartans ; its recapture by Lysander in 
405 : the unsuccessful siege of it by Philip of Macedon in 340, when 
aid was given to it by Athens ; the heavy imposts exacted by the Gauls 
in 279 ; its capture by Severus after a three years' siege, in the civil 
war with Pescennius Xiger, a,d. 196, after which the walls were 
levelled, and the inhabitants treated with great severity ; and its final 
capture by Constantine, when Licinius had retired thither after the 
battle of Adrianople. That emperor selected the promontory on which 
Byzantium stood as the site of his newcaj^ital; and on May 12, a. d. 330, 
founded Constantinopolis, or, as it was originally styled, " Xew Rome." ^ 
The new town, like old Rome, stood on 7 hills, 5 of which were en- 
closed within the fortifications that extended from the *'Horn," which 
served as the port, to the Propontis. It was divided into 14 regions, 
and was adorned by its founder with a similar number of chu]'ches and 



^ It is said to have been bnilt on the site of an older to^vn named Lygos ; hence 
in Ausonius — 

tu cum 

Byzantina Lygos, tu Punica Byrsa fuisti. — Xoh. Urh. 2. 
- The modern Stamlvi is a corruption of the Greek eis t))I' roAu'. 




Coin of Byzantium. 



332 



THRACIA. 



Book IV. 



palaces^ as well as with, several triumphal arches and 8 public baths. 
Subsequent emperors added to its edifices : Theodosius the Great built 
tlie Golden Gate;" Theodosius II. added hot baths; Justinian, the 
" Second founder" of the city, built the temple of the Eternal ^yisdom, 
St, Sophia, and 25 churches^ and restored the palace. The chief events 
in the history of the town are — its almost total destruction in the reign 
of Justinian by the factions of the Circus, a.d. 532 ; the blockade of 
Chosroes, from 616 to 626; the two unsuccessful sieges of the Arabs 
in 668 and 675, and 716-718 ; its capture by the Latins in 1204 ; and 
its capture by the Turks in 1453. Salmydessus stood on the coast of 
the Euxine, about 60 miles IST.W. of the Bosporus, near Midjeli. The 
coast was extremely dangerous, and the people had the character of 
being unscrupulous wreckers.^ The name was applied to the district 
as well as the town. Apollonia, or, as it was latei- called, Sozopolis, 
whence the modern Sizeholl, was a Milesian colon}^ more to the N., 
with two large harbours. It possessed a temple with a colossal statue 
of Apollo, which M. Lucullus transported to Rome. Mesembria,'* at 
the foot of Hsemus, was founded originally by Megarians, and after- 
wards received colonists from Byzantium and Chalcedon, about 500 B.C. 
It was a member of the Greek Pentapolis on the Euxine. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Dicaea, a Greek town on 
Lake Bistonis, identified either with Curnu or Bauron ; Ismarus, an old 
town of the Cicones, at the foot of the mountain of the same name ; 
Strjnne, a Thasian colony, near the river Lissus ; Mesembria, a colony 
from Samothrace, iST. of that island; Doriscus, at the month of the 
Hebrus, where Xerxes reviewed his army; Aphrodisias, probably the 
same as Agora, at the neck of the Chersonese ; Alopeconnesus, Alexi, 
an ^olian colony on the W. coast of the Chersonese ; Elaeus, a Teian 
colony on the Hellespont, near Prom. Mastusia, celebrated for its temple 
and tomb of Protesilaus : it was frequently visited by fleets either 
entering or leaving the Hellespont; Madytus, Maito, opposite Abydus; 
near it was the promontory of Cjmossema, '^Dog's tomb," so named as 
being the burial-place of Hecuba, who was metamorphosed into a dog ;* 



3 Tpaxeta ttovtov SaA/xvSrjfrta yvddo'S 

"E;)(0po|^ei'os vavTrjcn, vtrjTputa vcoiv — ^EsCH. Prom,. 126. 

Haec precor e\dncat, propulsaque fortibus Austris 

Transeat instabiles strenua Cyaneas : 
Thynniacosque sinus, et ab his per Apollinis iirbem 

Alta'sub Anchiali moenia tendat iter : 
Inde Mesembriacos portus, et Odesson, et areas 

Praetereat dictas nomine, Bacche, tuo. — Ov. Trist. i. 10, 33. 

©ai'ovcra 8', rj ^tocr' . epOdS' eKTrX-fjcro} ^Cov', 
Qavovcra' rvfji^io 5' ovofxa aov /ce/cAT^o-erat. 
Mop(/)^9 GTTcoSov, 7} TL T^s €ixri<5 cpei? ; 

Kvrb? TaikaCvr\<; crrjixa, vavTtA.otg reKfxap. — EuRIP. Hecuh. 1270, 
Clade sui Thracum gens irritata tyranni 
Troada telorum lapidumque incessere jactu 
Coepit. At haec missum rauco cum murmure saxum 
Morsibus insequitur : rictuque in verba parato 
Latravit, conata loqui. Locus exstat, et ex re 
Nomen hahet : veterumque diu memor ilia malorum, 
Turn quoque Sithonios ululavit moesta per agros. 

Ov. 2Ict. xiii. 5G5 



Chap. XVllI. 



TOWXS — HISTOEY. 



333 



Pactye, whither Alcibiades was exiled ; and Anchialus, on the Euxine, 
X. of Apollonia, of which it was a colony. 

f2.) In (lie Interior. — Philippopolis, founded by Philip of Macedon, 
was built on three bills whence its other name cf Trimontiumy S E. 
of the Hebrus, on the site of a previously exi-ting Thracian town. It 
was a very populous place, and is still, as Flillijjpopoli, one of the most 
important towns of Thrace. Hadrianopolis, at the junction of the 
Tonzus -with the Hebrus, was founded by the Emperor Hadrian on the 
site of the older Uscudama. The fertility of the surrounding country 
and the centrality of its position rendered it a very flourishing place. 
It carried on several manufactures, especially one of arms. It was be- 
sieged by the Goths in a.d. o78. Adrianople is still a large place. 
Trajanopolis was founded either by or in honour of Trajan. It stood in 
the lower valley of the Hebrus, but its position is uncertain : by some 
it is placed at OriJcliovo.. about 4li miles from the mouth of the river; 
bv others on the Egnatia Via, some distance W. of the Hebrus. 

"of the less important towns we may notice — Develtus, Zagora^ "\V. 
of Apollonia: Beroea, or Irenopolis, as it was afterwards named after 
the Empress Irene, E. of Philippopolis : Nicse, near Adrio.nople, the 
scene of the defeat and death of the Emperor Valens in a.d. 378 ; 
Izurulmii, X.W. of Perinthus, and in the neighbourhood of the Campus 
Serenus. on which Licinius defeated !Maximinus : Coenophi'urium, more 
to the E., where Aurelian was murdered in a.d. 275 : Plotinopolis, S. 
of Hadrianopolis, but of uncertain position, named after Plotma, the 
wife of Trajan ; Tempyra, on the Egnatia Via, near Trajanopolis, situ- 
ated in a defile (probably the Ko^ttlXo^v ar^va. of Arrian , in which Cn. 
Manlius was attacked on his return from Asia Minor in B.C. 188 : and 
Nicopolis, near the mouth of the Xessus, probably founded by Trajan. 

Boads. — Tiirace possessed two high roads, both starting from Byzan- 
tium : one of these called the King's Road," as having been in part 
followed by Xerxes ran parallel to the ^Egfean coa>t into Macedonia : 
the other followed the valley of the Hebrus. through Adrianople and 
Philippopolis into Mcesia. The former was the route selected by the 
Romans for their great eastern road : it formed a portion of the Egnatia 
Via ; the time of its construction through Thrace seems Cjuite un- 
certain. 

History. — The earliest historical evert of consequence was connected 
with the expedition of Darius in 513 b c. against the Scythians. The 
course which he pursued through Thrace has been already referred to 
'cap. iii. § 7 ,. On his return he left Megabazus to subdue the coimtry: 
this was effected, but the Persian occupation was only of short dura- 
tion. Miltiades was tyrant of the Chersonesus at this period. The next 
events are connected with the expeditions against Greece under Mar- 
donius in 49-2. and under Xerxes in 4-80, both of which passed through 
the country. The TLraciaus joined the invaders and fought at the battle 
of Platasa. Tlie Athenians subsequently expelled the Persians from the 
Thracian towns in the years 478-476. The kingdom oftheOdrys^e was the 
most powerful at this time. In 431 the Athenians entered into alliance 
with Sitalces, who undertook a campaign against Macedonia. The com- 
mand of the Bosporus and Hellespont were of the greatest importance to 
the Athenians, and various engagements took place between them and 
the Spartans, terminating with the battle of ^Egospotami in 4<>5. Sub- 
sequently to this the influence of Sparta predominated until the acces- 
sion of Philip II. to the throne of Macedonia in 359, who succeeded in 
getting possession of that part of Thrace which lay W. of the Xestus, 



334 



THRACIA. 



Book IV- 



as well as the remainder of the coast. On the death of Alexander the 
Great in 323, Thrace fell to the share of Lysimachus ; and, after his 
death in 281, was for a short time subject to Seleucus and Ptolemy 
Ceraunus. A long period of anarchy and uncertainty followed. In 247 
the coast-towns were conquered by Ptolemy Euergetes, and remained 
subject to Egypt for about 50 years. Philip V. of Macedonia invaded 
Thrace in the years 211, 205, and 200; but was compelled by the 
Komans to resign his conquests in 196. In 190 Manlius traversed 
Thrace on his advance against Antiochus. Philip renewed his invasions 
in 184 and the following years with no permanent results. After the 
annexation of Macedonia to the Roman Empire in 148, frequent wars 
with the Thracians occurred. The country, however, preserved a show 
of independence until the reign of Yespa,sian (a.d. 69-79), when it was 
made a Roman province. 

Islands. — The following islands lie off the coast of Thrace: Imbros. 
Lemnos, Samothrace, and Thasos. Imbros, Emhro, which may be re- 
garded as a continuation of the Thracian Chersonese, is mountainous ° 
and well-wooded, and possessed a town of the same name on its Is . 
coast. It was occupied by Pelasgians, and colonized by Athenians, 
who retained possession of it to a late period. It was visited by Ovid 
on his voyage to the place of his exile.' The Cabiri were worshipped 
there. Lemnos, now StaUmene, a corruption of els rau Arjjxvov, lay 
S.W. of Imbros about midway between Mount Athos and the Helles- 
pont. It is of an ir- 
regular quadrilateral 
shape, being nearly di- 
vided into two peninsulas 
by two deep bays. It 
is covered with barren 
and rocky hills of no 
great height, which in 
many places indicate the 
presence of volcanic 
agency. Hence the is- 
land was connected with 
Hepheestus,^ and hence also it^ ancient name of ^^thalea ' ' the burning 



6 Hence the epithet by which Homer characterizes it : 

MecrcRjyv? 6e Sa^tov re kol *I/u,j3pov Trai-aAoecrcrrj?. — J7. xxiv. 7"*. 
^ Yenimus ad portus, Imbria terra, tuos. — Ov. Trist. i. 10, 18. 

8 ^Eoreo premitur circuniflua Xereo 

Lemnos, ubi ignifera fessus respirat ab ^Etna 

Mulciber : ingenti tellurem proximus mnbra 

Vestit Athos, nemorumque obsciirat imagine pontiim. 

Stat. Theb. v. 49. 

Vuleanum tellus Hypsipylaea colit. Ov. Fast. iii. 82. 

'HSrj yap jxe fcal aAA-or' ake^i^evaL /xejaacora 

'PCxJje, TToSb? reTayoiV, ctTrb ^-q^ov QecrTreaCoLO' 

Hav 5' ^|Uap ^pofxrjv, aiJ.a 8' r)€?^L<v KaraSvvTL 

"'EyOa jixe StVrtes avSpes a(f)ap KOjXLcravTO TreaovTa. — Ho^r, 11. i. 590. 
Hence " Lemnius " was an epithet of Vulcan : 

Lemnius extemplo valvas patefecit eburnas. — Ov. 3Ief. iv. 185. 
Hscc pater .Eoliis properat dnm Lemnius oris. — Yirg. viii. 4a4. 




Coin of Imbros. 



Chap. XVIII. 



ISLANDS. 



335 



isle." On the E. coast is the Hermse.an rock to which ^schylus refers.^ 
The earliest inhabitants were the Thracian Sinties : these were suc- 
ceeded by the Minyse,^ and these in turn by the Pelasgians."^ Lemnos 
belonged generally to the Athenians. It possessed originally only one 
town of the same name but afterwards two, Myrina, Kastro, on the 
W. coast, and Hephaestia on the X. Pliny states that there was a 
remarkable labyrinth on the island. Samothracia, '^the Thracian 
Samos/' ^ Samoth reiki, lies X. of Imbros, opposite the mouth of the 
Hebrus. It is of an oval shape, and about 8 miles long and 6 broad, 
and contains a mountain of remarkable height (5240 feet), which 
renders the island a very conspicuous object from the coasts both of 
Asia and Europe : the name o-d/xos has reference to this elevation. 
Samothrace was the chief seat of the worship of the Cabiii. Tliasos, 
TJiaso, lies about 3J 
miles off the plain of 
the river Xestus. It is 
co^^ered Avith mountains, 
some of which are bare, 
others wooded, the high- 
est of them attaining an 
elevation of 34"28 feet : 
only a few cultivated 
spots occur near the 
sea shore. It produced 
marble, ® wine, and 
more especially gold, the mines of which were worked originally by 




9 "''E-rrefJiTrev *I6rj ^J.ev, Trpb? 'Epjaatov \4~a<; 
XrjiJivov, Agani. 283. 

So also Sophocles : 

'Ep/xatov opo? 7rape7rep.\//ev ifxol 
(TTOVov avTLTV—ov p^et/xa^o/xeVo). — Philoct. 1459, 
1 The Miiiyas were said to be the offspring of the Argonauts and the Lenmian 
women, who had all murdered their husbands, and were living under the rule of 
Hypsipyle, the daughter of Thoas, to whom Ovid refers in the expression " tellus 
Hypsipylsea :'' see above, note ^. 

- The Felasgians were also guilty of an act of gross cruelty in the murder of their 
offspring by the Athenian women vhoni they had carried off. " Lemnian deeds" 
hence became a proverbial expression for any atrocity. 

3 Threiciamque Samum, quae nunc Samothracia fertur. — Tirg. JEn. vii. 208. 

Q)pr\i<ir] re Sa/xog, 'ISrj? r' opea crKtoei'xa. Hoif. Hymn in Jjwll. 34. 
* From the top of this rock Homer describes Hephaestus as surveying the plain 
of Troy : 

Kal yap 6 OavfJid^oiV rjcrro TTToXeixov re fJ-ax'^v 

' Yxpov eTT aKpoTCLTTj? KOpv(f)ri<; Sajuov vArjecro'T]?, 

©pT}tKtT]s* evOev yap ec^atVero nacra ixev ^ISrj, 

$atVeTO Se ITpta/xoto TroAtg, Kal vTjes 'Ax.'^lcjv. — II. xiii. 11. 
^ Arehilochus most truly compares Thasos to an " ass's backbone overspread with 
wild wood." — {Frag. 17, 18.) 

^ Non hue admissae Thasos aut undosa Carystos. — Stat. Sih\ i. 5, 34. 

Hie Xoniadum lucent flaventia saxa Thasosque.' — Id. ii. 2, 92c 
' Sunt Thasiae vifes. Yihg. Georg. ii. 91. 

Hence the head of Dionysus appears on the coins of Thasos. 



336 



THKACIA - MACEDONIA. 



Book IV. 



the Phoenicians, and afterwards by the Greeks of Paros, who settled 
here under Telesicles, the father of Archilochus, about 720 B.C. These 
Thasian Greeks also worked the mines on the coast of Thrace. Thasos 
thus became very wealthy, and was obliged to contribute liberally to 
the support of the Persian army under Xerxes. The chief town was 
on the N. coast, and possessed two ports. It was taken by the Athe- 
nians in B.C. 462, to whom the island remained generally subject. It 
was made free by the Romans after the battle of Cynoscephalae in 197. 
We have yet to notice the two small islands at the N. entrance of the 
Thracian Bosporus, named Cyaneae Insulae, from the greenish cojjpery 
colour of the rocks, and Symplegades from their apparently clashing 
together as vessels approached them. They were an object of dread to 
mariners.^ 




Philippi. 



II. — Macedonia. 

§ 6. The boundaries of Macedonia, in the extent it attained sub- 
sequent to the reign of Philip, were — in the S. the ^gsean and the 
Cambunian range, separating it fi-om Thessaly ; in the W. Mount 
Lingon and a southerly offset of Scardus, which formed the limits on 
tlie side of E pirns and Illyria respectively ; in the ^N". Sc3"''dus, be- 
tween it and Moesia ; and in the E. the river Nestus and Thracia. 



K6\x^^ ^? aXav, Kvavias Sv/XTrArjyaSa?. — EURIP. Med. 1 



Chap. XVIII. 



XAME — 



MOUXTAIXS. 



337 



The surface of the country is mountainous, but there are several 
extensive and very fertile plains enclosed between the ridges, and 
well watered by the rivers which traverse them. The sea-coast is 
remarkably irreeiilar. Among the special sources of wealth of this 
country we may n-jtice the gold and silver mines on the S. coast. 

Xame. — The country derived its name from the Macedones, whose 
original territory lay in the S.\V. of Macedonia between the hills on 
the W. border and the neighbourhood of Pella, The extension of the 
power and name of this tribe over the whole of the country was a 
gradual process^ the more marked stages being the advance of the 
frontier to the Strymon by Perdiccas (454-413 B.C.) and to the Xestus 
by Philip \od9-ooQ). 

§ 7. The momitain ranges of ^Macedonia are connected with Scordus 
or Scardus, a coutiniiation of Ha^mus, which skirts the northern 
frontier. Three offsets from this range penetrate southwards through 
the coimtry. The most Avesterly divides the Strymon h'om the 
Nestus under the name of Orbelus, and is prolonged in an offset 
named Pangseus,^ Pirnayi. famed for its mines of gold and silver. 
A second divides the basins of the Axiiis and Strymon and was 
known Ijy the name of Cercine, Karadagh^ between P^eonia and 
Mygdonia, and Dysorum, more to the S. near Lake Prasias. The third 
hi the W. was known by the names of Bamus and Bermius, lower 
down, near the town of Bercea. The central range gives the most 
prominent feature to the line of the coast by forming the peninsula 
of Chalcidice. Avhich is enclosed by the Sinus Thermaicus, B, of Salo- 
aiki, ill the "\V., and the Sinus Strymonicus, of Bendina in the E., 
and which terminates towards the S. in the three lesser peninsulas 



9 The following are the classical allusions to this monntain : the deity to whom 
Euripides refers may be either Bacchus or Lyciu'gus, king of the Edonians, who 
is said to have been torn to pieces by horses in this mountain : — 

A' a/xcSl Tlayyctiov Oefj-eOka 

Nateraoi/re? e^av. PiND. Fyth. iv. 319. 

Bo'A^rj? 6' eKcLOv 86va<a, nayvatd;^ r" opo? 

■HScui/t'a' alav. .EsCH. Pei'S. 494. 

BttK^ov -podiijrr]';, 6? re IIay7atov TTerpav 

"nt/crjcre creiJii'dg rolcnv ecSocrtv 0ed?.— EURIP, Ixhes. 969. 

Altaque Pangeea, et Rhesi Mavortia tellus. — Virg. Gcorg. iv. 462. 

Video Pangaea nivosis 
Cana jugis. I at. i. 680. 

Ilepcocra yap Srj Troranxtov? Biappoa?, 
Ae/crpot? e—\a.Or\v STpu/aoVo? 4>vt(xXixlol<;. 

UdyyaLOv— EuRTP. FJieS. 916. 

- ANC. GEOCi. Q 



338 



MACEDONIA. 



Book IV. 



of Acte, Sithoiiia,^ and Pallene,^ with the intervening bays named 
Sin. Singiticus, and Sin. Toronaicus ; the extreme jDoints of the penin- 
sulas were named respectively Nymphasum, Hagio Ghiorgld : DerrMs, 
Bhrejx/no, and Canastraeum, Paliuri. In addition to these we may 
notice the promontories of Ampelus, Kartali, in Sithonia ; Posidium 
01 Posidoniiim, Posidhl, in the S.AV. of Pallene ; Gigonis, Ajjo.nomi ; 
and ^nus, Kara-hum v., on the AV. coast of Chalcidice. 

Of all the Macedonian mountains, Athos, at the extremity of tlie 
peninsula of Acte, possesses the highest interest : the xvhole of the 
j)eniDsula is rugged and mountainous, and at its southern extremity 
Athos rises conspicuously to the height of 6350 feet — an insulated cone 
of white limestone.^ Off the adjacent promontory the fleet of Mace- 
donia was wrecked in B.C. 492 : to avoid a similar disaster Xerxes cut 
a canah^ across the isthmus about 1 J miles S. of Acanthus : the breadth 
of the isthmus is 2500 yards, and the traces of the canal are still per- 
ceptible, though its existence was disbelieved by the ancients.^ The 
mountain and peninsula are now named Monte Santo from the number 
of monasteries and chapels on it. 

§ 8. The largest river in Macedonia is the Axius,^ Vardar, which 



1 Sithonia is used by Virgil as a synonym for any northern country M-ith a 
severe climate ; by Ovid and Horace for Thrace ; their allusions to Bacchus imply 
the Thracian tendency to drunkenness : 

Sithoniasque nives hiemis subeamus aquosa?. — Vieg. EcI. x. 66. 
Tempus erat, quo sacra solent Trieterica Bacchi 
Sithonite celebrare nurus. Ov. Met. vi. 587. 

Monet Sithoniis non levis Evius. Hor. Carm. i. 18, 9, 

- Pallene, or Phlegra, as it was otherwise called, was the fabled scene of the 
conflict between the gods and the Titans, as well as of that between Hercules 
and the giant Alcyoneus, which was sometimes placed at the isthmus of Corinth : 
orav 6to\ kv ttcSio) $A.e- 
ypaq Tiy6.vr^(jaLV iJ.a.\av 

' AvTLOLi^ojo-Lv— PixD. Xem. i. 100. 

Koi Tov jSovjSoTav ovpet IcroVy 
^kiypaicTLV evpiov, 'AAkvokJ), 

Xepcrlv ^apv(^96yyoiO I'ei pa? 

'HpaKAerj?. VlSD. Uth. vi. 47. 

3 Juno is represented as alighting upon it in her journey from Olympus to 
Lemnos : 

TiiepC-qv 6' eTTL^acra koL 'YLiJiaQCrjv epareLvrji/, 
Xevar l——o~6ku}V Qpr]Ko}v opea VL<f>6evra, 
'Xi<.poTdTa<; Kopv(pa<;, ov8e x^oVa fJidp—Te ttoSouv. 

WOooo 8' cttI ttovtov k^rjaaro /cv/uatVoyra. — Ho:m //. xiv. 226. 
* Cum Medi peperere noviuii mare, cumque juventus 

Per medimn classi barbara navit Athon. — Catull. Ixvi. 45, 
Velificatus Athos, et quicquid Greecia mendax 
Audet in historia. Jrv. x. 174. 

^ The importance of the Axius is well depicted in the following passages : 
Avrap nvpatxp.7]? aye Uatoi^a? ayKv\oTc.^ov<?. 
Tr)\69ev 'Ap.uScoi'O?, 0.77' 'A^tov evpt'pe'ovro?. 
'ASlov, ov koAXlcttov vScop e-t/ciSrarat alav. — Ho^I. //. ii. 848. 



Chap. XVIII. 



RIVERS — LAKES. 



339 



rises in Mount Scardus, and flows towards the S.E. into the 1 hermaic 
Gulf, receiving in its course the Erigon, Tzarna^ from the W. The 
lower course of the Axius has undergone considerable changes. The 
Strymon/ Struma^ is the next in point of importance : it rises in the 
N.E. and flowing towards the S. and S.E., passes through the Lake 
of Prasias, and falls into the Strymonic Gulf near the town of Amphi- 
13olis : its banks were much frequented by cranes. The Haliacmon, 
Vistritza, in the S., is a considerable stream, rising on the border of 
Epirus, and after a circuitous course to the S.E. and X.E. flowing 
into the Thermaic Gulf. In early times it received the Lydias^ from 
the Lake of Fella as a tributary ; but this stream now joins the 
Axius. There are several large lakes in Macedonia, one of which, 
Prasias or Cercinitis, Tak-hyjio, has been already noticed as being 
formed by the river Strymon ; Herodotus (v. 16) gives an interest- 
ing account of its amphibious inhabitants. Bolbe,^ Besikia^ lies near, 
the Strymonic Gulf, with which it is connected by a channel flo^ying 
through the pass of Aulon or Arethusa ; it is about 12 miles long, 
and 7 broad. Eegorritis was a small lake in Eord£ea, probably 
Kitrini. 



Ma/caip d) Tltepta, cre^eraC a Evl'o?, 
"Hfet re xopevcrwv 
''Afj.cL BaK;)(ev,aacrt' 

ToV t" (LKvpoav 5ta/Sa? XSlov 

Ei/\.tcr(70|U.eVG.? Maytaoa? ci^eL, . ^ 
A-vSlcv re rov rag eu6atjU,oi^ia? 
BpoTOt? oX^oSorav, —arepa re 
Tov ekKvov ei; 177770V x^P°-^ v^acnv 

KaXkiaTOLCTL ki-aiveiv. EURIP. Baccli. 557. 

■ The poetical allusions to the Strymon have reference to its northerly position 
and the abundance of cranes on its banks. 

Tr-qyi'VCTLv 5e rrau 
'Pt'e^poi' ayi'ov Srpv/xoVo?. ^EscH. PerS. 496. 

Tet'xea ixev Kal Xaeq v—al pLTrrj<; k€ TricrOLev 

l,TpvfLoinov Bopeao. Calltm. Hymn, in Del. 25. 

Ilj'oat 6' CLTTO 2TpvjU.oi'OS jUO/Vovcrat 

KaKoVxoAot— .EscH. Agani. 192. 

Quale s sub nubibus atris 
Str;\-inonije dant sig-na grues, atque eethera tranant 
Cum sonitu, fugiuntque Notos clamors secundo. — Virg. ^En. x. 264. 

Nec quo? Strymonio de grege ripa sonat. — Mart. ix. 30. 

Deseritur Strymon, tepido conimittere Xilo 

Bistonias consuetus aves. Lrc. iii. 199. 

^ This river is referred to in the passage quoted above (note 

^ MaKeSoj'C'jv 

Xc-SpcLV a(f)tK6ixecr9' eir' 'A^Cov 776poi', 

BoA/St]? 6' eAecor SoVa/ca JEsca. Pevs. 4 92. 

Q 2 



840 



MACEDONIA. 



Book IV. 



§ 9. The Macedonians i were allied to the Hellenic race, hut were 
not regarded as pure Hellenes 2 : they formed hut one element in the 
population of Macedonia : the rest were either -Thracians, as the 
P^onians, Pierians, Bottiseans, Edonians, &c., or lUyrians, as the 
Lyncestians and Eordoeans. Greek colonies were x)lanted along the 
coasts. The Macedonians w^ere regarded hy the Greeks as a semi- 
harbarous people, hut it is tolerably certain that they had attained 
a considerable advance in the arts : their coinage, which is of a re- 
markably fine character, is evidence of this." The original Macedonia 

was divided into two 
parts, Ujiper and Lower : 
the former consisting of 
the western district ad- 
jacent to the hills, the 
latter of the districts 
about the tributaries as 
far as Pella. In addi- 
tion to this, the countr}^ 
was parcelled out into 
districts named after 
the various tribes, of 
which the most important were as follows : Edonis * between the 
Strymon and Nestus, Occupied by a Thracian tribe ; Bisaltia between 
the Strymonic Gulf and Lake Bolbe ; Sintica, W. of Lake Prasias ; 
Mygdonia,^ between the Axius in the AV. and Lake Bolbe in the E., 
in the peninsula of Chalcidice; EmatMa^ between the mid-courses 



1 The late Latin poets adopted the form Macetae in lieu of Macedonia, e. g. 

Rursus bella volet Macetum instaurare sub armis.— Sil. Ital. xiii. 878. 
Nec te regnator Macetum nec barbarus unquam.- Stat. Silv. iv. 6, 106. 

2 The language of the Macedonians bore some affinity in its structure to the 
^olian dialect, and contained several ^ords that are found in Latin. 

3 The coin represented above exhibits the head of Artemis Tauropolos, and on 
the reverse the club of Hercules encircled ^vith a garland of oak. 

^ Xon ego sanius 

Bacehabor Edonis. Hon. Carm. ii. 7, 26. 

Utque suum Bacchis non sentit saucia vulnus 
Dum stupet Edonis exululata jugis. Ov. Trist. iv. 1, 41. 

Nec minus assiduis Edonis fessa choreis. — Propeet. i. 3, 0. 
Some of the Latin poets altered the quantity of the penultimate : 
Edonis ut Pangsea super trieteride mota 

It juga, et inclusum suspirat pectore Bacchum. — Sil. Ital. iv. 7 7 8. 
^ The Mygdonians were a Thracian race. The classical allusions to Mygdonia 
refer not to this country, but to a district in Asia Minor. 

6 In the Homeric age Emathia was restricted to the southern district near the 
Haliacmon — a country which well deserves the epithet of "lovely;" 

Ilteptrjp' 6' ewL^aaa Kol 'H/u.a0trji^ lpareivr,v — xiv. 226. 




Coin of Macedonia. 



Chap. XVIII. 



DIVISIONS — TOWXS. 



341 



of the Axius and Haliacmon containing the capital, Pella ; Bottiaea, 
a maritime district between the lower courses of the rivers just 
mentioned ; Pieria, a narrow strip of plain between the mouths of 
the Peneus and Haliacmon, the reputed birth-place of Orpheus and 
of the Muses, whence the name of Pierides was transferred into 
Boeotia ; Elimiotis in the upper valley of the Haliacmon ; Orestis on 
the borders of Epirus, and occupied by an Epirot tribe ; Eordaea, a 
secluded district bet^veen the basins of the Axius and the Haliacmon 
to the W. of Mount Bermius ; Lyiicestis " in the W. in the southern 
half of the basin of the Upper Erigon, where the valley of the Bevus 
lies ; Paeonia, in the X. and X.E., whither the P^eones, who once 
occupied the whole valley of the Axius ^ withdrew after the Argolic 
colonization of Emathia ; the principal tribes to the E. were the 
Odomanti, Astrgei, and Agrianes. The Eomans at first divided the 
whole country into four parts in the following manner : — (1) from 
the Xestus to the Strymon, with Amphi}X)lis as its capital ; (2) from 
the Strymon to the Axius, with Thessalonica as its capital ; (3) from 
the Axius to the Peneus, with Pella as its capital ; (4) the mountain 
district, with Pelagonia as its capital. 1'hey afterwards, however, 
united it with Illyria and Thessaly as one province. Under Con- 
stantine it was divided into Prima and Secunda or Salutaris, the 
former being the coast-district, the latter the interior. 

§ 10. The towns of historical importance in Macedonia were, with 
the exception of the capitals Edessa and Pella, situated either on or 
adjacent to the sea-coast. ]\Iany of them received colonies from 



' It is sometimes called Lynciis by Livy and Thucydides ; the Egnatian Road 
traversed it, and it was the scene of operations in Sulpicius's campaign against 
Philip in b.c. 200. Ovid describes a mineral spring in this district, which has 
been discovered at a place called Eccisso Verheni : 

Hnic fluit effectu dispar Lyncestius amnis, 

Quem quicmique parmn moderate gutture traxit, 

Hand aliter titnbat qnam si mera vina bibisset.' — Met. xv. 329. 

Persens traversed this district in his march from Citiimi to Eh^mia Liv, xlii. 
53). 

8 In the Homeric age they were near the sea coast : 

AvTap Ilvp a (,';)( /ar]? aye Ilatova? ay^vKoTo^ov; 

Ti-jkoOcv 'AjU,u6a)i/05, air' 'X^lov evpvpeoi'TO?. — II. ii. 848. 

Emathius is frequently used by the Latin poets as an epithet of Alexander ; as 
in the expressions Ji'w a i'A// manes (Stat. Silv. iii. 2, 117), Ematliius dux (Ov. Trist. 
iii. 0, 39), Emathia acies {Luc. viii. 531). Elsewhere it is used as a general term 
for Macedonia, e. g. : — 

Vel nos Emathiis ad Paeonas usque nivosas 

Cedamus campis. Ov. Met.\.o\2,. 

Bella per Emathios plusquam civilia campos 

Jusque datum sceleri canimus. Luc. i 1. 

Xec fuit indignum superis, bis sanguine nostro 

Emathiam et latos Htemi pinguescere campos. — Virg. Georg. i, 4 91. 



MACEDOXIA. 



Book IV. 



342 



Greece : PotidcTa, for instance, from Corintli, Mende and Metlione from 
Eretria, Acanthns from Andros, Torone fi'om Euboea, Amphipoli-"; 




Amphipolis. 



and Neapolis from Athens, and Olyntlius from the Greeks of Chalci- 
dice itseh. Therma, the old name of Thessalonica, bespeaks a Greeek 
origin : so also does Cremdes, the fomier name of Philippi ; and Apol- 
lonia, which belonged to two towns, one in Mygdonia, the other in 

Chalcidice. Some of these towns come prominently forward in tlie 
Pelopomiesian AVar — particularly Potida^a, A_mphii;Kjlis. and Acan- 
thus. Tlie coast district of Macedonia was, down to this period, 
entirely independent of the ^lacedonian kings, whose seat of power 
was fixed in the valley of the Axius. After the conclusion of the 
Pelo]ionnesian AVar the Chalcidian Greek towns were formed into a 
confi-duracy under the presidency of Olynthiis, which lasted until 
B.C. 379. About the middle of the 4th century B.C., Phiiij:) succeeded 
in reducing them to submission. The towns which underwent a 
change at this ^leriod were Potid-iea and Therma, which were re- 
spectively named Cassandria and Thessalonica. Several of the Mace- 
donian towns flemished under the Eomans, particularly those that 
stood on the Egnatia Via. 

1. — Ou the Coast from E. to TP. Philippi stood near the eastern 
frontier about ten miles from the sea, and was named after Phihp the 
father of Alexander^ by whom the toTSTi, formerly called Cremdes, 



ciiAP. xvin. 



TOWXS, 



343 




Coin of Phiiippi. 



had heen enlarged as a border fortress on the side of Tin-ace. A stream 
named the Gangitas flowed by 
it. The town is chiefly famous 
for the two great battles^ 
between Brutus and Cassius 
on the one side, Antony and 
Octavian on the other, which 
were fought on the phiin 
S. of the town, B.C. 42. 
The republican leaders held 
a strong position on a couple 

of hills about 2 miles from the to^^vn, with a pass between them: the 
triumvirs attacked them from the maritime plains. Augustus made it 
a colony, with the name Col. 
Jul. Aug. Philip. Neapolis, 
Kavallo, which served as 
the port of Phiiippi, was 
probably the same place as 
the earlier Datum, which 
was originally a colony of 
Thasos. and afterwards occii- 
pied by Athenian settlers, 
who gave it the name of 
Xeapolis ; a range of hills 
intervenes betw^een it and 
Phiiippi, AmpMpolis stood 
on an eminence on the E. 
bank of the Strymon about 
3 miles from the sea. where 
Eion served as its port : it 
derived its name from being 
almost surrounded by the 
river. Its position was an 
important one, as command- 
ing the only easy communi- 
cation between Greece and 
Thrace : several roads met 
here, whence its name of 
EnneaHodoi '^nine ways "' : attempts were made to colonize it by Aris- 




I'iaii of the Xeigbbourhood of AmphipoliSc 

iOlis. 



1. Sit'^ of Amp' 

2, Site of Eion. 
i. Long Wall of Amphi 



polis ; the three 
across ia tieatc the 
Lake Cerciuitis. 



:\Iany Roman writers describe this battle as fought on the same ground as 
Pharsalia : — 

Pharsalia sendet illimi 
Emathiaque iteruin niadefacti ccede Phiiippi. — Ov. 3Ief. xv. S23. 
Ante novne venient acies, scelerique secundo 
Praestabis nondum siccos hoc- sanguine campos. — Lrc. vii. So 3. 
Thessalitie campis Octavius abstulit udo 

Csedibus assiduis gladio, Juv. viii. 242. 

The mistake may have originated in the ambiguity of Yirgil's lines : — 
Ergo inter sese paribus concurrere telis 

Eomanas acies iterum ^idere Phiiippi. Georci. i. 4S9. 

The poet Horace was present at this battle, as he himself tells us : — 
Tecum Philippos et celerem fugam 

Sensi, relicta non bene parmula. Carm. ii. 7, 9. 

Lucan takes considerable license when he describes Phiiippi as close to Hicmus : — 
Latosque Hnemi sub rupe Philippos. i. OSO. 



344 



MACEDOXIA. 



Book IV 



tagoras of Miletus in B.C. 497, and by the Athenians in 465 ; these failed, 
but a second trial by the Athenians in 437 was successful. It soon 

became an important 
town : it was captured 
by Brasidas in 424^ and. 
in spite of the attempt 
to recover it by the 
Athenians under Cleon 
in 4-22, it remained inde- 
pendent of them. Philip 
of Macedon took it in 
358, and it remained at- 
tached to Macedonia un- 
til 168, when the Romans 
made it a free city. x\ few remains still exist at Xeokhorio. Olynthus 
was favourably situated in a fertile plain at the head of the Toronaic 
Gidf, between the peninsulas of Pellene and Sithonia. Originally a 
Bottisean town, it j^assed at the time of the Persian invasion into the 
hands of the Chalcidican Greeks. From its maritime position it became 
an important place, and, under the early Macedonian kings, the head 
of a powerful confederacy, which was, after a long contest, dissolved by 
Sparta in B.C. 379. The growing power of the Macedonian kings 
brought Olynthus into alliance with Athens in 352, but the town fell 
through treachery into the hands of Philip, and was utterly destroyed 
in 347. A few vestiges mark its site at xiio Mamas. Potidaea, PiiKika, 
originally a Dorian cit}' colonized from Corinth, stood on the isthmus 
of the peninsula of Pellene. It yielded to the Persians on their march 
into Greece, but after the battle of Salamis resisted them, and was un- 
successfully besieged by them. It then attached itself to Athens, and, 
ha^^ng afterwards revolted, was taken after a two years' siege in B.C. 429. 
Having passed into the hands of the Olyntlhans in 382, of the Athenians 
in 364, and of Philip ^ who gave the land back again to the Olynthians 
but destroyed the town, it was at length rebuilt by Cassander with the 
name of Cassandria, and peopled with the Olynthians and others : it 
then became one of the most important towns of Macedonia. Its 
occupation by the tyrant ApoUodorus about 279, and its unsuccessful 
siege by the Romans in 169, are the chief events of its later history. 
Thessalonica stood at the head of the Thermaic Gulf, partly on the 

level shore, partly on the 
slope of a hill. From 
its admirable position in 
relation to the valley of 
the Axius in the AY. and 
that of the Strymon in 
the E., and also from 
its possessing a good 
port, it was and still is 
Coin of ThessaloDic I. (as Salonihi) the most 

important commercial 
town of this district. 
Its original name was Therma, from the hot springs about it : this was 
changed to Thessalonica, probably by Cassander, who rebuilt it in B.C. 
315, and named it after his wife or daughter. Its early history is unim- 

1 Callidiis emptor Olynthi.' — Juv. xii. 47. 




Coin of Amphipolii. 




Chap. XVIII. 



TOAYXS. 



345 



portant. Xerxes rested here in his invasion of Greece : the Athenians 
occupied it in B.C. 421, but resigned it to Perdiccas in 419. Under 
the Romans it became the metropolis of Macedonia, and from its 
central position, " posita in greinio imperii nostri," as Cicero says, it 
was the chief town between the Adriatic and Euxine seas. Cicero 
visited it several times : it was made a free town after the second Ci\ il 
AVar, and was governed by six supreme magistrates. The Via Egnatia 
intersected the town from E. to W., and two arches still exist at each 
entrance, the western supposed to commemorate the battle of Philippi, 
the eastern the victory of Constantine either over Licinius or over the 
Sarmatians. Methone was a Greek colony of Eretria, situated about 
2 miles from the W. coast of the Thermaic Gulf : it was occupied by 
the Athenians in their war with Perdiccas. and remained in their haiKV^ 
until B.C. 353, when it was taken and destroyed by Philip. Pydna 
was originally built on the coast of the Thermaic Gulf, but having 
been taken in B.C. 411 by Archelaus, it was removed to a distance of 
about 2i miles from the sea. It afterwards fell into the power of 
Athens, but was betrayed to Philip in 356. The place is chiefly famous 
for the great battle between Perseus and ^milius Paullus in 16<S, 
which sealed the fate of the Macedonian monarchy : two tumuli near 
Ayan probably mark the scene of the engagement. Dium, though not 
a large town, was A^aluable from its position near the W. coast of the 
Thermaic Gulf, commanding the coast-road into Thessaly. In the 
Social War it was almost destroyed by the ^tolians, but it recovered, 
and was occupied by Perseus in B.C. 169 : it afterwards became a 
Roman colony. The remains of a stadium and theatre still exist near 
Malathria : the town was adorned with numerous works of art, par- 
ticularly Lysippus's group of the 25 chieftains who fell at the Granicus, 
which was placed here by Alexander, and was afterwards transferred 
to Rome. 

Of the less important towns we may notice : — (Esyme, a colony from 
Thasos in Pieria, on the coast of the Strymonic Bay. Phagres, Orfana, 
a fortress on the same coast S.E. of Amphipolis. Eion, the port of 
Amphipolis at the mouth of the Strj^mon, the spot where Xerxes 
sailed for Asia; it was taken by Cimon in the Persian War, and besieged 
by Brasidas in the Peloponnesian War. Myrcinus, on Lake Prasias, 
X". of Amphipolis ; it was selected by Histiaeus of Miletus for his settle- 
ment, and was the place whither Aristagoras retired. Siris or Serrhae 
in Odomantice, in the widest part of the great Strymonic plain, visited 
by Xerxes in his retreat from Greece, and by P. ^milius Paulus after 
his victory at Pydna. Argilus, in Bisaltia, W. of Amphipolis. Heraclea 
Sintica, Zervoklwri, somewhat W. of Lake Prasias, the place where 
Demetrius, son of Philip 
V. was murdered. Apol- 
lonia, Follina, in Myg- 
donia, S. of Lake Bolbe. 
Stagira, the birth-place 
of Aristotle, on the 
shore of the Strymonic 
Gulf. Acanthus, lower 
down the coast, cap- 
tured by Brasidas in 
B.C. 424, and by the Ro- 
mans in 200. ApoUonia, 
Polighero, the chief town of Chalcidice, X". of Olynthus. Olophyxus, 

Q 3 




Coin of Acanthus. 



346 



MACEDONIA. 



Book IV 



Charadriae, aud Acrothoi, on the E. coast of the peninsula of Acte; 
and lastly, Petra, a fortress among the mountains of the S. frontier, com- 
manding a pass which led to Pythium in Tliessaly by the back of 
Olympus; Scipio Xasicahere defeated the forces of Perseus, and opened 
the way for L. JEmilius Paulus. 

II. In the Interior. Pella, the later capital of Macedonia, stood on a 
hill, surrounded by marshes, named Borbaros, through which there 
was communication with the sea by means of the river Lydias. As the 
metropolis of Philip, and the birth-place of Alexander the Great, "-^ it 
rose from an insignificant town of the Bottieeans to be a place of world- 
wide renown. Having been the royal residence of all the Macedonian 
kings except Cassander, it became under the Romans a colony and 
station on the Egnatian Road. There are remains at NeoJchori, where 
a fountain still retains the name of Pel. JEgae or Edessa, the earlier 
capital of Macedonia, stood N.W. of Pella^ at the entrance of a pass, 
w^hich connected Upper and Lower Macedonia. Philip was murdered 
here in B.C. 336. After the seat of power was removed, it still remained 
the hearth of the iMacedonian race, and the burial-place of their kings ; 
the tombs were rifled by the Gallic mercenaries in the employ of 
Perseus. The remains at Vodhena are but trifling. Beroea, Vern'a, 
stood on a branch of the Haliacmon, S.W. of Pella: it was unsuccess- 
fully attacked by the xlthenians under Callias in B.C. 432, on their 
march from P^^dna to Therma ; it surrendered to the Romans after the 
battle of Pydna. A portion of the old walls and other remains still 
exist. Heraclea, the chief town of Upper Macedonia, was surnamed 
Lyncestis from the district in which it stood: it was on the Egnatian 
Road, and at the base of the Candavian mountains. Stobi in Pseonia 
stood on the Erigon, and was a place of some importance under the 
Macedonian kings : the Romans made the place a dej^ot of salt. It was 
the later capital of Macedonia Salutaris. Scupi was tlie frontier town 
on the border of Illyricum, in the N.W. of Pieonia. 

Of the lesser towns we may notice — Petra, a fortress of the Msedi ; 
Doberus, at the S. foot of Cercine, in a lateral valley of the Axius; 
Eurdpus, in Emathia, between Idomene and the plains of Cyrrhus 
and Pella, on the right bank of the Axius ; Physcus, Begorra, 
and Galadrse in Eordsca, the first alone possessing any historical 
interest; Celetrum, Kcistoria, in Orestis, on a peninsula suiTOunded by 
the waters of a small lake ; it was taken by Sulpicius in B.C. 200; 
Astraeum, in Pseonia^ on a tributary of the Strymon; Stymbara on 



- Pelleeus is a frequent epithet of Alexander : 

Unus PelltBo jiireni non sufB.cit orbis. — Juv. x. 168. 
Hoc habuit numen PellEei mensa tyranni.- — !Mart. ix. 44. 

Sometimes it is used as an equivalent for Macedonian : 
Ergo in Thessalicis Pelloeo fecimus arvis 
Jus gladio 1 Lrc. ix. 1073. 

Sometimes it refers to Alexandria in Egypt, or to Egypt generally : 
Non ego Pelleeas arces, adytisque retectum 
Corpus Alexandri pigra Mareotide mergam ? — Lrc. ix. 153. 
Nam qua Pellsei gens fortunata Canopi. — Yirg. Georg. iv. 287. 

Hence tlie title is transferred even to the Ptolemies : 
Pellseusque puer gladio tibi colla recidit, 
Magne, tuo. Luc. viii. 607. 



Chap. XVfll. 



•ROADS — IIISTOllY. 



347 



the upper course of the Erigou where Sulpicius encamped in B.C. 400; 
Bylazora, the greatest city of Pa:onia, near the passes leading into Mocsia. 

BocKh. — Macedonia was traversed by the Via Egnatia, which entered 
it on the side of Illyricum at Heraclea, and thence passed by Edessa 
and PeHa to Thessalonica, and across Chalcidice by Apollonia to 
Amphipolis. This road appears to have been constructed shortly after 
the reduction of Macedonia by the Romans in B.C. 168. From this, 
roads diverged in different directions, leading — (I) from Thessalonica 
along the coast to Tempe in Thessaly ; (2) from Pella through Beroea 
to the same spot, falling into the coast-road at Dium ; (3) from Heraclea 
Lyncestis to Stobi ; (4) from Tliessalonica to Stobi; (5) from Stobi to 
Scopi in the and (6) from Stobi to Serdica in the X.E. 

St. Paul's Travels. — Macedonia was first visited by St. Paul in his 
second a]30stolical journey. Starting from Troas he crossed the 
-^gsean by Samothrace to Xeapolis, and thence to Philippi "the first 
city" of that part of Macedonia on the side of Thrace. From Philippi 
he followed the Egnatian Road through Amphipolis and Apollonia to 
Thessalonica, where at the suit of Jason he was brought before the 

politarchs/' as the governors of that free city were styled. From 
Thessalonica he journeyed to Bercea, where he remained a short time; 
thence he descended to the sea-coast probably at Dium, and took ship 
for Athens (Acts xvi. 11, xvii. 15). In his third journey he again 
visited Macedonia (Acts xx. 1-2), approaching it from Troas (2 Cor. 
ii. 12), and staying at Philippi, where he was joined by Titus (2 Cor. 
vii. 5). From Philippi he went ''round about unto Illyricum " (Rom. 
XV. 19) ; but whether by that expression vre are to infer that he actually 
crossed the mountains into that country, is uncertain. His route is 
quite unknown, and we only know that he next visited Greece. He 
shortly after returned, by the same route, crossing from Xeapolis to 
Troas (Acts xx. 3-6). He addressed two epistles to the church at 
Thessalonica, a.nd one to the church at Philippi. 

History — The earliest Macedonian dynasty claimed a descent from 
the Temenidse of Argos and called themselves Heracleids. The first 
kings of whom we have any special notice were Amyntas (about 520- 
500 B.C. 3 and Alexander (about 480), who was contemporary with 
Xerxes. The capital at this period was Edessa : Alexander and Per- 
diccas extended their territory to the Strymon, and the latter became 
the active enemy of Athens. After the death of Archelaus. the son of 
Perdiccas, in 399, a long period of anarchy succeeded until the acces- 
sion of Philip in 359, who reduced Olynthus, and advanced his frontier 
to the Xestus. Under his son, Alexander the Great, Macedonia be- 
came the seat of an empire which extended over the whole eastern 
world. After the death of Alexander, the throne of Macedonia was 
for a long time an object of constant contention. Cassander first had 
the title of king ; his sons were displaced by Demetrius, son of Anti- 
gonus, in 294. Pyrhus, of Epirus, followed in 287, and after 7 months 
Lysimachus of Thrace gained the power. After his death in 281 a 
period of anarchy followed, during which the Gauls invaded the 
country from 280 to 278. At length, in 278, Antigonus Gonatas 
obtained a firm seat on the throne, and founded a dynasty which lasted 
until the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans in B.C. 168. Of this 
dynasty the kings Demetrius II. and Antigonus II. are known for 
the part they took in the affairs of Greece. Philip V. first came into 
contact with the Romans; he was defeated at Cynoscephalce ; and 
Perseus the last king, at Pydna. 



Mounts Olympus and Ossa. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

yORTHERX TiREECE — THESSALY AND EPIKUS. 

§ 1. Boundaries — Names. § 2. General Character. § 3. Mountains. 
§ 4. Rivers. § 5. Sea-Coast. § 6. Inhabitants. § 7. Divisions — 
I. Thessaly. § 8. Boundaries. § 9. Mountains. § 10. Rivers. 
§ 11. Inhabitants — Divisions. § 12. Towns — History — Islands 
— II. Epirus. § 13. Boundaries. § 14. Mountains — Rivers. 
§ 15. Inhabitants — Divisions — Towns — History. § 16. CoR- 

CYRA. 

§ 1. Tlie peninsula of Greece, the most easterly of the southern 
projections of the continent of Europe, was bounded on tlie N. by 
Macedonia and Illyria, and in all otlier directions by seas, viz. : by the 
^Egaean and Cretan on the E., the Libyan on the S., and the Ionian 
on the W. The northern boundary was clearl}'^ defined by a chain 
of mountains extending from the ^g^an to the Ionian Sea ; the 
most important links in this chain were Olympus and Cambunii 
Montes in the E., Lacmon in the centre, and the Ceraunian range 
in the W. The extreme length of the country was about 250 
miles, a ad its extreme breadth from the coast of Acarnania to that 
of Attica about 1 80 miles. Its area was considerably less than that 
of Portugal. 

Names. — The Greeks themselves possessed no general geographical 
designation for the land in which they lived. The term Hellas, which 
approaches most nearly to such a designation, was of an ethnological 



Ch\p. XIX. 



XAMES 



— GENERAL CHARACTER. 



349 



rather than of a geographical character. It described the abode of 
the Hellenic race, wherever that might be, and thus while in the 
Homeric age it was restricted to a small district in the south of Thes- 
saly, Herodotus (ii. 182, iii. 136, vii. 157j and Thucydides ^i. 12) 
extend it beyond the limits of Greece proper to Gyrene in Africa, 
Syracuse in Sicily, and Tarentum in Italy, as being Hellenic colonies. 
Within the limits of Greece, Hellas proper was restricted to that 
portion which lay between the Corinthian Gulf on the S. and the 
Ambracian Gulf and the Peneus on the X. Epirus was excluded from 
it as not being occupied by Hellenes, and Peloponnesus as having 
its own distinctive title. The latter was, however, sometimes in- 
cluded in Hellas, as it had an Hellenic population. Sometimes the 
Greek islands were included on a similar ground; and after the spread 
of the Hellenic language consequent upon the Macedonian conquest 
of Hellas, even Macedonia and Illyria were included. The Romans, 
and ourselves in imitation of them, gave the name of G-rsecia to the 
country. The origin of this is uncertain: the Grteci are only once 
noticed by a Greek writer (Aristot. Meteor, i. 1-iy as a tribe living 
about Dodona in Epirus. It has been surmised that the name was 
extensively applied to the tribes on the AV. coast of Epirus, and thence 
spread to the E. coast of Italy, where the Romans first came in con- 
tact with the Hellenic race. The name of Greecia was superseded by 
that of Achaia as the official title of the country after its conquest by 
the Romans. 

§ 2. The position and physical characteristics of the peninsula of 
Greece v^ere highh^ favonrable to the promotioD of earl}' settlement. 
As the tide of population flowed westward from Asia, it was guided 
to the shores of Greece by the islands which stud the ^Ega?an Sea. 
There it met with a country singularly adapted to its recjuirements 
— an extensive line of coast, broken up into innumerable bays and 
inlets, and w^ell furnished with natural harbours ; a land protected 
by its insular character from sweeping invasion, and subdivided 
into a number of separate and sec[uestered districts, which nature 
protected by her mountain barriers ; a climate reputed in ancient 
times the most healthy and temperate in the world ; a bright clear 
air ; a soil fertile and varied in its productions, producing wheat, 
barley, flax, wine, and oil ; mountains, whose sides were clothed 
with forests, whose uplands supplied rich pasturage for cattle, and 
from whose bowels abundance of excellent limestone might be 
obtained for building purposes. And when, under these fostering 
influences, the population of Greece outgrew the narrow limits of 
the land, there was no difflculty in finding settlements, which, under 
equally favourable circumstances, gave back power and wealth to 
the mother country : in one direction Sicily and Southern Italy, in 
another the northern coast of Africa, were near at hand and open to 
colonization, while in a third the tide flowed back to the coast of 
Asia Minor, and thence ramified to the distant shores of the 
Euxine. • 

§ 3. The mountain chains of Greece are marked with great dis- 



350 



XOETHEEIV GEEECE. 



Book [V 



tiuctiiess. AVe liave already had occasion to notice tlie series of 
mountains whicli divide Greece from Macedonia. Lacmon is tlie 
connecting link between tlie Cambunii Montes on the E., Pindus in 
the S., Tymplie in the T\"., and the mountains of Macedonia in the 
N. The Cambunii Montes form the northern limits of Thessaly, and 
terminate in the far-famed heights of Olympus, near the ^Ega?an Sea. 




3Iap of Greece, sliovring the direction of the jloitntain Eaiiges. 

i 



1. Lncmon. 

2. Pindus. 

3. Cambunii Mte 

4. Olympv.s, 

5. Cfsa. 

6. Pelion. 
Othrys. 

3. CEta. 



9. Parnassus. 
10. Helicon. 
IJ. Citha?ron. 

12. Geraneus. 

13. Cyllene. 

1-i. Erymanthus. 

15. Taygetus. 

16. Parnon. 



iT- Partlienius. 

18. Cythera. 

19. Euboea. 

20. River Peneus. 

21. River Cephissus. 
£2. River Achelous. 

23. River Alpheus. 

24. River Eurotas. 



25. Sinus Pagrnsaeus. 

26. Sinus Maliacus. 
2/. Siuus Saronicus. 
23. Sinus Argolicus. 
2 5. Sinus Cyparissus. 

30. Sinus Cdrinthiacus. 

31. Sinus Ambracius. 



Chap. XIX. 



MOUXTAIXS— PJVERS. 



351 



Tymphe is continued westward in the ranges which bound Epirus 
on the X., and which terminate in tlie striking promontory of 
Acro-ceraunia on the shores of the Ionian Sea. Pindus may be 
termed the hicl'hone of Greece ; it emanates from the northern 
range just mid-Avay hetween the ^ga^an and Ionian Seas in about 
40° N. kt., and descends in an unbroken course towards the S.E. 
for sixty miles, to about 39°, where it terminates in Tymphrestus . 
From this point the central chain divides into five branches, one of 
which, named Othrys, takes a due E. direction, skirting the shores 
of the Maliac Gulf; a second, (Eta, goes off towards the S.E., in a 
line parallel to the coast of the Eubcran Sea, assuming, in different 
parts, the names of Cnemis, Ptoon, and Teumessus ; a third retains 
the direction of the parent chain, and assumes the well-known names 
of Parnassus, Helicon, Cithaeron, and Parnes ; a fourth strikes off 
tov^'ards the S.AV., under the name of Corax and TapMassus, and ter- 
minates in the promontory' of Antirrhium, on the shores of the 
Corinthian Gulf; lastly, a fifth diverges more to the X., and under 
the name of AgrsBi Montes, penetrates to the shores of the Ambra- 
cian Gulf. We have yet to notice in Xortherii Greece a chain 
which forms the E. boundary of Thessaly, connecting Olympus and 
Othrys, and which contains the well-known heiglits of Ossa and 
Pelion, and terminates in the promontory of Sepias. Southwards 
the central range ma}' be traced between the Corinthian and Saronic 
Gulfs in the heights of Geranea and Onea, which join Northern 
Greece and Peloponnesus. The mountain system of Peloponnesus 
presents some interesting points of contrast to that of X^orthern 
Greece. Instead of having a backbone-ridge (like Pindus), Pelojoon- 
nesus consists of a central region of a quadrangular form, bounded 
on all sides by lofty chains. The northern barrier of this rocky 
heart is formed by the lofty mountains of Cyllene in the E., 
and Erymantlius in the W., the Aroanii Montes fdling up the inter- 
val. The eastern boundary is formed by Artemisium and Parthenium. 
The southern and western walls are not so distinctly marked, but 
the angle at which they meet is marked by the lofty chain of 
Lycaeus. The eastern and western walls are continued towaixls the 
S. in the ranges of Parnon and Taygetus, which may be traced down 
to the promontories of Malea and Taenarium. 

§ 4. The river system of Xortliern Greece is regulated by that of 
the mountains. It may be observed that there are two well-defined 
basins in Xortliern Greece, one of which, Thessaly, is enclosed 
between the ranges of Pindus on the W., Olympus on the X., Ossa 
and Pehon on the E., and Othrys on the S. ; the other is the trian- 
gular space enclosed between Oilta, Parnassus, and Helicon, and 
containing the provinces of Doris, Phocis, and Bceotia. The northern 
basin is drained by the Peneus, which escapes through the only 



352 



XORTSEEX GEEECE. 



Book IV 



outlet afforded tlirongli the moimtaiii wall, ^^iz. the Yale of Tempe : 
in the southern basin no such outlet exists, and the waters of the 
CepMssus collect in the lake Copais, whence they were carried off by 
subterraneous channels, partly of natural, partly of artificial forma- 
tion. The yrestern district was drained by the Achelous, which, 
rising not far from the Peneus, in the northern extremity of Pindus, 
flows southwards into the Ionian Sea, after a com'se of 130 miles, 
receiving numerous tributaries from either side. The other rivers of 
Northern Greece will be noticed in the account of the provinces 
through which they flow. Between the northern and southern basins 
the Spercheus receives the waters that collect between Othrys and 
(Eta, and after a course of sixty miles through a beautiful and fertile 
valley, falls into the Lamiac Gulf. The only rivers of importance 
in Peloponnesus are — the Alpheus, which drains the central moun- 
tain district in a westerly course ; and the Eurotas, which drains thv 
broad valley lying between Parnon and Taygetus. 

§ 5. The coast-line of Greece is singularly extensive, compared 
with the area of the coimtry. While the latter is less than Portugal, 
the length of its coast exceeds that of Spain and Portugal together. 
This is, of course, owing to its extreme iiTegularity. Commencing 
our review in the X.E., we find the line regular and unbroken down 
to the promontory of Sepias. Westward of that point the sea makes 
an incursion into the Thessalian plain, finding a narrow entrance 
between the ranges of Othrys and Pelion, and then opening into an 
extensive sheet of water, known as the Pagasaeus Sinus, 0. of Volo. 
From the entrance of this gulf it proceeds westward, in the opening 
afforded by the divergence of Othrys and (Eta, and terminates in the 
Maliacus Sin., G. of Zeitun. Thenceforward it resumes its original 
direction, and with numerous sinuosities follows the line of (Eta and 
its continuation as far as Parnes, from which point it takes a due 
southerly direction to Sunium. The Saronicus Sin., G,of Egina, in- 
tervenes between the peninsulas of Attica and Argolis, and the 
Argolicus Sin., G. of Sapoli di Pomania, between Argolis and Laco- 
nia. The southern coast is broken by the bold projections of Malea 
and Taenarium, bounding the Laconicus Sin., G. of Kolocytltia, and 
by the lesser promonotory of Acritas, in the W., enclosing with 
Taenarium the Messeniacus Sin. These bays give the resemblance to 
the leaf of the plane-tree, or vine, which was noticed by the ancients. 
The western coast of Pelo23onnesus is varied by a large but not deep 
indenture, named Cyparissius Sin. The CorintMacus Sin., G. of 
Lepanto, shortly after follows, at first broad, then narrowed by the 
promontories of EMum and Antirrhium to a strait, and then expand- 
ing to a landlocked sheet, which resembles a lake rather than an 
arm of the sea : its X. coast is broken by the bays of Crissa and 
Anticjra ; the S. coast is more regular, until it approaches the E. 



Chap. XIX. 



INHABITANTS. 



353 



extremity^ where it is divided by the projections of the Geranean 
range. The Corinthian Gulf on the W. coast of Greece is met by 
the Saronic on the E., and the two are separated by a very narrow 
isthmus of low land to the S. of the Geranean range. The W. coast 
of Northern Greece is regular, the only interruption in the line of 
coast being the Ambracius Sin., G. of Arta, a landlocked sheet of 
water, ajoproached by a narrow passage guarded by the promontory 
of Actium. The promontory of Acro-ceraunia, on the frontier of 
Illyricum, completes our review of the coast. 

§ 6. The original population of Greece belonged to a stock which 
we have named Grseco-Latin, as being found equally in the penin- 
sulas of Greece and Italy. In Greece this common element was de- 
scribed under the name of Pelasgi— a name wdiich had almost passed 
away in the historical age, and which was supposed by the Greeks 
themselves to indicate an aboriginal population of great antiquity. ^ 
The later inhabitants of Greece were named Hellenes, and some doubt 
still exists as to the relation that existed between them and the 
Pelasgi. Most probably they belonged to the same stock, though of 
a superior character and standing. In tliis case we may regard the 
names as indicating different eras of civihzation. The foreign settle- 
ments w^ere unimportant : doubt exists as to the Egyptian colo- 
nies said to have been planted in Greece under Cecrops in Attica and 
under Danaus in Argolis, but there can be little question that the 
Phoenicians settled at Thebes in Boeotia. The abodes of the Pelasgi 
and Hellenes varied at different periods, and deserve special notice in 
consequence of their importance in the pohtical divisions of Greece. 

(1 The Pelasgi. — The Pelasgi were an agricultural race, and selected 
the fertile plains for their original abodes. Ou these they erected 
walled towns for their protection. They left indications of their 
presence in the names Argos (= plain") and Larissa (= ^^a fortified 
town"), and in the massive masomy with which they surrounded 
their towns. Hence we may assume that the Pelasgians lived in the 
following districts: — Thessaly, which Homer calls '^Pelasgic Argos;" ^ 
the district of Argolis, which he calls Achaean Ai^gos," or simply 

Argos and in Peloponnesus generally, which he calls Mid-Argos,"-^ 
meaning the whole breadth of Argos — particularly the western part, 
which he terms ^^lasian Argos.'" ^ In the Homeric age branches 
of the Pelasgian race were known by special names, much as the 
Arcadians in central Peloponnesus, the Caucones in Elis, the Dolopians 



' Tov yrjyevov? yap ei/x' eycb IlaAatx^ovos 

'Ivt? IleAacryov, -nJcrSe -yTj? apxTjye-njs. ^ESCH. Slip})!. 250. 

- yifv 5' av T0U9, ocrcrot to UeXacryLKOu "Apyo? evaLOV. IL ii. 631. 

3 'H^erepcf) hi ot/cco, ev "Ap-yei", rrjAo^t -arpTj?. II. i 30. 

4 'Av8p6?, TOV Kkio<5 evpv KaO' 'EAAaSa /cat /u.eVoi' "Apyo?. — Od. I 344. 

^ Et ■rrdvT€<; ere tSotej/ av' "laaov "Xpyos 'A-xo-lol. Od. xviii. 246. 



354 



XOETHERX GEEECE. 



Book IV. 



on the southeru borders of Thessalv and Epiiais^. and the Perrh^ebi in 
northern Thessaly. 

(2.) Tlie Hellenes. — The Hellenes are noticed by Homer as the Selli,^ 
who took care of the oracle of Dodona, as Hellenes" in couj unction 
with the Myrmidones and Achgeans,. and as Panhellenes^ in conjunc- 
tion with Achceans — the latter implying that there were several tribes 
of Hellenes. Hellas, the residence of the Hellenes, is variously 
aj)plied by Homer to a district of some size adjacent to Phthia, in a 
wider sense as including the whole district south of Thessaly to the 
Corinthian Gulf, and in a wider sense still as descriptive of the whole 
of Xorthern Greece in opposition to Mid-Argos or Peloponnesus.'^ 
The Hellenic race was divided by the Greeks into four large clans — 
the Dorians, ^Eolians. lonians, and Acha?ans. These migrated from 
their original seat in the S. of Thessaly, and were dispersed in the 
followins: manner in the Heroic or Homeric age: — the Acheeans in the 
origiual Hellas and in the S. and E. parts of Peloponnesus; the lonians 
along the S. shore of the Corinthian Gulf and in Attica; the Dorian? 
in a small mountain disri-ict between Thessaly and Phocis ; and the 
^Eolians in the centre of Thessaly, in Locris, in -^tolia, and on 
the AV. side of the Peloponnesus, where they were named Epeans. 
The Minyans were a powerful race, scattered over the peninsula, whose 
origin is uncertain. By some they are regarded as a branch of the 
.^olians : their settlements were about the head of the Pagaseean 
Gulf in Thessaly, in the centre of Boeotia, and about Pylos in western 
Peloj)onnesus. 

(3.) The first change that took place in this disposition of the 
Hellenic race occurred in northern Greece through the irruption of 
the Thessalians, who, crossing over from Epirus into the rich plain of 
the Peneus, dispossessed the ^Etolian Boeotians. These, retiring 
southwards, settled in the fertile province named after them, where 
they in turn dispossessed the Minyans and other occupants. The 
date assigned to these occurrences by the Greeks was B.C. 1124. 

(4.) The second and more important change was supposed to have 
occurred B.C. 1104, but appears really to have happened much later. 
AVe refer to the immigration of the Doric race into Peloponnesus 
under the Heracleids. They crossed the mouth of the Corinthian 
Gulf in conjunction with the ^Etoliaus, and ejected the Achasans from 
the southern and eastern districts of Argolis, Laconia, and Messenia. 
The Achroans retired to the shore of the Corinthian Gulf and perma- 
nently occupied the province named after them ; the lonians were 
obliged to withdraw from this district to Attica : while the JEtoliaus 
seized the territory of the Epeans, and occupied it under the name of 
Elis. Corinth is said to have held out for about thhty years against 
the Dorian arms. The ^Eolians were then expelled from it, and took 
refuge among their emigrant compatriots. 



2ol I'tttovcr' v~o<t)y]T(xi. drtTrro-o^eg, ■xa.^j.a.i^vvo.i. 11. xvi. 234. 

' 'Eyxetrj 5' e«e«:acr-o Ilai'e/VAT^ra^ Kal 'Xxo-i-ov?. II. ii. 530. 

S ^evyov 677617' a-di'ev9e 6t' "EWdSo? evpvxopoLO, 

^OCtp' S" eSiKoixriv epi^ijoka<a. 11. ix. 474 

^ See above, note ^. 



Chap. XIX. 



DIVISIONS — THESSALIA. 



§ 7. The political divisions of Greece were regulated alniost en- 
tirely by the natural features of the country. The northern basin 
was named Thessaly, Avhich included also the vale of the Spercheus 
and the mountaiui:>iis region to the E. of the basin. Epirus was the 
corresponding district on the other side of Pindus, extending south- 
wards to the Ami )racian ( rult. The southern basin included Boeotia, 
the greater 2:)art ul Phucis, and the little state of Doris, which lay at 
the head of the valley of the Cephissus. Between CEta and the 
Eubcean Sea lived the Lccri Epicnemidii and Opuntii. Locris occu- 
pied the triangular district between Parnas>iis and Corax and the 
Corinthian (tuIl Then ibllowed ^Et<jlia and Acarnania, divided h'om 
each other Ijv the Achelons. Attica Avas the triangular peninsula S. 
of Boeotia, and Megaris occupied the i>thmiis. In Peloponnesus the 
central moimtain district was named Arca^lia ; X. of this was Achaia 
and the adjact^iit territories of Sicvoma, Piiliasia. aii'l CL'rintliia : S. of 
it Laconia and Messenia, divide';! trom each other uy Tay^-etus : AY. 
of it Ehs : and E. of it Argohs, occupying the eastern peninsula. 

I. — Thessalia. 

§ 8. The boundaries of Thessalia, in its widest extent, were — the 
Cambunii Montes au'l Olympus on the X.. Pindus on the AV., the 
^EgcTan on the E,. au'i the Alalian Lnilf an.l <Eta on the S. Within 
these limits were inclu^led T//e>s_//^/ P/'o^-t/' (Le. the plain enclosed 
betAveen the mountain ranges ui Pindus, Olympus, and Othrys) and 
the outlying districts of Magnesia m the E., Mails in the S.E., and 
Dolopia and <EtcTa in the S.AY. The most striking featm'e in the 
general aspt-ct oi Tlie--alv is the great central plain which spreads 
out between the Li'ity niuuntain l^arriers ^urrc^un-linLi' it, justiiying by 
its appearance the opinion c^f the ancient> tliar it Invl once been a vast 
lake, Avhose Avaters at length f<jrced f<jr themselves an outlet by the 
narroAv vale of Tempe. This plain is chAuded into tAvo parts by a 
range of inferior heights running parallel to the left bank of the 
Enipeus ; these were named the " Upper " and " Lower " plains, the 
first being the one nearest Pindus. The rich ahuAual soil of this plain 
produced a large cpiantity of corn and cattle, Avhich supplied wealth 
to a poAverful and luxuriijus aristocracy. The horses were reputed 
the finest in Greece,^ and hence the caA'alry of Thessaly was very 
eflicient. 

§ 9. The mountains of Thessaly rank among the most famous, not 
only of Cireece but of the Avhole ancient world. Olympus towers to 
the height of nearly 10,000 feet in the X.E. angle of the pro\'ince, 
and presents a magnificent appearance from all sides. Its lower sides 



^ Hence the horse is the usual device on the coins of Thessaly. 



356 THESSALIA. Book IV. 

-are well Troocled, but the summit is a mass of bare liglit-coloured 
rock, and is covered with snow for the greater part of the year. Below 
its summit is a belt of broken ridges and precipices. Olym^xis was 
the reputed abode of Zeus and the other gods." A road crossed its 
southern slopes between Heraclemn and Gonnus, by means of 
which the narrow pass of Tempe might be avoided. Xerxes fol- 
lowed this mountain road, as also did the Romans under App. Claudius 
in B.C. 191. The Cambunii Mts., which form the barrier between 
Macedonia and Greece, were surmounted by a route following the 
course of the Titaresius from the S. Tliis route bifurcated before 
crossing the mountain, and led either by the Yolustana Pass to 
Phylace, or by a more easterly route to Petra and the sea-coast. To 
the S. of Olympus, and separated from it by the narrow vale of 
Tempe, rises Ossa, with a conical peak about 5000 feet high. The 
ancients supposed that Ossa and Olympus were once united, but were 
severed either by an earthquake or by the - arm of Hercules.^ This 
mountain figures, along with Olympus and Pelion, in the description 
of the war of the giants against the gods."* Pelion is a long ridge ex- 
tending from Ossa southwards to the promontory of Sepias. On its 
eastern side it rises almost precipitously from the sea, and allows no 
harbours along this part of the coast.^ It is still covered with exten- 



- The epithets which Homer applies to this mountain refer to its height (atTru?, 
and more commonh' ixaKp6<;), its size (jaeya?), its ?nanij ridges (TroAvSetpas), its de- 
pressions (TTokvnrvxo'i), its snoic}/ top [aydvvL(f)o<; and vt<^6et$), and its brinia?ici/, 
as the abode of the gods (atyArjet?). The passages in which the name occurs are 
too numerous for quotation. The wooded sides of the mountain are referred to 
by Virgil, in the epithet frondosum (see below, note and by Euripides in the 
following passage, where he speaks of the " leafy retreats " in which Orpheus 
played : — 

Tdxo- 5' kv TOtg 77oAv5eV5peo"- 

ctv 'OA-V/XTTOU ^aAa/u-ot?, ev- 

6a ttot' 'Op</)eu? KiOapL^oiV 

'2,-uvayev SeVSpea Movcrat?, 

'^vvayev Qr\pa<; aypajra?. — Bacch. 560. 

3 Postquam discessit Olympo 

Herculea gravis Ossa manu, subitceque ruinam 
Sensit aquee Nereus. Lrc, vi, 347. 

Dissiluit gelido vertex Ossaeus Olympo ; 
Carceribus laxantur aquse, fractoque meatu 
Eedduntur fluviusque uiari, tellusque colonis. 

Claid. I^apt. Froserp. ii. 183. 

4 01 pa Ka\ aOavdrOLcnv dTT^iKrjTy\v ev 'OXv^lttco 

" Oaaav eir' OvXvixtto) ixefxacrav Oefxev, avrdp err' ''Ocrcrr} 
Jlri\LOV tlvocrC(f)vk\ov, Iv' ovpavo? a^/Sarb? eir}. — Od. xi. 312. 

Ter sunt conati imponere Pelio Ossam 

Scilicet, atque Ossjb frondosum involvere Olympum. — Georg. i. 281. 

5 aKTOL aAtjaevo? IlTjAtov.— EuRiP. Ale. 595. \ 



Chap. XJX. 



MOUNTAINS. 



357 



sive forests.^ Othrys, in the S., is again a loft}^ and well-woocled 
range, but not invested with so many interesting associations as the 
mountains ah-eady described.''' Two routes led across it to Lamia ; 
the most westerly starting from Thaumaci and Pharsalus, the other 
from Thebse on the Pagassean Gulf. Pindus, in the W., is an exten- 
sive range ,^ forming the w^atershed between the basins of the Peneus 
and the Achelous. The southern part of the range was named 
Cercetiuni. It was crossed at two points — by a northern road which 
follow^ed up the valley of the Peneus, and descended on the W. side 
by that of the Arachthus to Dodona and Passaron ; and by a southern 
road which led from Gomphi in Thessalj^ to Argithea, and thence to 
Ambracla ; this pass, now^ called Portes, is of a very difficult cha- 
racter : Philip suffered severely there in B.C. 189, and it was probably 
the route followed by Q. Marcius Philippus in B.C. 169. The most 
southerly range of Thessaly, named (Eta, ^ divides it from Locris, 



^ Hence Homer gives it the epithet ^Ivoo-i^vWov (see above, note ^) . 
Pelion Hsemoniae mons est ob versus in Anstros : 
Summa virent pinu : ctetera qnercus habet. — Ov. Fast. v. 381, 
Pelion was the original residence of the Centaurs, and more especially of 
Chiron, the instructor of Achilles ; they were expelled thence by the Lapithae : 
"Hjutart TO) ore $7jpa5 ertcraro \oixvr]^VTa<i' 
Tov9 5' eK H-qX-Cov were koI KlOinecrai Ttikaaatv, — II, ii. 743. 
Talis et ipse jubam cervice eifudit equina 
Conjugis adventu pernix Saturnus, et altum 
Pelion hinnitu fugiens implevit acuto. — Georg. iii. 92. 
Quorum post abitum princeps e vertic'e Pelii 
Advenit Chiron, portans silvestria dona. — Catull. Ixiv. 279. 
The number of medicinal plants growing on the mountain made it a fitting 
abode for Chiron. 

' The allusions in the following passages refer to its luoods, whence "the tawny 
troop of lions " issued at the sound of Apollo's lyre ; and to its snoicy summit : 
*Ej8a fie A-iTToiicr' ''Odpv- 

os vairav keovriov 
a 8a(f)0LV0<; I'Aa.— EuRip. Alcest. 596. 

At medios ignes coeli, rapidiqae Leonis 

Solstitiale caput nemorosus submovet Othrys. — Luc. vi. 337. 
Ceu, duo nubigenee cum vertice montis ab alto 
Descendunt Centauri, Homolen Othrymque nivalem 
Linquentes cursu rapido. uEn. vii. 674. 

^ The poetical allusions to Pindus are of a general character, as one of the 
most important mountains of Greece : — 

Nam neque Parnassi vobis juga, nam neque Pindi 

XJlla moram fecere, neque Aonie Aganippe. — Virg. EcJ. x. 11. 

Caucasus ardet, 

Ossaque cum Pindo, major que ambobus Olympus. — Ov. Met. ii. 224. 

^ GEta is associated with the death of Hercules, which took place on its sum- 
mit, the hero being there burnt on a funeral pile : 

Yixdum clara dies summa lustrabat in CTlta 

Herculei monnmenta rogi. Sil. Ital. vi, 452. Hence 



358 THESSALIA. Book IV. 

Doris, and ^Etolia. The only practicable route bv which this range 
could be surmounted led through the famous pass of Thermopylae, and 
after following the sea-coast for a certain distance, crossed Cnemis 
into Boeotia. Thermopylas was thus, in the S. of Thessaly, very 
much what the vale of Tempe was in the X. — an almost im2)regnable - 
post against an invading army. 




I\lap of rbcrmopyla} and the surrounding Country. 



The Gates " or pass of Thermopylte were formed by a spur of (Eta, 
which protruded to the immediate vicinity of the coast (c c), the interval 
between the two being for the most part occupied by a morass. Great 
changes have taken place in this locality: the sea-coast is now removed 
to a considerable distance (a a by the alluvial deposits (A A) brought 
down by the Spercheus, and a broad swampy plain spreads away from 
the foot of QEta, removing all appearance of a pass. The Spercheus, 
which formerly fell into the Maliac Bay near Anticyra, now deviates 
to the S. {h h) by Thermopylse; Tvdiile the Asopus, which crossed the 
plain immediately W. of the pass, now falls into the Spercheus by a 
course (e e) considerably removed from it. The Dyras has been altered 



Hence CEtoeus became a favourite epithet of Hercules, e.g. : — 

Troja, bis Oitaei numine capta dei. Propert. iii. 1, 32. 

Qualis ubi implicituni Tirynthius ossibus ignem 
Sensit et CEteeas membris accedere Testes. — Stat. Theh. xi. 234. 
The allusion in the following line appears to be borrowed from some Greek 
writer who lived in the vicinity of GEta, and saw the evening star rise over its 
brow : — 

Sparge, marite, nuces ; tibi deserit Hesperus OEtam. 

ViEG. i:cl. viii. 30. 



Chap. XIX. 



PASSES— EIYERS. 



359 



in the opposite direction (d d), The springs, whence the first part of 
the name " Hot Gates " ' is derived, remain : some are at the W. entrance 
(g) of tlie pass, others at its E. entrance (/z) : the hitter mark the true 
site of Thermopyhe. At each of these points CEta throws out a pro- 
jection, and between the two w^as a small plain, about half a mile broad 
and more than a mile long, across which the Phocians built a wall i f) 
for the defence of the pass. As Tempe could be avoided by a cir- 
cuitous route over the lower limbs of Olympus, so could Thermopylae 
by a mountain-track called Anopeea (ffj, which surmounted Callidro- 
mus at the back of the pass. Thermopylae was the scene of many 
struggles famous in the history of Greece. In B.C. 480 Leonidas held 
it with a small band of Spartans against the hosts of Xerxes until his 
position w*s turned by the path AnopEea; in 279 the Greeks held it 
against Brennus with a similar result; in 207 the ^tolians attempted 
to make a stand against Philip of Macedonia here; and in 181 Antio- 
chus not only fortified the pass but also the mountain-path against the 
Eomans. who nevertheless succeeded in forcing their way through 
both. 

§ 10. The rivers of Tliessaly Proper are ^vitliout exception tri- 
butaries of the Pencils. This circumstance results Irom the peculiar 
conformation of the country, the western district being a single basin^ 
wTience but one outlet is afforded to the sea. The various streams 
converge wutli singular uniformity, like the folds of a fan, to a central 
point, and thence proceed, in a single sluggish stream, across the 
plain to the vale of Tempe. The most important of these rivers is 
the Peneus, Salamhria., which rises in the X.W. angle of the province, 
in the central height of Lacmon, and descends wutli a S.E. com'se to 
^Eginium, wTiere it enters on the plain ; near Tricca it turns to the 
E., and descends to a point where it receives its most important tri- 
butaries ; then passing through the hills which divide the upper and 
lower plains of Thessaly, it slowly traverses the lower plain to Larissa, 
where it tiu'ns to the X. and flows through the vale of Tempe to the 
sea.- Its chief tributaries are the Lethaeus from the X., the Enipeus, 



^ The following' lines contain references to the topography of Thermopylce, and 
also to its being the place of congress of the Amphictyonic council : — 

'f2 vavAov-a Kal irerpala 
©epjaa Aovrpa, kol —ayov<; 
Otra? rrapavaieTaovre?, 

or re jj-ecraav 
M-;^/\tSa -dp Xiy^vav, 
XpycraXaKOiTOv 7' aKrav Kopas, 
*Ev0" 'EAAavtov ayopaX 
IIvAartfie? /caAeovxat.— SoPH. Tracli. 633. 

- In its lower course the Peneus is more rapid and is full of small vortices ; 

hence the Homeric epithet of Sti/rjet? and apyvpoBLvr]<;, though the waters are 

rather turbid than " silvery" (see below, note 

$ot/3e, ere /mev /cat kvkvo<; v—o irrepvytov Aty' aet'Set. 
''0\6r} eTTLOpuxTKiov —oraixov Trdpa Strryevra, 
JlrjveLov. HoM. Hymn. 20 in ApoU. 



360 



THESSALIA. 



Book IV. 



Fersaliti, ^vitli its tributaries, tlie Apidanus ^ and Cuarius, from the 
S., and tlie Pamisus and Phoenix from the W. Xear the western en- 
trance of the Pass of Tempe it receives an important tributary from 
the Cambunian range, named Titaresius, EJassonitiho.'^ The Tale of 
Tempe, through which the lower course of the Peneus flows, is a nar- 
row ravine between the loAver ridges of Olympus ^ and Ossa, about 
4 J miles long, and in some places not more than 100 yards broad, 
'llie scenery is grand, but has not the sylvan softness which the Latin 
X3oets ascribed to it.^ As a military post the Tale of Tempe was im- 
portant, commanding as it did the only easy approach from the sea- 
coast to the interior. A route already described (p. 356) avoided the 



2 The Apidanus is sometimes represented as the larger of the two streams. It 
was the only river in Greece which, according to Herodotus, was not exhausted 
by Xerxes' army. The Enipeus is rapid irrequietus) throughout the whole of 
its course, and not, as Lucan suggests, only after its junction with the Apidanus. 

''H AojptSos opixov ata9, 
*H ^>0ta.6o9, kvda rov kclXXL- 
(TTitiv vSaTojv narepa 

^aalv 'XniSavov yvag KiTraLveLv ; — EUKIP. ifec, J50. 

Irrequietus Enipeus 
Apidanusque senex. Ov. Met. i. 579. 

Apidanos : nuiiquamque ccler, nisi inixfus, Enipeus. — Lrc. vi. 372. 

The waters of the Titaresius were said to float "like oil" on those of the 
Peneus : — 

Ol t' aju.(/)' liJieprov TirapTqiTLOv ep-y evefxovro, 
"O? p e? Tlr]veiOv Trpotet KaWippoov vSoop' 

OvS' oye IlrjV€L(Z ovp^jxicryeTai apyvpoSivr}, 

"AAAa re fxtv KaOvnepOev errtppeet. rjvr' e'Aatov 

'Op/cou yap Seu'ov STvyb? vSaro'; ecrriv arroppuj^. — II. ii. 751. 

Sec also Luc. vi. 375. 

^ Hence Euripides terms it " the most beautiful base " of Olympus : — 

Tav TJrji'eLOV ae^xvav xixjpav, 
Kpr/7rl(5' Ovkv^TTov KaWCarav, 
^0A/3ct) ^plOeLv (fxifjiav rjKovcr' 
'EvOaAel r evKapir^ia. — Troad. 216. 

^ Confestim Peneos adest, viridantia Tempe, 
Tempe, quee silvEe cingant superincumbentes. — Catull. Ixiv. 286. 

Speluncfe, yivique lacus ; at frigida Tempe, 

Mugitusque bourn, moUesque sub arbore somni, — Xihg. Geo)'g. ii. 469. 

Est nemus Heemoniee, prgerupta quod undique claiidit 

Silva : vocant Tempe. Per quae Peneus, ab imo 

Elfusns Pindo, spumosis volritur undis : 

Dejectuque gravi tennes agitantia fumos 

Nubila conducit, sum masque aspergine silvas 

Impluit, et sonitu plus quani vicina fatigat. 

Hsec domus, heec sedes, hsec sunt penetralia magni 

Amnis : in hoc residens facto de cautibus antro, 

Undis jura dabat, Xymphisque colentibus undas. — Ov. Jlet. i. 568. 



Chap. XIX. EIYERS — IXHABITAXTS. 



361 



pass. An important lake, Boebeis/ Karia, occupies the hollow be- 
tween the range of Pelion and the plain of Thessaly. It is fed by 
several small streams, and occasionally by the overflow of the Peneus. 
A small stream, named Amplirysus, flowing into the Pagas^ean Gulf, 
is famed in mythology as the river on whose banks Apollo fed the 
flocks of Admetus.^ On the S. the Spercheus, ElladJia, drains the 
valley formed by the divergent ranges of Othrys and (Eta. It rises 
in Tj'mphrestus, and falls into the Mahac Gulf near Anticyra, tra- 
versing in its lower course a broad and very fertile XDlain.^ The 
changes that have taken place about its mouth have been already re- 
ferred to. 

§ 11. The original inhabitants of Thessaly were ^Eolian Pelasgi, 
after whom the country was named JEolis. These were either ex- 
peUed or conquered by the Thessalians, an immigrant race from 
Thesprotia in Epirus, who also drove out the Boeotians fi'om their 
quarters in the neighbourhood of Arne. The population was divided 
into three classes : — (i.) The Thessalians Proper, the rich landed pro- 
prietors of the plain ; (ii.) the descendants of the original inhabitants, 
whose position Avas similar to that of the h^comsm joerioeci ; and (iii.) 
the Penestai or serfs, who were probably descendants of the original 
inhabitants reduced to slavery on some account : their position re- 
sembled that of the Laconian helots. Of the second class we may 
notice — the Perrhasbi, between Olympus and the Peneus ; the Mag- 
netes in Magnesia ; the Acliasans in Plithiotis ; the Dolopes in Dolopia ; 
and the Malians in Malis. Thessaly Proper was subdivided into four 
districts : — Hestiaeotis, including Perrhsebia, in the X., from Pindus in 
the AV. to Olympus in the E., and bounded on the S. generally by 
the Peneus ; Pelasgi5tis, S. of the Peneus, and along the W. side of 



' The waters of Boebeis were reputed " sacred," perhaps because Athena bathed 
her feet in them : — 

ToLyap TToX.vixr)\oTa.T(XV 
'Ecrrtav otKec Trapa /caAAtVaov 

BoL/StW \i[xvav. EuPwiP. Alcest. 587. 

Mercurio et Sanctis fertur Boebeidos undis 
Tirgineum prinio composuisse latus. — Propert. ii. 2, 11. 
s Te quoque, magna Pales, et te memorande canemus 
Pastor ab Amphryso. Georg. iii. 1. 

Et flmnine puro 
Irrigat Amphrysos famulantis pascua Phcebi. — Lvc. vi. 367. 
9 MtjAio. re KoXirov, ov 

STrepxetbs apSet TreSCov evfxeuel ttoto), — -EsCH. Fers, 456. 

Rura mihi et rigui placeant in vallibus amnes ; 
Flumina amem silvasque inglorius. 0, ubi campi, 
Spercheosque, et virginibus bacchata Laccenis 
Taygeta ! Georg. ii. 485. 

Ferit amne citato 
Maliacas Spercheos aquas. Lrc. vi. 366. 

ANC. GEOG. B 



362 



THESSALIA. 



Book IV. 



Pelion and Ossa; Thessaliotis, the central plain of Thessalr and 
tlie upper coiu'se of the Peneus : and PhtMotis, m the S., irom the 
Maliac Gulf on the E. to Dolopia on the AV. In addition to these v^e 
have to notice the four outlying districts named Magnesia, a loner, 
nan'ow strip between Lake Bcebeis and the sea, including the ranges 
of^Ossa and Pdion; Dolopia, a mountainous district in the S.W., 
occupying both sides of Tymphr-esuis ; (Etaea, in the upj^er valley of 
the S| ercheus, between Othiys and (Eta : and Malis, on the southern 
side of the Spercheus, between it and CEta. 

§ 1 2. The towns of Thessaly could boast in many cases of a verv 

high antiquity. The 
name of Larissa be- 
s]^)eaks a Pelasgic origin ; 
lolcus, on the PagascTan 
Gulfy was at a very 
early period a seat of 
commercial enterprise ; 
while Ithome and Tricca 
in the W., Crannon 
(probably the same as 
Ephyre), Pher^e, and Gyrton, and many other towns, were of im- 
portance in the Homeric age. In the later j^eriods of Greek 
history the towns owed their celebrity to two very distinct causes : 
— (i.) as residences of the powerful families, — Larissa, for in- 
stance, of the Aleuada?, Crannon of the ScopadcT, Pharsalus of the 
Creond^e, and Pher^e of Jason and his successors ; (h.) as mihtary 
posts commanding the approaches to Southern Greece, such as Gomphi 
on the side of Epims, Gonnus near Tempe, and Demetrias on the 
shores of the Pagasa^an Gulf : Pharsalus was also weU situated in 
regard to the passes across Othrys. Many of the mountain forts are 
noticed in the history of the Eoman wars with the Macedonian kings 
Phihp and Perseus, and with Antiochus. lliough Thessaly was in 
possession of a considerable stretch of coast, it was not weh provided 
with liari^ijurs. The only sheltered spots -were situated in the Paga- 
Sceaii Gulf, such a? Demetrias, lolcus, and Aphet^e ; and their remote 
po>iLiou rendered them ill adapted for commercial operations. The 
Thessalian towns were not, in as far as we know, embellished by the 
arts of the sculptor or the architect, and consequently the remains 
now existing possess but little else than to]X)gr-aphical interest. 

In Eesti8:otis, — Tricca,^ TriJ:J:aJa, stood near the left bank of the 
Peneii?. ai the spot where the X. route from Ephus entered the plain 
of Thessaly. It ATas the first town at which Phihp Y. arrived after 




Coin of Tbessalia. 



Homer gives it the epithet "horse-feeding'' : — 

Xaojv OL oi k-01'TO TpLK)]s tTr-O/SoVoto. — TJ. iv. 202. 



Chap. XIX. 



TOWXS. 



3G3 



his defeat ou the Aous. It possessed a famous temple of Asclepius. 
Pelinnaeiiin,- Ohl Gurdhiid, was an important place to the E. of 
Ti'icca. Alexander the Great passed through it in his march from 
lUyria to Boeotia ; it is also noticed in the war between Antiochus and 
the Romans. Gomphi, Epislcopi. in the S.E., was a most important 
position, as having command of the passes into Athamania and Dolopia. 
It was taken by Amynander, in B.C. 198, in the Roman war against 
Philip, and again by Caesar, in B.C. 48, in his war with Pompey.-^ Gonnus 
or Gonni, L'l/lwsfomo, stood on the left bank of the Peneus at the W. 
entrance of the Vale of Tempe — ^'in ipsis faucibiis saltus quae Tempe 
appellatm^ " ^ Liv. xxxvi. 1') ;. Philip passed tiiis way after the battle 
of Cynoscephalae in B.C. 197, as also did the Roman army under Clau- 
dius in 191. It was strongly fortified by Perseus in 171. 

In Felasrjiotls. — Gyrton, Tatari, was situated on a fertile plain 
between the Titaresius and the Peneus. It was reputed the original 
abode of the Phlegya^, and continued to be a place of importance to a 
late period, though seldom noticed in history. Larissa was situated in 
a fertile plain upon 
gently rising ground on 
the right bank of the 
Peneus. It is probably 
identical with the Ho- 
meric Argissa.-* Demo- 
cracy prevailed at Lar- 
issa, and hence the place 
sided with Athens in the 
Peloponnesian war. It 
was the head-quarters 
of Philip the son of 
Demetrius before the battle of Cynoscephal?e, in B.C. 197, after which 
it fell into the hands of the Romans. It is still a very important j^lace 
and retains its ancient name. Crannon, or Cranon, was situated S.W. 
of Larissa, and is supposed to be identical with the Homeric Ephyra.^ 
It was the residence of the wealthy family of the Scopad-ce, whose flocks 
grazed in the fertile plain surrounding the town. In B.C. 4.31 Crannon 
aided the Athenians and in 394 the BcEotians. In 191 it was taken by 
Antiochus.^ Some ruins at a place called Palea Larissa mark its site. 
Pherae, famed in mythology as the residence of Admetus and in history 
as that of Jason, was situated SAV. of lake Bo?beis and not far from 
the Pagas^ean Gulf, on which Pagasas served as its port. During the 
period of the supremacy of Jason and his family B.C. 374-362) it may 
be regarded as the capital of Thessaly. It was taken by Antiochus 



2 'AAAa /j.e IlvOJj re Ka\ to 

UeXLvvalov aTrvet. — PI^D. Pyth. X. 6. 
3 The positions of the to^vns Pheca, Argenta, Pherinum, Thimirum, Lisinae, 
Stimo, and Lampsus, which are noticed by Livy (xxxii. 14, 15^ as near Gomphi, 
are quite uncertain. 

^ "Ot S' "XpyLcraav exoi', koX Tvprioinrii^ ei-e'/uopro, — /?. ii. 738. 

5 TcI) iJiev cip' eK ©pr/KT]? 'Ydivpovg /aera ^cop^^crcrecr^or, 

'He /aeroL ^A-eyvag /xeyaArjTOpa?. xiii. 301. 

^ It appears to hare been a declining place in the time of Catullus : — 
Deseritur Scyros : Hnquunt Phthiotica Tempe, 
Cranonisque domes, ac moenia Larisstea. — Ixiv. 35. 

E 2 




Coin of Larissa 



364 



THESSALIA. 



Book IV. 



in B.C. 191. In the centre of the town was the celebi^ated fountain of 
Hyperia.' Messeis was also in or near the town. The remains of 
Pherse are at Velestlno. Scotussa, Sujyli, lay W. of Pherse, near the 
frontiers of Phthiotis : it was a very ancient town, and reputed to have 
been the original seat of the oracle of Dodona. In B.C. 367 it was 
taken by Alexander of Pherse, and in 191 by Antiochus. In its 
territory were the hills named Cynoscephalae, memorable for the 
battles fought there between the Thebans and Alexander of Pherae, 
in 364, and between the Romans under Flaminius, and Philip of 
Macedon in 197. 

In Tliessaliotis. — Metropolis was situated on the road from Gomphi 
to Thaumaci. It derived its name from its having been founded by several 
towm?, whose population coalesced there. Ceesar marched through it on 
his way to Pharsalus, and it was taken by Flaminius in B.C. 1 98. Traces 
of this town exist at Paleokastro. Pharsalus, Fersala, lay about two 

miles and a half from 
the left bank of the 
Enipeus, admirably situ- 
ated for the command of 
the pass that conducts 
to southern Greece. It 
was built on a hill some 
600 feet above the plain, 
w^iich descended pre- 
cipitously on three of its 
sides, and contained on its summit a level space for the acropolis. It 
was besieged without success by Myronides in b c. 455, and was taken 
by the Romans under Acilius Glabrio in 191. It is chiefly famous for 
the battle fought between Csesar and Pompey, in 48, on the plain just 
N, of the city. 

In Phthiotis. — Thebae, surnamed Phthiotides, was situated in the 
N.E. corner of the district, near the Pagasaean Gulf. Previous to the 
foundation of Demetrias, it was the most important m^aritime city in 
Thessaly. It w^as one of the strongholds of Cassander in his war 
with Demetrius Poliorcetes in B.C. 302. The ^tolians made it their 
head-quarters in Northern Greece, until it was taken from them by 
Philip, son of Demetrius, w^ho changed its name to Philippopolis. 
It was attacked wdthout success by Flaminius in 197. Its ruins, con- 
sisting of the circuit of the walls and towers, and a part of the theatre, 
stand upon a height near Ak-Ketjel. Eretria, near Pharsalus, is 
noticeable as the spot where Q. Flaminius halted in his march from 
Pherae to Scotussa in B.C. 197. Halus ^ was situated on a projecting spur 
of Othrys, near the sea, and overlooking the Grecian plain. Pteleum,^ 



" Kat Kev vSuip (/)opeot? Meo"(Ji7t5o?, r) 'YTrepetrj?. — II, vi. 457. 

'Eyyvg fxev ^>epTj?, Kpdvav 'YTreprjtSa Aittwi/. Pind. Pyth. iv. 221. 
^Cl ^epaCa, p^atpe* crvyyo vdi/ 6' vStop 

'YTTepeta Kp-qvr], vap.a. 6eo(f)Lk€(TTaTOU. SoPH. Fragm. 753. 

Flevit AmjTnone, flerunt Messeides undee, 

Flevit et efFusis revocans Hyperia lacertis. — Val. Flac. iv. 374. 
It is noticed by Homer {IL ii. 682). 
^ The Homeric epithet of k^x^iroCriv was possibly more appropriate in early 
than in late times : a large marsh near the site of the town may once have been 
a fertile meadow : — , 
Xyxi-a-i^ov T* 'AvTp(ov\ rjd^ UT€\eov AexeTroiTji/. — II. ii. 697. 




Coin of Pharsalus. 



Chap. XIX. 



TOWXS. 



365 



near the entrance of the Pagasaean Gulf, is mentioned by Horner 
among the possessions of Protesilaus. Antiochus landed here in B.C. 
192, and the town, having been deserted by its inhabitants, was de- 
stroyed in 171. Larissa Cremaste received its surname from its posi- 
tion hangin j " upon the side of Othrys : it Vv'as occupied by Demetrius 
Poliorcetes in his war with Cassander in B.C. 302, and was taken by 
the Romans in their w^ars with Philip in 200, and with. Perseus in 171. 
Melitaea was situated on a lofty hill on the left bank of the Enipeus, 
a day's march from Pharsalus : it was visited by Brasidas and by the 
allies in the Lamiac War ; Philip failed to take it. Lamia, originally 
belonging to the Malienses, was situated on a height about 6 miles 
from the sea and 3J from the Spercheus. It is well knowTi from the 
war named after it, carried on in B.C. 323 by the Athenians and their 
allies against Antipater, who was besieged there. In 192 Lamia sub- 
mitted^ to Antiochus, and was consequently attacked by the Romans 
and taken in 19 J ; its site is fixed at Zituni. 

In Magnesia. — Demetrias, the most important town in this district, 
was founded about B.C. 290 by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who peopled it 
with the inhabitants of the surrounding towns. It stood on a declivity 
overhanging the Pagassean Gulf on its eastern side. It was favourably 
situated for the command of the interior of Thessaly as well as of the 
surrounding seas ; and was hence termed one of the three fetters" 
of Greece, the other two being Chalcis and Corinth. In 196 it was 
taken by the Romans and in 192 by the ^tolians : in 191 it surrendered 
to Philip, and it was retained by himself and his successor until 169. 
lolchus ^ was situated on a height a little N. of Demetrias : it was 
famed in the heroic ages as the place where Jason lived, and where the 
Argonauts assembled. Meliboea was situated on the sea-coast ^ between 
the roots of Ossa and Pelion : it was plundered by the Romans under 
Cn. Octavius in b.c. 168. 

In Malis. — The chief and only important towna in this district was 
TracMs, or Trachin, situated in a plain at the foot of OEta, a little 
W. of Thermopylae. It derived its name from the ^'"rugged" rocks 
suiTounding the plain. It commanded the approach to Thermopylae, 
and hence was valuable as a military position. It is celebrated in 
mythology as the scene of the death of Hercules, to which Sophocles 
refers in his Trachiniee. Historically it is famous for its connexion 
with Heraclea, which the Lacedgemonians erected in its territory in b.c. 
426, and w^hich became, after the Peloponnesian War, the head-quarters 
of the Spartans in N'orthern Greece, until its capture by the Thebans 
in 395. It was afterwards a valuable acquisition to the ^tolians, who 
held out against the Romans under Acilius Glabrio for nearly a month 
in 191. 

Of the less important towns we may notice : in Hestixotis — ^ginium, 
Stagiis, near the Peneus, an almost impregnable fortress, frequently 



1 Homer gives lolchus the epithets — " roomy," " well built — 

IIeA.6]s fxev iv evpvxopoi 'lao\K<jo 
Nate 7Tokvppqvo<;. Od. xi. 255. 

BotjSr]!/, Kal rA.a(^vpa?, Kal evuTiiJievrjv 'lacoA/coi'. //. ii. 712. 

2 The purple shell-fish was found on this coast : — 

Jam tibi barbaricce vestes, Melibceaque fulgens 

Purpura. Lucret. ii. 499. 

Purpura Meeandro duplici Meliboea cucurrit. — ^En. v. 251. 



366 



THESSALIA. 



Book IV. 



noticed in the accounts of the Eoman wars; Ithome, an Homeric town,^ 
somewhat E. of Gomphi ; Phacium, on the left bank of the Peneus, 
visited by Brasidas in B.C. 424, laid wa^te by Philip in 198^ and occu- 
pied by the Roman pr?etor Bsc bins in 191 ; Mylae, a strong post on the 
Titaresius at Dhaniasi, taken by Perseus in B.C. 171 ; Mallaea, Cyretiae, 
and Eritium, on tributaries of the Titaresius, mentioned in connexion 
with the Roman wars in Greece— Cyretiaj was plundered by the ^Eto- 
lians in B.C. 200, taken by Antiochus, but recovered by B?ebius and 
Philip in 191, and occupied by Perseus in 171 ; Oloosson, an Homeric 
town,** situated on the edge of a plain near Tempe, and now called 
Elassona; Azorus, Pythium, and Doliche, three towns in the upper 
valley of the Titaresius, which formed a tripolis or confederacy ; and 
the Homeric Orthe, sometimes identified with Phalanna. In Felas- 
gi.otis — Atrax, on the left bank of the Peneus, about ten miles above 
Larissa ; Metropolis, near Atrax, taken by Antiochus in 191 ; and 
Laceria, on the W. side of lake Boebeis, situated on a yevY remarkable 
hill with two summits, ^ which rises like an island out of the plain. In 
T/iessaliotis — Asterium, or Peiresiae, an Homeric town, situated on a 
hill, with white, calcareous cliffs,^ near the junction of the rivers Api- 
danus and Enipeus ; Phyllus," situated on a hill of the same name on 
the opposite side of the Apidanus, with a famed temple of Apollo ; and 
Arae, afterwards Cierium, near the Cuarias, the chief town of the 
^Eolian Boeotians. In Fhtliiotis — Pliylace, between Pharsalus and 
Thebes, an old Homeric tovm belonging to Protesilaus, and possessing 
a temple in his honour ; Iton, or Itonus,*^ on the Cuarius, with a cele- 
brated temple of Athena;^ Antron, at the entrance of the Maliac Gulf, 
existing in Homer's time,^ and noticed in the Roman wars as having 
been purchased by Philip, but taken from him by the Romans ; 
Proema, near the sources of the Apidanus, a place captured by Antio - 
chus, but recovered by Acilius in B.C. 191 ; Narthacium, on a hill of 
the same name in the valley of the Enipeus, near which Agesilaus con- 
quered the Thessalian cavalry in B.C. 394 ; Tliauinaci, Dliomoho, S. of 
Proerna, strikingly situated on a precipitous rock, whence the traveller, 



3 Homer (77. ii. 729) characterizes it as "rocky," 'lOiofxrjv KXuiixaKoeaa-av. 
•* Homer gives it the epithet " white," from the arg-illaceoiis soil about it : — 
''OpQy]v, 'HAcorrjv re, ttoXlv r 'Okoocraova X^vKiqv. — //. ii. T39, 

5 These are the " twin liills in the Dotian plain," of which Hesiod [ap Strah. 
ix. p. 442) speaks : — 

Tj OL-q AtSvjU-ov? tepov? vaiovcra ko\o)vov9 
Atorto) eu TreSto), TroAv/Sorpuo? avr' 'Ajavpoto. 
6 Ot S' exov 'Xareptov, Tirai/oio re kevKo. Kaprjva. — /?. ii. "735. 

^ Aptior armentis Midee, j9(?coro5a^we Phyllus. — Stat. Jlieb. iv. 4.5. 
8 The Homeric epithet "mother of flocks," was applied to it probably from its 
possessing a portion of the uplands of Othrys : — 

Ot 5' elxov (^v\dKi-}v, Koi Uvppacrov avOeixoevra 
Arj/aTjTpos refxevog, Ircovd re, ixrjTepa /ixvyAcov. — II. ii. 695. 
9 IlyjAtaSes Kopv<^fjcnv iOdixfieov eitropooxrat 
"Epyov 'Xe-qvair^s 'ItiovlSo?. ApOLL. ^?-^0?h ix. 551. 

"^ILkOov 'Irojp'taSo? /u,ii/ 'A^rjvat'ag en' deOXa 

'OpfxevCdaL KoAeoi/reg. Callim. JTijimi. in Cer. 74. 

1 The epithet "rocky" is highly appropriate ; some of the best millstones in 
Greece came from the rocks of Antron : — 

Kal Hd^Qu d/Lc^ipuTTji', "Aj/rpwi^a re TreTp-qevra. — HoM. Hymn, in Cer. 491. 



Chap. XIX. 



TOWXS — HISTOEY. 



367 



emerging from the defiles of Othr\-s, gains his first view of the Thes- 
salian plain: it was unsuccessfully besieged by Philip in B.C. 199, and 
taken by the Romans under Acilius in 191 ; Xynige, near the district 
of the j£nianes, and on the borders of a lake of a similar name^ now 
called TauJdi : it was plundered by the iEtolians in b.c, 198 ; Phalara, 
the port of Lamia, on the Malian Gulf ; and EcMnus,^ between Lamia 
and Larissa, in a fertile district, at one time held by the ^tolians, 
and taken from them by Philip, after a long siege. In Magaesia — 
Bebe, on the E. shore of the lake named after it ; Pagasae, at the head 
of the PagasEean Bay, celebrated in mythology as the port where 
Jason built the ship Argo^ ; Aphetss, a port at the neck of the same 
gulf, whence the Ara'i:aiauts are said to have sailed, and where the 
Persian fleet assembled Ijefore the battle of Artemisium ; Homole, on a 
hill of the same name connected with Ossa. near the outlet of the 
Peneus ; Eurymen®, on the sea-coast, more to the S. ; Thaumacia, 
still further down the coa~t, an Homeric town, to be distinguished from 
Thaumaci in Phthiotis ; Casthaneea, at the E. foot of Pelion, noticeable 
as the place whence the chesnut-tree derived its name ; and Olizon,^ 
opposite Artemisium inEubcea, on the neck of land which runs into the 
Pagasgean Galf. In Dolopia — Ctimene, probably near the sources of 
the Cuarius. In Q^tp^a — Hypata, at the foot of (Eta, S. of the Sper- 
cheus, a town whose inhabitants were famed for their skill in sorcery : 
it belonged to the ^Etolian League in the time of the Poman war- in 
Greece. In 3/(v?/.s— Anticyra, at the mouth of the Spercheus. 

History. — The history of Thessaly is comparatiA'ely devoid of interest. 
The various tribes and districts were very rarely united in any course 
of action: rather was it the rule that feuds raged between the leading 
cities of Larissa. Pharsalus, and Phera?, and that the power of this 
wealthy province was frittered away in petty scjuabbles. In the Persian 
"War the Thessalians de-igned resistance to the invader, but on the re- 
fusal of the allied Greeks to make a stand at Tempo, they rnedized and 
aided Xerxes. After the battle of CEnophyta the Athenians invaded 
Thessaly under Myronides, in B.C. 454, without any effect. In the 
Peloponnesian War the Thessalians took little part, but their sym- 
pathies were with Athens : and although Brasidas succeeded in crossing 
the country with the aid of the nobles, the people would not suffer 



- It is noticed by Aristophanes : — 

ITpcortcrra rhv 'Y.\LvovvTa. <a\ rhv 'Sl-qX.ia 
K6A770P. Lysistro.t. 1169. 

3 Xamqne fernnt olim Pagasce navalibiis Argo 

Egressam longe Phasidos isse viam. — Pkopert. i. 20, 17. 
Jamque fretnm Minyae Pagaseea pnppe secabant. — Ov. J/f-f. vii. 1. 
rt Pagasfea rati- peteret cum Pbasidos undas. — Lrc. ii. 71.5. 
^ The hill was regarded as a favourite haunt of Pan, and of the Centaurs and 
the Lapithee : — 

2vy;^opTOt 6' 'OjaoXag eva.v 
koL, TrevKaLCTLV oOev X^'P"^ 
UXripovvre^. x^o'i-a ©ecrcraAcov 
'iTT-eiat? eha-fxaCov. EuRip. Here. Fur. 371. 

Descendunt Centauri, Homolem Othr^mque nivalem 
Linquente^ cursu rapido. Virg. ^Hn. vii. 67.5, 

^ Homer characterises it as the " rough " or " craggy " Olizon : — 
Kat MeAtjSotai/ exov. kol 'OAt^cova Tpa\etai'. — It. ii. 717. 



368 



THESS ALIA — EPIEUS. 



Book IV. 



reinforcements to be^sent to liim. In 395 the Thessalians joined the 
Boeotian league against Sparta. Thessaly was afterwards the scene of 
internal discord through the rise of Phera3 nnder Lycophron, who de- 
feated the Larisseeans and their allies in 404, and introduced the Lace- 
dgemonians into the country. Jason, the successor of Lycophron, suc- 
ceeded in obtaining the supremacy over Thessaly, with the title of 
Tagus, in 374, and exercised an important influence in the affairs of 
Greece, particularly after the battle of Leuctra. The tyranny exercised 
by the successors of Jason, Polyphron, Polydorus, and Alexander, led 
to the interference of Alexander of Macedon, and, after his -v^ithdrawal, 
of the Thebans, who invaded Thessaly under Pelopidas in the years 
369 and 368, and again in 364; by which the power of Phera^ was 
checked, but not crushed. It remained for the Macedonians und^r 
Philip to effect this in 352, Avhen the last of the tyrants, Lycophron, 
was defeated and expelled. Thessaly henceforth formed a paii: of the 
Macedonian empire, to which they remained attached, in spite of an 
attempt to throw off the yoke after Alexander's death, until the Romans 
established their supremacy (b.c. 197). 

Islands. — Off the coast of Thessaly lie the following islands : — 
Seiatkus, Skiatho, opposite the promontory of Sepias, originally occu- 
pied by Pelasgians, afterwards by Chalcidians of Eubcea, with a town 
of the same name, which was destroyed by the last Philip of Macedonia 
in B.C. 200 : the island produced a good wine. Halonnesus, Slwpelo, 
more to the E., now one of the most flourishing isles of the JEgx^n, in 
consequence of its excellent wine : it was the cause of a dispute be- 
tween Philip and the Athenians in B.C. 343. Peparethus,^ Kilidhromla, 
still more to the E., said to have been colonized by Cretans, famed for 
its wine and oil,^ and possessing three towns, the chief one of which was 
destroyed by Philip in b.c. 200. Scandila, Sl:andole, a small island be- 
tween Peparethus and Scyrus. And, lastly, Scyros, Slcyro, so called 
from its ruggedness, E. of Euboea, divided into two parts by a narrow 
isthmus. The town stood on the sides of a high rocky jDeak^'^ on the E. 
coast, and contained a temple of Athena, who was the patron deity of 
the island. Scyros is frequently noticed in mythical le^i^ends : Thetis 
concealed Achilles, and Pyrrhus was nurtured there ; Theseus retired 
thither from Athens, and was treacherously slain there his bones 
were conveyed to Athens in B.C. 469. The island thenceforth belonged 
to Athens. Its soil was unproductive, but it possessed a famous breed 
of goats, and quarries of variegated marble. 

II. Epirus. 

§ 13. Epirus Tvas the name given to an extensive district in the 
N.W. of Greece, lying between the Ionian Sea in the W. and Pindus 



6 A(7at T, Etpeo-tat re Ka\ ayx^akf) neTrapT^^o?.— H05I. Hymn, in Apoll. 32. 
' jS'itidaeque ferax Peparethos oUvae, — Ov. Met. vii. 470. 

8 Auto? yap fxiv eyta /cotArj? eirl vrjo^ k'Ccrf)<; 

2/cvpov kXoiv aiTT^LCLV, 'Ei/V7jo? TTTokitOpov. II. ix. 668. 

9 'O ^rjfXLOv Trat?, S/cupog a> \vypovg rd(f)ov<; 
Kp-qixvvov evepOev atytAtil/ pot^ov^et'coi/ 

IlaAat SoKevet rot? aTapxvrovs ptc^ag. LycOPHE. 1324: 



Chap. XIX. 



NAME - MOUXTAIXS. 



369 



ill the E., and extending from the Acroceraunian Promontory in the 
K to the Ambracian Guh" in the S. It is for the most part a wild 
and mountainous country : the valleys are numerous, but not ex- 
tensive, and have at no period supplied sufficient corn for the support 
of the inhabitants. 
There is but a single 
extensive ^^lain, in which 
Dodona was situated. 
Epims has always 
been a pastoral country. 
Among its most valued 
productions were oxen ^ 
(which supplied the na- 
tional emblem), horses,^ 
and dogs.^ 

Name. — The name is derived from Tj-rreipos, ^'mainland/' and was 
originally applied to the whole W. coast of Greece as fai* Sr as the Co- 
rinthian Gulf, in contradistinction to the islands that skirt the coast."* 
This use prevailed as late as the time of the Peloponnesian War. 

§ 14. The mountains that traverse Epirus emanate from the 
central range of Pindus. The only one that received a sj^ecific 
designation was the Cerauim Montes in the extreme N.W., which 
attains a great height as it approaches the Ionian Sea, and terminates 
in the promontory of Acroceraunia, Linguetta, the dread of ancient 
mariners.^ This range marks the limit between the valleys which 
fall towards the X.W. and those which fall towards the S.AV., the 
latter being to the S. of the Ceraunian range. The rivers (with the 




Coin of Epirus. 



1 Hence Pindar alludes to the lofty ox-feeding hills" of Epirus : — 

0eTt9 6e Kparel 
^OCa' 'SeoTTToKejj.o? 6' 'A- 

TTeipco SiaTrpvcTLct, 
Bov^oraL t69l Trpcove? 

oxot KaraKeivTaL. PlN'D. Xem. iv. 81. 

2 Eliadum palmas Epiros equarum. Georg. i. 59. 

2 Yeloces Spartae catulos, acremque Molossum 
Pasce sero pingui. Georg. iii. 405. 

Simul domus alta Molossis 
Personuit canibus. Hoe. Sat. ii. 6, 114. 

4 "Ot re 2.o.K.vvQov exov, rjB' ol 1d[xov aix(f)eveixovTO, 
''Ot t' *H7retpoi/ e'xov, 17S' avTLirepaLa ivdixovro. — II. ii. 634. 
^ Quern mortis timuit graduin 

Qui siccis oculis monstra natantia, 
Qui vidit mare turbidum, et 

Infames scopulos, Acroceraunia? — Hor. Carm. i. 3, 17. 
Et magno late distantia ponto 
Terruerunt pavidos accensa Ceraunia nautas. — Sil. Ital. viii. 632. 



370 



EPIHUS. 



Book IV. 



exception of the Aous, the head waters of which fall within the 
limits of Epims) seek the sea in nearly parallel courses in a south- 
westerly direction. The most important of them is the Achelous, 
AspTopotamo, which traverses the eastern part of the province. 
The others, in order from E. to W., are — the Arachtlius, Arta, which 
falls into the Ambracian Gulf, and which was regarded as the 
boundary between Hellas Proper and Epirus ; the Acheron,^ Guiia. 
a stream of no great size, which falls into a small bay named 
Glycys Limen, "Sweet Harbour," Port Fanari ; the'Thyamis, 
which joins the sea opposite the island of Corcyra ; and the 
Celydnus, X. of the Ceraunian ranae, which fomied the N. limit 
of Epims. In the eastern part of Epirus was a lake named Pamtdtis, 
now Joannina. The line of coast is iiTegular and forms numerous 
inlets : in the S. the Ambracius Sinus penetrates into the interior to 
a distance of 25 miles, and attains a width of about 10 miles ; the 
entrance to it is by a narrow and tortuous channel, which we shall 
have occasion to describe more minutely hereafter. 

§ 15. The inhabitants of Epims were not considered by the Greeks 
as an Hellenic race : the southern tribes were, nevertheless, closely 
allied to it, while the northem bore affinity to the lUyrians and 
Macedonians. They were divided into numerous clans, of which 
three gained a pre-eminence — the Chaones, Tliesproti, and Molossi. 
Epims Avas hence divided into three districts — Chaonia, upon the 
W. coast from the Acroceraunian promontory to the Thyamis ; 
Thesprotia from the Thyamis to the Ambracian Gulf, including the 
district of the Cassopa^i in the S. ; and Molossis, in the interior from 
the Aous to the Ambracian Gulf. In the latter division are included 
two districts which were politically distinct from Epims, viz. : 
Ambraeia the district about the Hellenic town of the same name on 
the N. of the Ambracian Gulf ; and Athamania, an extensive district 
in the valley of the Achelous and on the slopes of Pindus. The 
toAVLis of Epims Proper are few and unimjoortant ; shut off as this 
country was from the rest of Greece, and adapted to pastoral pursuits 
alone, it can be no matter of smprise that the people lived (as we 
are expressly informed that they did) in villages. It was not until 
the Molossian kings introduced habits of Greek civilization that any 
advance was made in this respect. The only j)lace in Epirus Proper 
which gained any fame in early times was Dodona, the seat of a 
famous oracle ; and even this must have been unimportant in point 
of size, otherwise its site would not have remained doubtful. The 
Corinthians planted a colony, Ambraeia, on the shores of the Ambra- 



^ This river was invested with many dread associations, as being- nnder the 
rule of Aidoneus the king- of Hades. In one part of its course it flowed through 
a lake named after it, Acherusia, and it received a tributary, the Cocytus, Vuvo. 



Chap. XIX. 



TOWNS. 



371 



cian Gulf, wliich became historically famous. When the Romans gained 
possession of Greece, Epirus became a little more " in the world," as 
several of the ports were favourable for communication with Ital}-. A 
large town, Nicopolis, was founded in B.C. 31 by Augustus, at the 
entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, which became the chief city of 
Western Greece, and survived to the Middle Ages. We shall notice 
the towns in their order from N. to S. 

Phoenice, in Chaonia, was situated upon the banks of a river at some 
distance from the sea-coast. It is described in B.C. 230 as the strongest 
and richest of the cities of Epirus : it was taken in that year by the 
Illyriaus. Peace was concluded there between Philip and the Romans 
in 20-1:. The hill on which it stood retains the name of Finihi. Buth.- 
rotum was situated at the head of a salt-water lake/ named Pelodes, 
which was connected by a river with the sea. It is said to have been 
founded by Helenus, son of PriaDi, after the death of Pyrrhus. Caesar 
captured it after he had taken Oricum^ and it became a Roman colony. 
Nicopolis was founded by Augustus in commemoration of the victory 
gained at Actium: it was situated on a low isthmus separating the 
Ionian Sea from the Ambracian Gulf, about 3 miles N. of Frevesa, the 
spot on which the town was built being the place where Augustus en- 
camped before the battle. The scene of the engagement is illustrated 
by the accompanying 
plan, which shows a 
double entrance to the 
Ambracian Bay — the one 
in the W. guarded by a 
promontory named La 
Funta (3), the other by 
G. Madonna (4), be- 
tween which lies the 
Bay of Frevesa (p), 
about 4 miles broad. 
Actium is to be identi- 
fied vAih. the former of 
the two promontories. 
The battle was fought 
outside the straits^, the fleet of Antony having been previously in the Bay 
oi Frevesa. The position of the temple of Apollo, where Antony's camp 
was pitched, was at 5 ; while the ruins of Frevesa are at 1 . Augustus 
established a quinquennial festival at Nicopohs in commemoration of 
his victory, and made the place a Roman colony. A church appears 
to have been planted there, as it is probably the place noticed by St. 
Paul in his Epistle to Titus. Bodona was probably situated at the S. 
extremity of Lake Pambotis, where is a ridge, Mitzikell, corresponding 
to the ancient Tomarus, and a fertile plain surrounding the end of the 
lake. The oracle of Dodona ranked with those of Delphi and Amnion, 



^ The epithet "eelsam," which Virgil gives it, is misplaced, as the town 
lies low : — 

Protinus aerias Phseacimi abscondimus arce&, 

Littoraque Epiri legimus, portnque subimus 

Chaonio, et celsam Biithroti ascendimus urbem. — .E/?. iii. 291. 




Plan of Actium. 



372 



EPIPXS. 



Book IV. 



and was visited from all parts of the world.^ The responses were de- 
livered from an oak — in the hollow of which the image of the god was 
placed — by means of the rustling of the leaves^ which were interpreted 
by the priests.^ The temple was destroyed by the ^Etolians in B C. 219, 
and afterwards restored. The ruins at Kastritza are supposed to repre- 
sent the site of the town.^ Passaron, the old capital of the Molossi, is 
of uncertain position. It was taken by the Roman praetor Anicius 
Gallus in B.C. 167. Argithea, the capital of Athamania^ was situated 
on the road between Ambracia and Gomphi, E. of the Achelous. Am- 
bracia, Arta, stood on the left bank of the Arachthus, about 7 miles 
from the shores of the Ambracian Gulf. Originally a Thesprotian town, 
it was occupied by a Corinthian colony about B.C. 635, and became a 
most flourishing place. The Ambraciots sided with Sparta in the 
Peloponnesian AVar, and for a time they got possession of Amphilochia 
in 432. Their attempts to conquer Acarnania in 429, and to retake 
Amphilochian Argos in 426, both failed, and their power was thence- 
forth checked. Under Pj-rrhus, x\mbracia became the capital of Epirus. 
In 189 it sustained a memorable siege by the Romans, and thenceforth 
it declined in power. 

Places of less importance were — Palaeste, upon the coast of Chaonia, 
where Ca}sar landed from Brundusium in his war against Pompey ;- 
Onchesmus, which served as the port of Phoenice, and was apparently 
used as a point of transit to Italy, the wind favourable for crossing 
being termed Onchesmites ; Cestria, on the Thyamis, famed for its 
breed of oxen ; it appears to have been also called Troy ; Sybota, a 
small harbour opposite the S. point of Corcyra, with two small islands 
of the same name before it (the Corinthians erected their trophy, after 
their Corcyr?ean engagement in B.C. 432, at the ^'continental," the Cor- 
cyraeans at the ''insular" Sybota); Chimerium, more to the S., used 
by the Corinthians as a naval station in the war just referred to : 



The great antiquity of the oracle is indicated by the epithet " Pelasgian :" 
ZeO ava, AcoScoi/ate, TleAacTYtKe, rrjAo^t vattov, 

2ol raCova-' v-rrocfyrjTaL drtTrroTroSeg, x^^l^^^^^^^^- — ^33. 

9 A(ti8u}inf]v, <l>r]y6v re HeXaayCiv eSpavov rjKev, 

Hesiod. ap. Strab, vii.'p. 327. 

^'A rwv opeioiv xal xap-aiKOLTOiv eyco 
2eAAa)v kakOoiv aAcro? elcreypaxjjdiJirjv 

Upog Tr)s TTarpojas ^cat -oAuyAtocrcrov dpvos' SoPH. Tracli. 1166. 
''11? rr]v TToXaLav (^Tjybv avdrjcrai ttotc 

AcoScovt Staaoiv eic rreAetafiwv ec^Tj. Id, 171. 

1 Both Euripides and ^schylus consider Dodona as a Thesprotian town, 
though, according to the latter, it ^vas in Molossis ; we may also infer that it 
was situated in a lofty position, from the epithets alTTvviorov and Bvax^i-i^^pov ap- 
plied to it by .Eschyhis and Homer : — 

©ecTTTpcoTov ovSas creava Aa)5ajK>7? ^d9pa. I'hdniss, 995. 

'EttcI yap rjkOeq 77pb? ^loAocrcra SaTreSa, 

Trjv aLTTvvojTOV T a/a(/)t JlwScoinrjv, Iva 

Marreta, Ouxo? r" ecrrl 0ecr7rpc6rov Ato?. From. Yinct. 829. 

2 Inde rapi coepere rates, atque aequora classem 
Curva sequi, quee jam vento fluctuque secundo 
Lapsa Palaestinas uncis oonfixit arenas. — Lvc. v. 458. 



C[iAP. XIX. 



HISTOEY — ISLAXDS. 



373 



Cassope, the capital of the Cassopsei, near the coast, a city of great size, 
as its ruins testify ; Pandosia, on the river Acheron, an ancient colony 
of Elis ; and Ephyra, an old Homeric town,^ afterwards called Cichyrus, 
situated near the mouth of the Acheron. 

History. — The history of Epirus is almost a blank until the rise of 
the Molossian dynasty after the Peloponnesian AVar. Alexander, the 
brother-in-law of Philip of Macedon, extended his sway over the whole 
of Epirus. He died in B.C. 326, and was succeeded by ^Eacides, and 
>3Eacides by Alcetas, after whom the celebrated Pyrrhus became king, 
and raised the kingdom to its greatest splendour. Pyrrhus was suc- 
ceeded in 272 by his son, Alexander IT., who was followed in succes- 
sion by his two sons Pyrrhus II. and Ptolemy, with whom the family 
of Pyrrhus became extinct, about 235. A republican form of govern- 
ment then prevailed. After the conquest of Macedonia in 168, the 
Romans inflicted a most savage revenge on the towns of Epirus on sus- 
picion of their having favoured Perseus : 70 to^vns were destroyed by 
^milius Paulus, and 150,000 inhabitants reduced to slavery. The 
country thenceforth became a scene of desolation, and prosperity was 
' confined to the few sea-coast to\vns which the Romans favoured. 

§ 16. Off the coast of Epirus lies the important island of Corcyra, 
Corfu also named Drepane from its resemblance in shape to a 
scythe, and probably the same as Homer's Scheria.^ Its length from 
^T. to S. is about 38 miles ; its breadth varies from 20 miles in the 
IST. to some 3 or 4t in the S. ; its nearest approach to the mainland 
is in the X., where the passage is only 2 miles wide. It is generally 
mountainous, and was deservedly celebrated for its fertility in ancient 
times. The chief town, also named Corcyi'a, was on the E. coast, 
a little S. of the modern capital. The only other town of importance 
Tvas Cassiope in the X.E. 

The loftiest mountains are in the X., where San Salvatore rises to 
nearly 4000 feet. From these a ridge runs southwards, fonning the 
backbone of the island. The height named Istone was probably near 
the capital. The promontories were named — Cassiope, Catharim, in 



3 ''E^ ''E<f)vprj<; aviovra rrap *IA.ov MepiUeptSao* 
"HtxeTO ya.p KaKela-e Oorjg e77t vtjos "OSvcrcrev?, 
^dpfxaKOv avBpo(l)6vov dt^t^fj-evog. Od. i. 259. 

'He Kcu et9 'E4>vpr}v e^e'Aet, TTLetpav apovpav, 
''EKOelv, 6(/)p' h'Oev 9vixo^66pa c^app-aK eveiKY}. Od. U. 328. 

* Corfu is a coiruption of the medic-eval name Kopv^Ji, appUed to the t^vo lofty 
peaks of the rock on which the modern citadel stands. These were the 

Aerias Phceacimi arces 
commemorated by Virgil [.En. iii. 29r^. 

^ ^Ecrrt 5e ti? nopOp-olo TrapoL-epr} 'Iovlolo 
'Aju,<^tA.ai/)7]S nCeipa KepavvCr} elv aX.1 vrjcro?, 

Aperrdvr) ToOev e/c/<\r)tcrrat 

Ovvop.a $at7]/c(ov Uprj Tpo(f)o?. Apollon. Argon, iv. 9^2. 

dpa (jnovriaacr' aTre/Srj FAav/icoTrt? 'A^tjit) 
nd;^TOi/ ctt' arpvyeTOv' AtVe 5e ^xeptrjv ipareLvriu. — Od. vii. 79. 



374 



ISLANDS XEAR EPIRUS. 



Book IV. 



the X.E ; Phalacrum, C. Brasti, in the X.TV. : Leucynma, Leflcimo, on 
the E. coast ; and AmpMpagus, C. Bianco, in the S. The town of 
Corcyra stood on a peninsula formed on one side by the lagoon of 

Peschiera, and on the other 
by a bay. It possessed two 
ports — the Hyllaic in the 
Peschiera, and the other in 
the bay. The acropolis was 
near the fonner, on the 
long undulating promontory 
S. of Corfu. A little X. of 
the town was the isle of 
PtycMa, Vido. Corcyi-a was 
colonized by the Corinthians about B.C. 700. It rapidly rose to a 
state of high prosperity^ and entered into rivalry with the mother 
country. War broke out about B.C. and the island was reduced 
by Periander (625-585;^ but soon regained its independence. The 
quarrel with Corinth respecting Epidamnus led to the outbreak of 
the Peloponuesiau War in 431. in which Corcyra sided with Athens. 
The subsequent events of importance are the sieges of Corcyra by the 
Spartans under Mnasippus in :J73, by Cleonymus in 312^ by Cassander 
in oOO, and its capture by the Romans in 229. 

S. of Corcyra are two small islands, anciently named Paxi, now Pnj-o 
and A ntipaxo. 





Coin of Corcyra. 




Jlount Parnassus arid the Hill above Delphi, with the Village ot Chrysd and the port 
(Scala) below. (From a Sketch by Sir Gardner AVilkinson.; 



CHAPTEE XX. 

CENTRAL GEEECE. — ACARXAXIA, ^TOLIA, AVESTERX LOCRISj DORIS, 
PHOCIS, EASTERN LOCRiS, BCEOTIA. 

I. AcARXAXiA. § 1. Boundaries. § 2. Mountains and m^ers. § 3. 
Inhabitants ; toNvns : history. § 4-. Islands — Leucas, Cei^hallenia, 
&c. II. ^5]tolia. § 5. Boundaries. § 6. ]^[ountanis and rivers. 
§ 7. Inhabitants; to\^'ns; histor\'. III. "Westerx Locris. § 8. 
Boundaries: mountains; towns; history. TV. DoRis. §9. Bound- 
aries; towns, &c. Y. Phocts. §10. Boundaries. § 11. Mountains 
and rivera. §12. Inhabitants; towns: history. YI. Eastern 
Locris. § 13. Boundaries ; mountains : and rivers. § 14. Inhab- 
itants ; towns. YIL Bieotia. § 15. Boundaries. § 16. Mountains, 
§ 17. Rivers; lakes. § IS. Inhabitants; towns; history. 

I. ACARXAXIA. 

§ 1. Acamania was a maritime province in the S.Yr. of Xortheni 
Greece, bounded on the X. by the Ambracian Gulf and Epims ; on 
the E. by the Achelous, separai:ing it from .Etolia ; and on the AY. 



376 



ACAENANIA. 



Book IV. 



and S.W. by the Ionian Sea. In form it resembles a triangle, the 
apex pointing to the S. The sea-coast is iiTegnlar and hned vrLth 
islands, which render navigation dangerous. The interior is traversed 

by mountain ranges of 
moderate height, having 
a general south-easterly 
direction, and covered 
with forests. The soil 
is fertile, especially the 
plains about the lower 
course of the Achelous 
wliich sustained large 
quantities of sheep and 
cattle ; its resources were not, however, much improved by its in- 
habitants. 

§ 2. Its physical features were but imperfectly known to the 
ancients. Xone of the mountains received special names, and only 
two of the promontories, viz. Actium, La Punta, at the entrance 
of the Ambracian Gulf, which we have already noticed in connexion 
vdtli Xicopolis, and Critliote on the W. coast. The chief river is the 
Achelous, Asjyropotamo, which attains a width of about f of a mile 





Mouth of the Achelous. 



Chap. XX. 



IXHABITAXTS — TOWXS. 



377 



near Stratus/and, as it approaclies tlie sea,^ crosses over an alluvial 
plain of remarkable fertility, named Paraclieloitis, with an exceedingly 
tortuous course.'^ It brings down an immense amount of deposit,^ 
wliicli lias fomied a considerable district near its mouth. There are 
several lakes in the interior ; the most important of which, named 
Melite, lay near the mouth of the Achelous. 

§ 3. The early inhabitants of Acarnania were (with the exception 
of the Amphilochians) considered to belong to the Hellenic race, 
though they were intimately connected with the Epirot tribes. 
They were at an early period driven into the interior by the Greek 
settlers on the coast ; they are described as a rade and barbarous 
people, engaged in constant wars with their neighbours, hving by 
rapine, and famed for their skill in slinging. They hved for the 
most part in villages, and had no well-defined form of government. 
In times of danger they formed a league, which held its meetings 
either at Stratus or at Thyreum, under the presidency of a strafegus 
or general. The proper Acarnanian towns Avere few and unimportant ; 
Stratus, on the Achelous, appears to have ranked as the capital. 
Colonies were planted by the Corinthians about the middle of the 
7th century B.C. at several points on the sea-coast, such as Anactorium 
and Solhum. Several of the towns are mentioned^ in connexion 
with the Athenian campaign in 426, and again in the history of 
the ^tolian wars. The foundation of Xicopolis proved fatal to 
Argos, Anactorium, Sohium, and other places in the X.AY., which 
were depopulated in order to supply the new town with inhabitants. 
AVe shall describe these towns in order from X. to S. 

On the Sea-Coast. — Argos, 
surnamed AmpliilocMcum, 

stood on the E. shore of the 
Ambracian Gulf^ on the 
small river Inachus. Its 
site has been identified with 
NeoMorl, now at some short 
distance from the shore, but 
near a lagoon which formerly 
may have extended further 
inland. Argos became prominent in the Peloponnesian "War : its 



1 It was with tliis lower portion of the, Achelous that the Greeks were best 
acquainted. Homer dignifies it with the title of "king" : — 

a\X.' ovK. ecTTL Au KpovtoJVL fxdxeaOai' 

Ou(5e ^aOvpptCrao jxiya a94vo<; 'Q,<eavoLO. H- xxi. 193. 

2 The legend of the contest between Hercules and Achelous for the liand of 
Deianeira, the daughter of (Eneus, may have been based ui)on the efforts made 
by the inhabitants to restrain the river within due bounds by dykes and dams ; 
several of the coins of the country represent the god Achelous as a bull with 
the head of an old man. 

3 Et tuus, CEneu, 

Pene gener crassis oblimaf Echinadas i.mdis. — Lrc. vi. 363. 




378 



ACAEXAXIA. 



Book IV 



original inhabitants, who were a non-Hellenic race, were expelled by 
the Ambraciot Greeks, but were afterwards restored by the Athenians 
in B.C. 432. The Ambraciots invaded the Argive territory in 430 and 
426, but were utterly defeated on the latter occasion by Demosthenes.-^ 
At a subsequent period of history, we hear of Argos as in the hands of 
the -rEtolians, and it was here that the Roman general. M. Fnlvius, 
concluded a treaty with that people. Anactorium was on the S. coast 

of the Ambracian Gulf, at 
the W. entrance of the pro- 
montory, now named C. 
^Tadonna. It was colonized 
by Corinthians and Corey- 
raeans jointly, but, in the 
war between the two states 
in B.C. 432, it fell into the 
hands of the former, with 
whom it remained until 425, 
when the Athenians restored it to the Corcyi^seans. Thyreum was 
situated either on or near'tbe Ionian Sea, a short distance S. of the 
canal which separated Leucas from the mainland. It is first noticed 
in B.C. 373, Avhen Iphicrates invaded its territory. At the time of the 
Roman wars in Greece, the meetings of the Acarnanian League were 
held there. (Eniadae was an important place on the right bank of the 

Achelous, about 10 miles 
from its mouth. It com- 
manded the access to the 
interior, and was fortified 
both by art and natm-e, 
being surrounded by exten- 
sive marshes. The Mes- 
senians took it in B.C. 455, 
but did not retain it. The 
Athenians under Pericles 
besieged it without success 
in 454. and with a different result under Demosthenes in 424. The 
^Etolians occupied it until 219, when it was taken by Philip, who in 
turn was deprived of it by the Romans in 211. Its ruins are found at 
TriJ^ardho and consist of remains of a theatre, arched posterns, and a 
larger arched gateway. 

In the Interior. — Stratus stood on the right bank of the Achelous 
and was a military post of importance, as commanding the passes 
towards the X. In B.C. 429 it was vainly attacked by the Ambraciots. 
It afterwards fell into the hands of the ^Etolians, nor could Philip V. 
or Perseus wrest it froui them. It is frequently noticed in the Mace- 
donian and Roman wars. Extensive remains of it exist at Surovigll. 

Of the less important towns we may notice. On the Sea-Coast — 
Limnaea, in Amphilochia, at the S.E. corner of the Ambracian Gulf, 



^ The following places are noticed in connexion "vrith. this campaig-n — Olpee, a 
fortified hill which the Ambraciots captiired, about three miles X.TV. of Argos on 
the shore of the gulf: Crence. where the Acarnanians took up their position, 
somewhat S.AV. of Argos : Metropolis, where the Spartan general Eurylochus was 
posted, a little E. of Olp.T ; and the pass which was closed by the Greater and 
Lesser Idomene, now the Pass of Makri/io'o, near the coast on the road to 
Ambracia. 




Coin of Anactorium. 




Coin of lEniada?. 



Chap. XX. TOWXS — HISTORY —ISLANDS. 



379 



between Argos and Stratus; Palaerus, on the sea-coast between Leucas 
and Alyzia^ noticed as an ally of Athens in B.C. 431 ; Sollium, on the 
coast near Pala3rus^ but of uncertain position, a Corinthian colony, 
captured by the Athenians in B.C. 431; Alyzia, about 2 miles frorn the 
sea-coast, with a sanctuary 
of Hercules adorned with 
works of art by Lysippus ; a 
naval battle w^as fought 
near it in B.C. 374, between 
the Athenians and Lacedae- 
monians ; and Astacus, near 
Prom. Crithote, a colony of 
Cephallenia. In the Interior 
— Medeon, S. of Limntea, a 
strong post unsuccessfully besieged by the ^^]tolian$ in B.C. 231, and 
occupied by Antioclius in 191; Phytia, on a height S. of Medeon, 
strongly fortified, but nevertheless taken by the ^Ltolians after the 
time of Alexander the Great, and by Philip in b.c, 219; and lastly, 
Metropolis, S. of Stratus, captured by the ..Etolians, and taken by 
Philip in b.c 219. 

History. — The Acarnanians are not noticed in history until the time 
of the Peloponnesian War, when they appear as allies of the Athenians, 
and were great supporters of their influence in AVesteru Greece. The 
Acarnanians particularly distinguished themselves in the battle of 
Olpfe in B.C. 426. We next hear of them as at war with the Achaeans 
in 391, w^hen the Lacedaemonians, as allies of the latter people, invaded 
their country. They were afterwards subjected to the ^tolian League; 
hence they were naturally thrown into alliance with the Macedonian 
kings, to whom they adhered with gi^eat fidelity until the conquest of 
Greece by the Romans. It is uncertain Avhether Acarnania was attached 
to the province of Achaea or of Epirus. 

§ 4. Off the coast of Acarnania lie several islands, of w-hicli the 
most important are — Leucadia, Sard a Maura: Cephallenia; CeplKi- 
Ionia. \ and Ithaca, Thiahi: and the less important — the Teleboides, 
consisting of Taphus, ^It'janisi, Camus and others, between Leucas 
and the coast ; the Echinades, '* sea-nrcliins '* (so namo'l trorn their 
jagged outlines), a cluster opposite the month of the Achelons, some 
of which, as Dnlicliiiim, have been incc)rporated with the mainland 
(see Map, p. 370) ; and ^gilippa E. of Ithaca. To the former class 
we may add Zacynthus, Zanie., which, thoitgli off the coast of Elis, is 
evidently a memlier of the same group. 

Leucadia was originally a peninsida of the mainland and is so de- 
scribed by Homer ; ^ it was formed into an island by the Corinthians, 
who dug a canal across the isthmus. '^^ The island is 2u miles in length 
from X. to S., and from 5 to 8 miles in breadth ; in shape and size it 



^ Olo? XrjpLKov elA.01^, IvKTiixevov —joXUQpov. 
'AK-n-jV 'H— etpoto, Ke6a/\A.>ji'ecrcrti/ avdcraoji'. Od. xxiv. 376. 

^ The canal was orig-inally dug- about b.c. G65 ; it was, however, filled up by 
sand from the tmie of the Peloponnesian War until about 200, when it was re- 
opened by the Eomans. 




Coin of Alyzia. 



380 



ISLANDS NEAR ACARNAXIA. 



Book IV 



resembles the Isle of Man. A range of limestone mountains traverses 
it from N. to S., terminating in the white cliffs of Leucate,' C. Ducato, 
which rise out of the sea to a height of above 2000 feet^ and were 
crowned with a temple of Apollo. The chief town, also named Leucas, 

a Corinthian colony, was 
situated on the Diorj'ctus or 
canal at Kaligmi, about H 
miles S. of the modern capi- 
tal : in the Macedonian period 
it was the chief town of 
Acarnania: in the Roman 
wars it sided with Philip, 
and was taken by the Romans 
in B.C. 197. In addition to 
this w^e have notices of HeUomenum and Pliara in the S. 

Cephallenia, the Samos or Same of Homer,^ lies about 5 miles S. of 
Leucas, and is the largest island in the Ionian Sea, being in length from 
N. to S. 31 miles, and varying in width from about 8 to 16 miles. 
It is mountainous, 9 the most lofty range in the S.E. being formerly 
named ^nus and now Elato, from the fir-trees which cover it. From 
the character of the soil, as well as the want of water, it appears to 
have been rather unj^roductive. There were four towns — Same, the 
capital, on the-E. coast; Proni in the S.E. ; Cranii in the S.W. ; and 
Pale in the AY. The chief historical event connected with them is the 
siege of Same by M. FulviiLS in B.C. 189. 

Ithaca lies off the E coast of Cephallenia ^ at a distance of 3 or 4 



" This was the scene of the famed lover's leap : — 

Phccbus ab exccl^^o, quantum patet, aspicit eequor : 

Actiacum populi Leucadimuque vocant. 
Hinc se Deucalion, Pyrrha^ succensus amore, 

Misit, et illceso corpore pressit aquas. 
Nec mora : versus amor tetigit lentissima Pyrrhae 

Pectora, Deucalion igne levatus erat. 
Hanc legem locus ille tenet : pete protinus altam 

Leucada, nec saxo desiluisse time. — Ov. Hcroid. xv. 165. 

The cape was an object of dread to mariners : — 

Mox et Leucatse nimbosa cacumina montis, 

Et formidatus nautis aperitur Apollo. — Yirg. u3En. iii. 274. 

Totumque instructo marte videres 
Fervere Leucaten, auroque effulgere fluctus. — Id. viii, 676. 

Nec nubifer Actia texit 
Litora Leucates. Claud, de BeU. Get. 185. 

S 'Ei/ TTopOfjicZ '19a.Kr]g re Sdjaoto re TraLTrakoicrcrq^' Od.iv. 671. 
or re Z6lkvv9ov exov, rjB' di Sajuov a.fx^eviix.0VT0. It. ii. 634. 
"Ocrcrot yap vrjcroLcriv liriKpaTiovcTLV apiarot, 

AovAtxi-V '^^i — <^M-T7 v^^^vri ZaKvvOo). Od. xvi. 122. 

^ Hence the Homeric epithet Trac-aAoeo-crrj. See previous note. 
1 Its position is thus described by Homer : — 

AvTY] 8k xQaixaXri Travv—epraTr] elv akl Keirat 

Ilpbg ^6<^ov, at 6e t' avevOe rrpos ^o) r', rjekiov re. — Od. ix. 25. 
where x^a/xaAT^ probably refers to the position of the island, lying under the 
mountains of Acarnania, and TrainjneprdTr] to its being at the extremity of the 
group of islands formed by Zaeynthus, Cephallenia, and the Echinades. 




Chap. XX. 



ISLANDS. 



381 



miles: its length from N. to S. is about 17 miles, and its greatest 
breadth abont 4. It consists of a ridge of limestone rock, divided by 
a deep and wide gulf, G. of Molo, into two nearly equal parts, which 
are connected by an isthmus about J a mile across. The chief mountain 
is in the N. and was named Neritus ; ^ the forests which formerly 
clothed it have now disappeared. The island is generally rugged and 
sterile, abounding with bold cliffs and indented by numerous creeks. 
The localities derive an especial interest from the frequent references to 
them in the Homeric poems. The capital was probably in the N.W. 
at Polls, in which case Mt. Neium ^ will answer to Exocje, the isle of 
Asteris perhaps to Dascaglio and the harbour of Rheitlirum to the bay 
of Afales. The fountain of Arethusa ^ gushes out of a cliff, still named 
Corax, at the S.E. extremity of the island. The port of Phorcys^ 
may be either Dexia on the N. side of the G. of Molo, or Shhinos on 
the S. side. The Grotto of the Nymphs is a cave on the side of Mt. 
Stephanos, and on the summit of the hill of Aetos which forms the 
isthmus are the ruins of the so-called " Castle of Ulysses." The 
island appears to have been divided in ancient as in modern times into 
four parts, of which three were named Neium, Crocyleium, and ^gireus 
(the JEgilips of Homer '^), the two latter probably answering to Batliy 
and Anoge. 

Zacyntlius lies S. of Cephallenia and about 8 miles from the coast of 
Peloponnesus : its length 
is about 23 miles, and 
its circumference 50. It 
was celebrated for its 
fertility, an attribute 
which has obtained for 
it in modern times the 
title of ' ' the flower of 
the Levant." The most 

important hill was Coin of Zacynthus. 

named Elatus, M. Skopo, 

and the most remarkal)le natural object are the pitch-wells which 




2 Nateraw 6' 'lOaKrjv evSeteAov ev B' 6p09 avrfj 
Nryptrov, ^IvoaCf^vXXov , apiTrpene?. 
01 p 'lOoLK-qv elxoi^ /cat NT^ptrop- eLvocrC({)V?<\ou. 

Jam medio apparet fluctu nemorosa Zacynthos, 
Dulichiumque, Sameque, et Neritos ardua saxis. 
Effugimus scopulos Ithacse, Laertia regna, 

Et terram altricem sgevi exsecramur Ulixi. — Virg. jE71. ill. 270. 

3 Ntjt}? 6e p-ot r)6' eanqKev ctt' aypov vocrcbL TroArjo?, 
'El/ \LixevL "PeiOpio, viro Nrjto) vk-qevTL' 

4 *E(rTt 6e rt? vri(TO<; ixecrari aXl Trerpr^ecrcra, 
Mecra-qyv'; 'lOdKri<; re Sap-Oto re TratTraAoe'crcTT]?, 
'Aa-Tepls, ov p,eyaATj- A.tp.eVes 6' eVi vavkoxot avrfj 
'Ap,(^t5vp.of rfj TOP ye (xivov Aoxocovre? 'A^aot. 

5 at 5e uefxovTat. 
Hap KopaKO? Trerpry, eirC re Kpi^ur] 'ApeOovar]. 

^ ^opKWOS 6e Tts eo-Tt A.tp,Tjv, aAtoto yepovTO?, 

'Afcrat (XTroppcoye?, Atp,eVos TrortTreTrrrjutat. 
' Ot p 'WaKYiu elxov Koi NT7ptTOV elvoa-i^vWov, 
Kat Kpo/cuAet' eve'/utovTO, Kat AtytA-tTra rprjxetav. 



Od. ix. 21. 
II. ii. 632. 



Od. i. 185. 



Od. iv. 844. 



Od. xiii. 407. 



Od. xiii. 96. 



II. ii. 632. 



382 



JETOLIA. 



Book IV, 



are found near the shore of the Bay of Chieri on the S.W. coast. The 
island no longer deserves the epithet of " woody " given to it by Homer 
and Virgil. 3 The chief town, Zacyntlius, on the E. coast, was founded 
byAchseans, and was hence hostile to the Spartans in the Peloponnesian 
War. It was taken by the Eoman general Valerius Laevinus in B.C. 
211, and was finally surrendered to the Romans in 191. 

II. .Etolia. 

§ 5. .ffitolia was bounded on the W. by the Achelous ; on the X. 
by the ranges of Tymplirestns and (Eta ; on the E. by Locris ; and 
on the S. by the Corinthian Gulf. Within these limits are included 
two districts — ^Etolia Proper, along the coast between the Achelous 
and the Evenus, and ^Etolia Epictetus {i.e. "acquired") the 
mountainous district in the N. and E. ; these formed in reality in- 
dependent divisions, and the name Epictetus seems merely to indicate 
the extension of the geographical title to the mountainous region, 
which otherwise would not have been included in any of the provinces. 
These districts differed widely in character. The southern consisted 
of an extensive plain, or rather a double plain, one skirting the sea- 
coast, the other in the interior, the range of Aracynthus forming the 
line of demarcation. The soil w^as very fertile, j^roducing excellent 
com, and affording rich pasture grounds, which fed a fine breed of 
horses. On the slopes of the hills the vine and olive flouiished. 
The interior was a wild improductive region, infested with wild 
beasts to a late period. 

§ 6. The chief mountains were — Tymphrestus, a continuation of 
Pindus in the N.E. ; Bomi, containing the sources of the Evenus, 
the most westerly part of (Eta ; Corax, a S.W. offset from (Eta, a 
lofty mountain crossed by a difificult pass into Doris ; Myenus, to the 
SAV. between the Evenus and HyLTthus ; Taphiassus, running down 
to the sea a little to the westward of Antirrhium, and terminating 
in a precipitous cliff, on the face of winch the road is carried, whence 
the modern name Kaki-Slxda ''bad ladder"; Chalcis, an offset of 
Taphiassus to the W. ; Aracynthus, the range referred to as separating 
the two plains, running in a S.E. direction between the Achelous and 
Evenus ; and, lastly, Panaetolium, Viena, near Thermum, deriving its 
^ me from its being the spot where the ^tolian confederacy assembled. 
The only important rivers in ^Etolia were the Achelous, which has 
been already noticed, and the Evenus, Fidhari, which takes its rise 
on the w^estern slopes of (Eta and flows with a violent^ stream in a 



^ AovXCx^ov re, Xafx-q re, koL vkrjecrcra. ZolkuvQo^. Od. ix. 24. 

Jam medio apparet fluctu nemorosa Zacynthos. — ^En. iii. 270. 
9 Yenerat Eveni rapidas Jove natus ad imdas. — Ov. Met. ix. 104. 



Chap. XX. 



INHABITANTS — TOWNS. 



383 



south-westerly course to the Corinthian Gulf.^ In the interior plain 
there are two large lakes named Hyria,*^ and Trichonis, Apo- 

kuTO, communicating with each other, and also with the Aclielous 
into which their surplus waters were discharged by the river Cyathus. 

§ 7. The original occupants of ^toha were the Pelasgic tribes of 
the Curetes, Leleges, and Hyantes, the first being the most important. 
These were expelled by the Hellenic tribes of the Epeans under 
iEtohs, who crossed over from Ehs. ^toHans also settled about 
Pleuron. The tribes occupying the interior were — the Apodoti above 
Naupactus ; the OpMonenses in the upper valley of the Evenus 
with the subordinate divisions of the Bomienses and Callienses about 
the sources of the river : the Eurytanes more to the N.W., and the 
Agraei in the valley of the Achelous. The towns were more im- 
portant in the heroic than in the later historical age. Homer notices 
five cities as taldng part in the Trojan War, viz. Pleuron, Calydon, 
Olenus, Pylene, and Chalcis : the two first of these were rivals and 
were engaged in constant feuds. They were (according to Strabo)^ 
the " ornament " of ancient Greece. Thermum, in the interior, appears 
to have been the later capital in the days of the ^tohan confederacy. 
The names Arsinoe (applied to the earlier Conope) and Lysimachia 
originated with the wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus, the founder of those 
towns. The final decay of the ^tolian towns was due to the same 
cause that ruined those of Acarnania, viz. the foundation of 
Nicopolis. AVe shall describe them from W. to E. 

Thermum, Vlohho, was strongly placed on a spur of Paugetolium, N. 
of Lake Trichonis. It was the spot where the meetings of the ^tolian 
League were held, and from its impregnable position was regarded as the 
acropolis of all JEtolia. It was, nevertheless, surprised by Philip V. 
in B.C. 218, and in 206. Some remains of its walls and of a public 
edifice are still existing. Pleuron originally stood on a plain between 



1 It was the fabled scene of the death of Xessus by the hands of Hercules : — 

^Og Tov ^aOvppovv, TTOrafj-ov 'Ev-qvov jSporoi)? 
Mtcr^oO 'nopeve x^P^'-^> ovre TrojLt7rtjU.ot? 

•KcoTratg epiaaoiv, oure Aat(^ecrti/ veth-;. So PH. Track. 559 

Et Meleagi*eam maculatus sanguine Xessi 
Evenos Calydona secat. Luc. vi. 365. 

2 Near this lake was a vale where Cycnus was said to have been metamorphosed 
into a swan by Apollo : hence the expression Cycneia Tempe : — 

At genetrix HjT.-ie, servati nescia, flendo 

Delicuit : stagnumque suo de nomine fecit. — Or, Met. vii. 380. 
Inde lacus Hyries videt, et Cycneia Tempe. — Id. vii. 371. 
3 To 5e TTaAatbv Trpocrxrjixa rJ}? 'EA.Aa6os rjv ravra. to. KTLa^xara. — ix. p. 450. 

4 In the following passage Homer represents Pleuron and Calydon as united 
under one king : — 

Etcrajaevog ^Ooyyy]v 'AvSpaCfJiovog vVC ©oavrt 
''Os TTOLor) UkevpoyvL /cat alneLvfj KaAvScovt 

AlTOii\oL(riv avacrae, 6eo<; 6' tos rtero Sr/fJico, 11. xiii. 216. 



384 



^TOLIA. 



Book IV. 



the Achelous and the Evenus, at the foot of Mt. Curium. This site 
was forsaken about B.C. 230 in consequence of the place having been 
ravaged by Demetrius II., of Macedonia; and a new Pleuron was 
erected at the foot of Mt. Aracynthus, which was a member of the 
Achsean League in B.C. 146. The ruins of this town are near Meso- 
longld, and consist of remains of the walls and of a theatre. Calydon 
stood on a fertile plain ^ near the Evenus at some distance from the 
Corinthian Gulf. It was a place of great fame in the Heroic age as 
the residence of CEneus, the father of Tydeus and Meleager, and grand- 
father of Diomedes.^ In B.C. 391 it fell into the hands of the Achaeans, 
who retained it until the battle of Leuctra in 371, when it was restored 
to the ^tolians. In the civil war between Pompey and Ceesar it 
appears to have been a considerable town : its inhabitants were shortly 
after removed to Nicopolis. Calydon was famed for the worship of 
Diana Laphria. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Coiiope, near the E. 
bank of the Achelous, afterwards called Arsinoe after the wife of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus who enlarged it; Ithoria, S. of Conope, at the 
entrance of a pass and strongly fortified, taken and destroyed by 
Philip V. in B.C. 219 ; Paeanium, yet more to the S., destroyed at the 
same time ; LysimacMa, on the S. shore of Lake Hyria, probably 
founded by Arsinoe and named after her first husband Lysimachus: 
ProscMum, near the Achelous, said to have been founded by Cohans 
from Pylene/ which latter stood in the Corinthian Gulf, though its 
position is uncertain; Olenus,^ an old Homeric town at the foot of 
Mt. Aracynthus, said to have been destroyed by the ^olians ; Elaeus, 
belonging to Calydon,, a place which was fortified by the aid of 



Sophocles represents CEneus as king of Pleuron ; others make him king of 
Calydon : all the legends about Pleuron vary considerably : — 
"Hrts TTarpb? ixkv ev dofJiOLcnu Otretos 
Natoucr' evl IIAeupwvi, vvju-^etcoj/ otAov 

"AA-ytcTTOV ecrxov, el rts AirtoAtg yvurj. SoPH. Troch. 6. 

The Curetes noticed in the Iliad (ix. 525) as attacking Calydon, were inhabit- 
ants of Pleuron. 

^ Hence the Homeric epithet of "lovely :" — 

'O/TTTo^t TTLorarov iredCov Ka\vdoivo^ epavv/)?. II. ix. 577. 

The epithets "rocky" and "lofty " are supposed to apply to the neighbourhood 
rather than the town : — 

XaA.Kt6a r ayx^^o-^ov, KakvSojvd re ireTpTjeacrav. II. ii. 640. 
See also II. xiii. 217, quoted above, note ^. 

<5 References to Calydon are frequent in Ovid : thus we have Calijdonis, applied 
to Deianeira, daughter of CEneus [Met. ix. 112); Cahjdoiiius heros, to Meleager 
[Id. viii. 324) ; Calydonius amnis, to the Achelous, inasmuch as Calydon was the 
capital of ^Etolia [Id. viii. 727) ; and CaJydonia regna to Apulia, as being the 
territory of Diomedes, the grandson of CEneus {Id. xiv. 512). 

^ "^Ot nAevpoiv' evejXOVTO, koL ''Q.Xevov rjBe JlvXrjvrjv. II. ii. 639. 
Sensit scopulosa Pylene. — Stat. Theh. iv. 102. 
8 The Roman poets use Oleniiis as equivalent to iEtolian : — 
Olenius Tydeus (fraterni sanguinis ilium 

Conscius honor agit) eadem sub nocte sopora. — Stat. Theh. i. 402. 

Et praeceps Calydon et quse Jove provocat Idam 

Olenos. Id. iv, 104. 



CiiAP. XX. 



TOAVNS 



— HISTORY. 



385 



Attains, but was taken by Philip in 219; and Chalcis, also called 
Chalcia and Hypocalcliis, an old Homeric town E. of the Evenus and 
at the foot of a mountain of the same name. 

Ill Ej)ictetus,oii the sea- coast, Macynia, at the foot of Mt. Taphiassus, 
described by the poet Arch ytas as *'the grape-clad, perfume-bearing-, 
lovely Macjma Molycrium, near Prom. Antirrhium, colonised by the 
Corinthians, but subject to the Athenians in the early part of the 
Peloponnesian War, and taken by the Spartan general Eurylochus, 
in B.C. 42'3 ; Potidania and Crocylium, on the borders of Locris, S. of 
the Hylsethus; ^gitium, in the mountains bordering the valley of 
the Hyleethus, the place where Demosthenes was defeated by the 
^tolians in B.C. 426 ; Gallium, the chief town of the Callienses, on a 
spur of Mt. (Eta, and on the road crossing that mountain to the valley 
of the Spercheus; it was surprised by the Gauls in 279 ; Aperantia, in 
the district of the same name near the Achelous, . taken by Philip Y. 
but recovered by the ^tolians in 189; and Agrinium, also near the 
Achelous, but of uncertain position, noticed as in alliance with the 
Acarnanians in 3 J 4. 

History —The ^tolians first come under our notice in the history 
of the Peloponnesian War, 
when their country was 
unsuccessfully invaded by 
the Athenians under Demos- 
thenes in B.Cj 426. They 
next appear as joining the 
confederate Greeks in the 
Lamian War, when their 
country was again invaded, 
without any results, in 322. 
Thej took a prominent part in the expulsion of the Gauls in 279, and 
particularly in the contest at their own tow-n of Gallium. Thence- 
forward they became an important people, and extended their sway 
over the whole of western Acarnania, the south of Epirus and Thes- 
saly, Locris, Phocis, and Boeotia. They became involved in the Social 
War, in 220-217, when their country was invaded and Thermum cap- 
tured by Philip. A second war with Philip followed, in 211-205, in 
consequence of their alliance with the Romans, and Thermum was 
again taken. They joined the Romans at Cynoscephalee in 197, but 
being afterwards dissatisfied, they went to war with them in conjunction 
with Antiochus in 192. They w^ere unfortunate in that war, and were 
obliged to yield to Rome. Tiie league was dissolved about 167^ and 
^tolia afterwards added to the province of Achaia. 

III. Western Locris. 

§ 8. Western Locris (by which we mean the district of the Locri 
Ozola%^ in contradistinction to that of the Epicnemidian and Opnn- 
tian Locrians on the shores of the Enboean Sea) was bounded on 
the W. by ^Etolia, on the X. by ^Etolia and Doris, on the E. by 




Coin of .Etolia. 



9 The name Ozolee was variously derived from o^eij/, "to smell," either from a 
mephitic spring, or from the abundance of asphodel which scented the air ; or 
from 6^01, " the branches " of a vine which grew luxuriantly in that country. 

AXC. GEOa. S 



386 



WESTERN LOCEIS — DORIS. Book IV. 



Pliocis, and on the S. by the Corinthian Gulf. This district is 
mountainous, and for the most part iniproductive. It was but Little 
known. The mountains, which emanate either from Parnassus in 
the IST.E. or from Corax in the X.W., received no specific names ; 
and the only river worthy of notice is the Hylaetlms, Morno, which 
rises on the slopes of Parnassus,, and runs with a S.W. course into 
the Corinthian Gulf, near Xaupactus. The line of coast extends 
from Prom. AntirrMum in the W., at the entrance of the Corinthian 
Gulf, to the Sinus Crissaeus in the E. The towns were imimportant, 
with the exception of Amphissa, the capital, in the interior on the 
E. frontier; and Xaupactus on the coast, for along period the -re- 
sidence of the exiled Messenians. 

Naupactus, LepantOj was situated just within the entrance of the 
Corinthian Gulf, a little E. of Prom. Autirrhium, and possessed the 
best harbour on the whole of the N. coast of that gulf. The Messenians 
were settled there by the Athenians in B.C. 455, and in the Peloponnesian 
War it became the head-quarters of the latter power in Western 
Greece. It was regained by the Locrians after the battle of ^Egospo- 
tami. The Achseans held it before the time of the Thebau supre- 
macy, and the ^Etolians from the time of Phiiip II. of Macedonia 
until its capture by the Romans in 191. AmpMssa, Salona, was 
situated in a pass at the head of the Crissjean plain, and about seven 
miles X.W. of Delphi. The Locrians took refuge here at the time of 
Xerxes' invasion. The town was destroyed by Philip in B.C. 008 by 
order of the Amphictyonic Council, but was soon rebuilt and was able 
to withstand a siege from the Romans in 190. On the foundation of 
Nicopolis many of the zEtolians betook themselves to Amphissa, which 
thus remained a populous place. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — (Eneon, E. of Naupactus, 
where Hesiod was said to have been killed and whence Demosthenes 
started on his ^Etolian expedition in B.C. 426 ; Anticyra, more to the 
E., noticed by Livy (xxvi. 26), and to be distinguished from the Phocian 
town of the same name ; Eupalium, a short distance from the coast, 
the place where Demosthenes deposited his plunder in 426, and which 
was afterwards taken by Eur3dochus; Erythrae, the port of Eupalium, 
where Philip landed in 207 ; and (Eanthe, a port at the W. entrance of 
the Crisseean Bay at Galaxidhi, the spot whence the Locri Epizephyrii 
are said to have embarked. 

History. — The Locri Ozol?e are first noticed in the time of the Pelo- 
ponnesian War, when they appear as a semi-barbarous nation along 
with the ^Etolians and Acarnanians. In B.C. 426 the Locrians pro- 
mised to aid Demosthenes ; but, after his retreat, they yielded to the 
Spartan Eurylochus. At a later period they belonged to the ^tolian 
League, 

TV. Doris. 

§ 9. The small state of Doris ^ lay nestled between the ranges of 



1 Doris was regarded by the Greeks as the mother country 'iJir}Tp6-oKL<;, Herod. 
Hdii. 31) of the whole Dorian race. It is, however, very unlikely that so small a 
district could supply a military force sufficient for the conquest of the Pelopon- 
nesus, and other statements are at variance with the view. 



Chap. XX. 



PHOCIS :— BOUXDAEIES— MOUXTAIXS. 



387 



(Eta and Parnassus, and boundal by ^tolia on the W., Locris on 
the S., Thessaly on the X., and Phocis on the E. It consisted of a 
smgie valley watered l)y the Pindus, ApostoUa, a tributary of the 
Cephissus. It thus ojiened eastwards into the plain of Phocis, but 
in other directions was surrounded by mountains. An important 
route crossed this district, leading from Heraclea in Malis to Am- 
phissa in Locris. The Dorian state consisted of a tetrapolis, or con- 
federacy of four towns, named Erineus, Boium, Cytinium, and Pindus, 
of which the first ranked as capital, while Cytinium commanded the 
route just referred to, and is lience noticed in the military opera- 
tions of Demosthenes and Eurylochus in B.C. 426, and of Philip in 338. 

History. — Doris is seldom noticed in history. In the invasion of 
Xerxes it submitted to the Persians. Subsequently the Dorians 
received assistance from the Lacedaemonians against the Phocians and 
others. The- towns suffered much in the Phociam ^Etolian^ and Mace- 
donian wars. 

Y. Phocis. 

§ 10. Phocis lay between Doris on the X.W., Eastern Locris on 
the X.E., Bceotia on the S.E., the Corinthian Gidf on the S., and 
Western Locris on the W. The only direction in wdiich the bound- 
ary Avas well elefined with re^'ard to the contiguous provinces was 
on the side of Eastern Locris, where the Cnemidian range inter- 
vened. On the side of Doris and Bceotia it lay quite open, the 
valley of the Pindus connecting it with the former, and that of the 
Cephissus with the latter. The coimtry is divided physically into 
two distinct regions by the range of Parnassus — the northern con- 
sisting of the valley of the Cephissus, wiiich opens into a wide plain 
in the neighbomiiood of Elatea ; the southern, of a rugged, broken 
district, extending from Parnassus to the coast of the Corinthian 
Gulf. The line of the coast itself is broken by the bays of Crissa 
and Anticyra. 

§ 11. The chief mountain range in Phocis is Parnassus,- which 
attains an elevation of 8000 feet, and terminates in a double peak : 
the northern and eastern sides of the simimit are covered with per- 
petual snow. The highest peak was named Lycorea. Between the 
central mass and the precipitous cliffs which overlook Delphi, an 



- The poetical reference? to Parnassus are numerous, partly from its proximity 
to Delphi, and partly as the supposed residence of Apollo and the ZMuses ; we 
select the following : — 

Xec tantum Phceho gaudet Parnassia rupes. — Virg. £cl. vi. 29. 

Hesperio tantum, quantum semotus Eoo 

Cardine Parnassus gemino petit sethera colle, 

Mons Phocbo, Bromioque sacer. Lrc. v. 71. 

Themis hanc dederat Parnassia sortem. — Or. 3Ief. ir. 642. 
Vox mihi mentitas tulerit Parnassia sortes. — Val. Flacc. iii. 6 IS. 

s 2 



388 



PHOCIS. 



Book IV. 



extensive upland district intervenes, partly cultivated, and elsevdrere 
covered witli forests. A subordinate range, named CirpMs, runs 
parallel to Parnassus, on the S. side of the Pleistus. The only 
important river is the CepMssus, which rises near Lila^a,^ where it 
was said to burst forth from the ground with a thundering noise. 
It first flows towards the N.E., and then to the S.E., through the 
plains of Elatea : near the Boeotian border it receives a small tribu- 
tary, named the Assus, from the slopes of the Cnemis. In the S., 
the small river Pleistus derived some celebritv from its proxiixdtv to 
Delphi.4 

§ 12. The Phocians are said to have derived their name partly 
from Phocus, a grandson of Sisyphus of Corinth, and partly from 
Phocus, a son of ^Eacus. They thus seem to have been regarded as 
a mixed ^Eolic and Achaean race. Their seats were in the valley of 
the Cephissus, where they had a confederacy of towns, which held 
their meetings at Phocium, near Daulis. The Delphians were a 
distinct people, probably of the Dorian race, who were said to have 
come from Lycorea in the first instance. They were always bitterly 
opposed to the Phocians. Among the towns of Phocis, Delphi stands 
pre-eminent in point of interest and importance, as the seat of the 
most celebrated fane of antiquity. It brought other places about it 
into notice, such asCrissa, and its port Cirrha, 'Daulis, and Panopeus, 
which lay on the road to Boeotia. The towns in the plain of the 
Cephissus were important in a strategetical point of view, as they 
commanded the passes across OEta into Xorthern Greece. Elatea 
was one of the keys of Greece, and Hyampolis was hardly less im- 
portant. Many of the Phocian towns stiffered from the position 
which the country thus occujDied. Xerxes destroyed twelve of them 
in his march southwards. Most of these were rebuilt ; but they 
suffered a more sweeping destruction at the end of the Sacred War, 
when all the towns, with the ^exception of Abse, were destroyed by 
Philip. They were a second time rebuilt, and are in several in- 
stances noticed in the Eoman wars in Greece. These towns are de- 
scribed in order, commencing from the X.AV., and taking the circuit 
of the province. 



^ Oc T apa Trap iTorap.ov Kri4)iacrov dlov ^vatov, 

O't re AtA.acav e^ov, 7r7]yr}<; e— t I\.r](f)LO'(T0L0, Tl. ii. 522. 

Propellentemque Lilteam 
Cephissi glaciale caput. Stat. Thcb. vii. 348. 

Krj(f)Laov 6' ap eVeLra klxv^'^^ Ka/^J^LpeeOpov, 

"Oo-Tc XikaL-qBev npoxeei KaAAtppooi' i'doop. Ho^r. Hymn, in ApoU. 240. 
TIAetcTTOu re TrYjya.'; Kal nocretScoi^o? Kpdrog 

KaAovcra, Kal reAetoi' v\picrTOv Ata. ^tlSCH. Eumen. 27. 

Ov5e Tt TTco reOvrjKev 6</)t9 fxeyas' aAA' eVt Ktli'O 
@rjpLOv alvoyeveLOv oltto IIAetcrTOto Ka.6ip—ov 

Uapvrjcrov vL^ocvra -epLa-Te(j)€L evvea Kv/cAots. — Calliii. Hymn, in DehQl. 



Chap. XX. 



TOWNS. 



389 



Lilaea was situated at the foot of Parnassus, and at the sources of the 
Cephissus. It was destroyed at the end of the Sacred War, but was 
soon afterwards restored. It was taken by Demetrius, but subse- 
quently threw off the Macedonian yoke. Its ruins, at Paleolcastro, 
consist of the circuit of the walls, and some of the towers. Delphi v»-as 




Map of Delphi. 



situated S. of Parnassus, in the narrow valley of the Pleistus. Its 
position is very remarkable ; the uplands of Parnassus terminate 
towards the S. in a precipitous cliff, 2000 feet high, rising to a double 
peak,^ named the Phsedriades (BB),from their ^^glittering" appearance^ 
as they faced the rays of the sun. Below^ the cliffs the ground slopes 
off in a double ridge toward the maritime plain, and in a semicircular 
recess on this slope the town was placecl. Between the peaks, the 
southern of which was sometimes called Hyampea ^k), there is a deep 
fissure, down which a torrent pours in rainy weather, receiving near 



^ These peaks were sometimes supposed to be the summits of Parnassus 
itself :— 

Mons ibi verticibus petit arduus castra duobus, 

Nomine Parnassus, superatque cacumine nubes. — Ov. Jlef. i. 316. 

^ 2e 5' vTrep StAd(/)Ov TreVpag 
Srepov// oTTcoTre ktyvvg, ev- 
6a Ktopv/ctat Nu/x(/)a.t 
'XreCxovcrt Ba/cxtSe?, 
KacrraAiag re vaixa. SOPH. Ant. 1126. 



390 



PHOCIS. 



Book IV. 



the base of the cliff the waters of the celebrated fountain of Castalia ' 
(l), in which visitors to Delphi purified themselves^ and whose waters 
were in a later age supposed to communicate poetic inspiration.^ On 
the uplands between the Phsedriades and the central mass of Parnassus, 
about seven miles from Delphi^ was the Corycian cave^^ in which the 




]\Iouth of the Coiyciau Cave. (From a Sketch by Sir Gardner Wilkinson.) 

Delphians took refuge in the Persian War : the main chamber is 200 
feet long, and 40 high. The greater portion of Delphi stood W. of the 
stream, though the walls of Philomelus (a a) enclosed a certain amount 
of ground on the E. of it. In the former direction was the sacred 



' 'AAA', 5) <E>ot,8ov AeA(f)ol 6e.pa.TTe>;, 
To,? KacrraAta? ap^upoetSetg 
BatVere StVa?- Ka.6apal<; 5e Spocrot? 
W^v^pava-fxevoi, crreCx^Te vaov<;. EUE. Ion. 94. 

Qui rore puro Castalice lavit 

Crines solutos. Hor. Cann. iii. 4, 61. 

Incle ubi libatos irroravere liquores 

Yestibiis et capiti, fleetiint vestigia sanctse 

Ad delubra dese. Ov. 2Iet i. 371. 

Mihi flavus Apollo 
Pocula Castalia plena ministrat aqua. — Ov. Am. i- 15, 35. 
Me miserum ! (neque enim verbis soUennibus ullis 
Incipiam nunc Castaliae vocalibus undis 

In\isus, Phoeboque gravis). Stat. Silv. v. 5, 1. 

9 2e/3a> 5e uvfji(f>a<;, evOa Kcopu/ct? nerpa 
KotX.7], <f)L\opvL<;, 8aLix6v(x)U ava(TTpo4>-q' -lEsCH. Euiliev. 22. 
TLoOi 'Sv(Tr}<; apa ra? Orj- 
poTp6(f)ov 9vpcro(f)op€Lg 
©tacrov?, u) Alowct', rj 

Kopv^at? Kcopu/ccat?; EUR. Bacch. 556. 



Chap. XX. TOWNS. 391 

enclosure (re/meuos, irvdco) containing tiie following buildings : the Temple 
(1), divided into three parts — the PronauS; Xaus and Adytum : the 
second containing the hearth with the perpetual fire and the stone 




Interior of tlie Corycian Cave. (From a Sketch by Sir Gardner "Wilkinson.) 



which was supposed to mark the centre of the earth, ^ and tlie third the 
subteiTanean chamber whence came the oracular responses - ; the 



1 From the numerous references to this stone, we select the following : — 

"Opoo 5" err' ofjL(f)ak<2 juev avSpa Qeoixvcrrj 

''JLSpav exovTa Trpoarpo—aiov . ^FSCH. Eumen. 40. 

s-vv TcoSe 6akk(^ kol cTTecpeL Trponi^oixai 
Mecr6/<.(/)aAoi' 6' 'i^pvixa. Xo^iov neSov, 

Uvpo? re 067709 aj)6i.rGV K€K\riix4vou. JESCR. Cheoph. 1035. 

MeA.eo5 /ae/Ve'o) TroSt x^P^^^''^ 
To. iJiecr6ix(j)aXa 70.9 a.7rovocr(/)t^a)V 

Mavrera. SoPH. (Ed. Tyr. 479. 

- In the inmost part of the chamber stood a tripod over a deep chasm in the 
earth, whence mephitic vapours arose. The priestess sat upon the tripod, ^ 'wew 
she uttered the oracles : — 

(o <X>ot/3e, jxavTeiiov 6' e-e- 
/Sas ^aOewv, rpLwoSC r tv XP'^^^V 
0acr(Tei?, ev dv//eu6et Opovco, 
Mai/retag /Sporot? avaffiaCvcov. 

'Wep KarrTakLas peeOpiov 

TeLTojv, ixerrov 70.5 €x<^v jxekaQpov. ECR. Ipll. Tauv. 1252. 



392 



PHOCIS. 



Book IV, 



Great Altar (2) on which sacrifices were daily offered ; the Thesauri, or 
treasuries (3), several detached buildings, in which the most valuable 
treasures were preserved : the Bouleuterion, or senate-house (4) : the 
Stoa^ built by the Athenians ^5) , which also served as a treasiu-y ; the 
grave of Xeoptolemus, son of Achilles (6 > ; the fountain of Cassotis, 
Hdlenir-o H) ; the Lesche, a public room where people coidd meet for 
couver>ation (8) ; and the Theatre '9). The temple was erected by 
the AicmEeonidas, and was one of the largest in Greece ; the exterior, 
wliicli was faced with Paiian marble, was of the Doric order, and the 
interior of the Ionic. Outside of the sacred enclosure were the follow- 
ing objects: the Stadium, of which there are still considerable remains ; 
the fountain of Delphnsa,^ Kerna between the Stadium and the 
enclosure ; the Synedrion ''n\ in a suburb named Pyleea, on the road 
to Crissa; and, on the E. side of the stream, the Gymnasium ^g) ; the 
Sanctuaries of Autonous h : and of Phylacus (r); the temple of Athena 
Prona?a (e ; and three temples (d). Outside the walls was the ancient 
cemetery c . of which there are still considerable remains. The ruins 
of Delphi are noAv called Kastr/'. The antiquity of the oracle was very 
great : even in tlomer's age Pytho, as it was then called,"^ was famed for 
its treasures ;^ it was even believed that other deities had owned the 
place before Apollo. The selection of this s-pot by the latter deity, on 
account of its seclusion and beauty, is recorded in the Homeric hymn 
to Apollo ; the first priests were said to have been brought from Crete, 
and were settled at Cri>sa. As Cirrha rose to importance, Crissa 
declined, and was finally merged in Delphi ; jealousy arose between 
Delphi and Cirrha, on account of the exactions practised on pilgrims 
landing at the latter place, and the Sacred War followed in B.C. 595- 
ris.'). terniinatiug in the destruction of Cirrha, and in the institution of 
the Pvtliian qames. Henceforward Delphi became the seat of an inde- 
pendent >tate. the government of which was of a theocratic character. 
The temple was de-cmyed by fire in 548, and a new one of great mag- 
nificence erected by the Alcmaeonidse. The Persians approached the 
place for the piu-pose of plunder in 480, but were deterred by divine 
interposition. In o57 the Phocians seized the temple, in revenge for 
the fine im]30sed upon them by the Amphictyonic Council : hence the 
second Sacred War. which terminated with the restoration of the 
temple to its former possessors, and the punishment of the Phocians. 
The Gauls visited it in 279, but again heaven (it is said) interfered. 
The temple was less fortimate in this respect as far as the Romans were 



3 Tills fountam is referred to, thoiigli not "by name, in the following' passages : 

'A'y\ov xpn^riq KaWippoos. evOa Spdicau-av 

Kreu'ev ara^, Atcs vlog, arro Kparepolo jStoto. — Ho^r. Hymn, in AjjoU. 300. 
''Ay' (S vtrfia\k<; S) 
Ka/VXtcrra? rrpo— 6/\ev,aa SdrpvcLS, 
rdv ^ot/3ou 6v^i\av 
Satpet? v—o raot? 
Kt^ttcov aOavd-Lov. 
''Iva ^pocroL reyyovcr' lepaC 
Tdi' adi'i'o.ov —ayav 

"Y.<~poi>zl<raL EcK. Ion. 112. , 

^ Oi Kv77aptc7crcv e\oj', YlvQCc^'o, re —erpri&crcrav. II. ii. 519. 
5 Oi-'S' ocra Aa'u'O? ov5b? a(^7jTopo5 evrbg ee'pyet 
«5ot/3ov 'AttoAAcoi^os nu^ot eVt -erprjecrcrr]. II. ix. 404. 



Chap. XX. 



TOWXS. 



893 



concerned : Sylla and Xero plundered it; it was restored by Hadrian, 
and rifled by Constautine: the oracle was silenced by Theodosius. Crissa 
lay S.W. of Delphi^ at the southern end of a projecting spur of Par- 
nassus. It gave name to the bay near vdiich it stood, and on the shore 
of which Cirrha was subsequently built as its port. Between the two 
towns was a fertile plain, ^ named indifferently the Cirrhaan or Cris- 
sgean, though the terms are more properly applied to tv/o separate 
portions of the plain, the Crisssean inland and the CirrliDcan on the 
coast, which were divided from each other by two projecting rocks. 
Crissa was one of the most ancient cities in Greece, and is described in 
one of the Homeric hymns' as possessing the sanctuary of Delphi; its 
na.me is even used by Pindar as synonymous with Delphi. It sunk vdth 
the iTse of Cirrha^ and seems to ha.ve become an insignificant place by 
B.C. 600. CuTha was destroyed in B.C. 585 by the Amphictyons, on 
account of the toll which was levied there on pilgrims going to Delphi: 
it wa.s, however, afterwards rebuilt as the port of Delphi. Anticyra 
was situated on a bay of the Corinthian Gulf, which was named after 
it, and where it possessed an excellent harbour. It was supposed to 
represent the Homeric Cyparissus. Though destroyed at the close of 
of the Sacred War, it recovered, and was taken by the Roman Consul 
Flaminius in B.C. 198. It was particularly famed for its hellebore, 
which was regarded as a cure for madness.^ Panopeus, or Panope,^ was 
near the frontier of Boeotia, between Daulis and Chaeronea.^ It was a 
very ancient town, originally inhabited by the PhlegyEe. It v\'as 
destroyed by Xerxes, and again by Philip ; was taken by the Piomans 
in B.C. 198, and was a third time destroyed in the war between Sulla 



^ Homer gives it the epithets — "divine," "conspicuous," "vine-bearing :" — 
Kpicr(Ta.v re ^aOerjv, kol AavkCSa, koL Uavorrrjo.. II. ii. 520. 
^I^ov 6' KpCa-a-rjv euSeteAov, a/x-eAoecrcrav. Hymn, in Apoll. 438. 

The Fythian games were celebrated on this plain : — 
'El' KptVa 6' evpva6evrj<; el- 

8' 'A7r6/VA.ajv ij.lv, rrope t' aykaCcLv. PDvD. Isthm. ii. 26. 

TTav 8' eTTLfX—kaTO 

'Savayioiv KpLCalov lttttlkoov TreSov, SOPH. £l. t29. 

' 'I/ceo 5' eg KpLcrrjv vtto Uapvrjcrhv VL(j)6€VTa, 

KvrjiJ.ov Trpb? Ze<f)upo^' rerpafxixevov, avrap vrrepOev 
Xlerpr) cTriKpe/xarat, KOtA.7] 5" vrroSeSpoi-JLe ^rjcrcra, 
Tpyix^l ' evOa ava^ re/c/xTjparo ^ot/So? 'AttoA-Aoiv 

y-qov noirio-aa-dai eTrt^parov, elnd re ixvOov. — HoM. Hymn, in ApolL 282. 

s Xeseio an AnticATam ratio illis destinet omnem. — Hon. Sat. ii. 3, 83. 
Naviget Anticyram. Id. 166. 

Ne dubitet Ladas, si non eget Anticyra, nec 

Archigene. Jvv. xiii. 97. 

I, bibe, dixissem, purgantes pectora succos, 

Quicquid et in tota nascitur Anticyra. — Ov. e Pont. iv. 3, 53. 

^ Jam vada Cephisi, Panopesque evaserat arva. — Ov. Met. iii. 19. 

Quis tibi Phoebeas acies, veteremque revolvat 
Phocida ] qui Panopen, qui Dauiida, qui Cyparisson. 

Stat. Theb. vii. 343. 

^ ArjTcb -yap- TqkKrjae, Atb? KvSpr}V Trapa/cotTtv 

Ilv6(i)S' ipxotx4w,v, 6ta KaAAtxopov IlavoTr^o?. Od. xi. 5 SC. 

s 3 



394 



PHOCIS. 



Book IV. 



and Arclielaus. Daulis^ stood W. of Panopeus, on the high road to 
Delphi. It was a place of importance in the heroic age. It shared the 
fate of the other Phocian towns in the Persian and Sacred wars. It 
was subsequently rebuilt^ and was reputed impregnable, from its 
position on a spur of Parnassus. Hyampolis stood on a height^ at the 
entrance of a valley, which formed a natural route across Cnemis into 
Locris. It was consequently the scene of several engagements : the 
Phocians here defeated the Thessalians ; Xerxes destroyed it ; Jason, 
in 371, took its suburb, named Cleonee ; the Boeotians and Phocians 
fought near it in 347 ; and Philip destroyed it. It was rebuilt, and is 
mentioned in the Roman wars in Greece. The circuit of its walls may 
be seen at Vogdhani. Abas, near Hyampolis, derived its fame from its 
possessing a temple and oracle of Apollo,-* which was consulted from ail 
quarters, and particularly by Croesus and Mardonius. It was destroyed 
by fire in B.C. 480 by the Persians, and in 346 by the Boeotians. 
Hadrian erected a small temple near the site of the old one. Elatea 
stood in the plain of the Cephissus, in command of the most important 
pass across Mount (Eta, and hence a place of the greatest importance 
in a military point of view. It was burnt by Xerxes, but afterwards 
restored and occupied by Philip in B.C. 338, much to the alarm of the 
Athenians. It successfully resisted Cassander, but was taken by Philip, 
son of Demetrius, and again by the Komans in 198. The name 
survives in Lefta^ where are some few remains of the old town. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Drymaea, a frontier town 
on the side of Doris, taken by Xerxes ; Neon, at the foot of Tithorea, 
rebuilt after its destruction by the Persians, and finally destroyed at 
the end of the Sacred War ; Tithorea, regarded by Pausanias as occu- 
pying the site of Xeon, but probably a difi'erent place, distant 3^ 
miles, the former being at Velitza and the latter at Palea Fiva ; at 
Titliorea the Phocians took refuf^-e from Xerxes, probably in a spacious 
ca\ern. which exists behind Yd'itza : Ambrysus, N.E. of Anticyra, at 
the foot of Mount Cirphis, very strongly fortified by the Thebans 
against Philip, taken by the Romans in B.C. 198 ; Stiris, near the 
Boeotian frontier, strongly posted on a height, defended by precipitous 
rocks, destroyed by Philip, but afterwards rebuilt ; Phocicum, near 
Daulis. where the meetings of the Phocian confederacy were held ; 
Parapotamii, on the left bank of the Cephissus ( whence its name\ near 
the border of Boeotia, never rebuilt after its destruction by Philip in 
the Sacred War ; Anenioria, an Homeric town (II. ii. 521), said to be 
named from its exposure to the blasts that descended on it from Par- 
nassus ; Cleonae, near Hyampolis, on the pass crossing to Locris ; and 



- Daulis is famed in mythology as the spot where Procne was turned into a 
swallow and Philomele into a nig-htingale : the latter bird is still found there in 
great numbers. "West of Daulis was the spot called Schiste Odos, where the road 
from Ambrysus fell into the main road leading to Delphi : — 



'E? ravTO AeA<^a)i' Karro AavAta? ayec. 

2 Et valles Lebadea tuas ? et Hyampolin acri 
Subnixam scopulo ' 

* OvK. ert TOP aQ'.KTOV el/at 
Pa? e7r' ojxdyaXoi- cre'jScoi', 
OvS" es Tov *Aj3atcrt vaov. 



Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 897. 



Stat. Tliel. vii. 345. 



Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 733. 



Chap. XX. 



EASTEEX LOCIllS. 



395 



Tritaea, somewhere in the valley of the Cephissus, but of uncertain 
position. 

History. — The history of Phocis, apart from Delphi, presents few 
features of interest. In the Peloponnesian AVar, the Phocians sided 
witli Athens: after the battle of Leuctra (B.C. o71) they became subject 
to the Thebans, and their separation from the Thebans led ultimately 
to the Sacred AVar. At the battle of Clueronea, and in the Lamiac War, 
they fought on the side of Grecian independence. 

YI. Eastern Locris. 

§ 13. The territory of the Eastern Locrians consisted of a narrow 
strip of coast land between the continuations of CEta and the 
Euboean Sea, extending from the pass of Thermopylae in the X.AV. 
to the mouth of the Cephissus in the S.E. This district was divided 
between two tribes, snrnamed Epicnemidii and Opuntii, the former 
so styled from the ad- 
jacent hill of Cnemis^ 
the latter from their 
capital, Opus. The 
range of Cnemis, Tal- 
anda, attains a con- 
siderable elevation in 
the X. ; the portion of 
the range adjacent to 
Opus was of less height, 
and received no special designation. . Spurs project in various parts 
to the vicinity of the coast, and in one instance form a considerable 
promontory, named Cnemides. The rivers necessarily have very 
short courses : the most important are the Bogarius and Manes. 
The valleys were in man}^ cases fertile, as was also the whole of the 
coast district. Routes cross the mountains between Alpenus and 
Tithronium in Phocis, between Tlironium and Elatea, and between 
Opus and Hyampolis. 

§ 14. The eastern Locrians are noticed by Homer, as taking part 
in the Trojan Y^ar. The distinction into Epicnemidians and Opun- 
tians was not recognized by classical writers, but originated with 
the geographers, Strabo and others. In classical times Opus was 
regarded as the capital of the whole district : at a later period 
Tlironium became the chief town of the Epicnemidians. These 
were the only towns of importance in the whole district. 

Throniuni^ was situated on the Boagrius, about 2 J miles from the 
coast. It is but seldom noticed : in B.C. 431 it was taken by the 




Coin of the Locri Opuntii. 



5 AoKpd)!/ Se TOLcrd' ccra? ayiov 
Xavs riX.0' 'O'tAeco? toko?, KKvrav 

Qpovidd' eKKt-TTuiv ttoAlv. Euk. I^Jh. Aid. 261. 



396 



BdOTIA. 



Book iV. 



Atlienians, and in the Sacred War by Onomarchus. Opus stood at the 
head of the Opuntian Gulf, a little removed from the coast : it was 
reputed one of the most ancient cities of Greece, and Avas, according to 
Homer, tlie native city of Patroclus,° In the war between Antigonus 
and Cassander. Opus was besieged by Ptolemy for its antagonism to the 
former. Of the less important places we may notice Alpemis, at the 
southern entrance of the pass of Thermopylae; Nicasa., a fortress close 
to t]ie sea commanding that pass, and hence a very important acc[ui- 
sition to Philip in his wars in B.C. 348 and 340 ; Scarphe, on the road 
to Elatea. and hence noticed in the narrative of Flaminius's march by 
Livy xxxiii. 3^^, ; Dapliinis, on the sea-coast, originally belonging to 
Phocis ; Alope, on an insulated hill farther down the coast; Cynus, the 
principal p':irt of the Opuntians. about seven miles X, of Opus ; ancl^ 
lastly. Naryx. between Opus and Hyampolis, the reputed birth-place of 
AjaX;' and the scene of an engagement between the Ba?otian5 and 
Phocians in B.C. 3o'2. 

History. — The history of the Eastern Locrians is nnimportant : the 
Opuntians are noticed as taking part with the Spartans in the Persian 
and Pelo^^onnesian wars. 

TIL BCEOTIA. 

§ 15. Boeotia was bomided by the Eiiboean Sea on the E., Phocis 
on the AV., the Corinthian Gulf and Attica on the S., and the 
district of the Opuntian Locrians on the X. It thus stretched from 
sea to sea, and may be said to close the mouth of the Peloponnesus. 
On the S. it possessed a well-defined boundary in Mount Citha^ron ; 
but towards the X.E. it lay open along the vale of the Cephissus, 
though in this direction it was partly closed by the ridge of Hyphan- 
tiiun, an offset from the Opuntian range. AVithin the limits above 
specified were two districts, of a widely different character : (i.) 
Xorthern Boeotia, a larci-e basin of an oval form, completely sur- 
rounded by hills, and subdivided l>y stibordinate ranges into two main 
portions — one containing the plain of Orchomenus and Lake Copais, 
the other the plain of Thebes and Lake Hylica ; (ii.) Southern 
Boeotia, a long and in some parts wide valley, drained by the 
Asopus. The sea-coast on either side is irregular, but does not offer 
good harbours. The climate of Ba?otia was much influenced by the 
presence of so much stagnant water, which rendered the air heavy 
and the winters severe. The soil possessed remarkable fertility, that 
about Copais beino- of a deep alluvial character, equally well suited 
to the growth of corn and to the purposes of pasture : the Boeotian 
horses were amongst the best in Greece. The vine and other fruits 



^ Deucalion and Pyrrha are also said to hare resided near Opus. 
' Hence the epithet Xari/cius applied to him, Ov. Jlef. xiv. -j68. 
The same epithet is applied to Bruttium in Italy, under the idea that Locri was 
colonized from Xarrx : — 

Xarycieeque picis lucos. Virg. Georg, ii. 438. 

Hie et Xirycii posuerunt mcenia Locri. — .En. iii. 399. 



Chap. XX. 



MOUXTAIXS. 



397 



flourislied rcmarkalily well. The mountains yielded iron ore, and 
black marble. The plain of Thebes abomided with moles, whose 
skins were made an article of commerce. Lake Copais produced 
abundance of fish, particuLirl}' eels, and water-fowl were numerous ; 
while the reeds that fringed its shore supplied the country with flutes. 

§ ] 6. Boeotia is skirted by mountain ranges in all directions. In 
tlie western part of the province rises the long range of Helicon, the 
r;oft and sylvan character of whose scenery rendered it, in the eyes 
of the Greeks, a fitting residence for the Muses ;^ Aganippe and 
Hippocreue were two of tlie numerous rills which course down its 
sides amid groves of myrtle and oleander, — the former rising near 
Ascra and joining the Termessus, the latter flowing into the Olmeus: 
the Grove of the Muses was near Aganippe. One of the heights of 
Helicon was named Leibetliriuni, Zagora ; another more to the X., 
Laphystium, Granitza ; while between the two was Tilphossium, ex- 
tending almost to the edge of Lake Copais, and separating the plains 
of Coronea and Haliartus. On the southern frontier, Citlissron sepa- 
rated Boeotia from Attica, bounding the plain of xisopus on the ^3. : 
it w^as a well-wooded, wild chain, and hence was aptly selected as 
the scene of various mythological events, such as the metamorphosis 
of ActaBon, the death of Pentheus, and the exposure of CEdipus.^ It 
was also regarded as the scene of the revels of Bacchus.^ On the 
N.E. the range of Cnemis is continued in a line parallel to the sea- 
coast, rising into the heights of Ptoum, E. of Lake Copais, Messapium, 
near Anthedon, and Hypaton, more to the S., while in the XAV. a 



AtS' 'EAtKcoi^o? exov(Tiv opog fxeya re ^dOeov re, 
Kat re Trepl fcprji/Tji/ toetSea iTocra a— cAoIcrti' 
^Opx^vvrai.. Koi /Sw/u-bi/ eptcr^ereo? Kpoj^tcoi'o?" 
Kat re Aoecrcra/xei'at repeva XP'^^ Tlepij.i]rrcrolo. 
'^H 'iTnrovKp-qi'r]?. rj 'OXjjieLOv ^a^eoto, 
\^Kpordrcp 'EAtKCoia ^opo"^'? ei'e—ocT^crai'ro 

KaA.ov9, tfj.epoei/'ra?- errepdocrai'TO Sk ttotctli-. Hes, Theog. 1. 

Pandite nunc Helicona, Dese, cantusque niovete. — Yirg. uEn. xii. 641. 
Hence the ^Nluses were named Heliconiades : — 

Adde Heliconiadum comites, quorimi unus Homerus. 

LrcuET. iii. 1050. 

9 'AAA.' ea vaUiv opeaw, evOa KkrjCeraL 
Ovixos KiOatpiiv ouro?, ov fJir/TYip re iU.ot, 

Uanjp T iOdcrOrjv ^covrt Kvptov Tafbov. SOPH. (ZTcf, T>/7". 1451. 

^aOeuiv Tzerdkuiv TrokvOripoTa- 
rov vairoq, 'Apre/atSo? \lov6tpo^ov Ofxixa KiOatpiov, 
ore Tov Oaudrco TrporeOivTa, Aoxev/a' 'lo/cacTTTj? 
"D.^eXeq OlSi-oSav Qpexpai, ^pe(^o? e/c^oAoi/ oiKwr. — EuR. Phoen. 801. 

Qualis conimotis cxcita sacris 
Thyas, ubi audito stimulant trieterica Baccho 
Orgia, nocturnusque vocat clamore Citliceron. — ^E?i. iv. 301. 



398 



BCEOTIA. 



Book IV. 



projecting spur of tlie Cnemidian range, named Hyphantium, pene- 
trates close to the banks of the Cephissiis. and separates the plains of 
Boeotia and Phocis. In addition to these, we have to notice a series 
of elevations which separate the basin of Lake Copais from that of 
Lake Hylica, the most prominent height being Phoenicium, Faga ; 
and again another series between the Theban plain and the valley of 
the Asopns, of which Teumessus is the most conspicuous. The 
approaches to Boeotia from the X. were (i.) by the valley of the 
Cephissus, which was commanded by a defile near Cha^ronea, and 
(ii.) by a track across Hyphantimn. 

§ 17. The only river of importance in Xorthern Boeotia is the 
CepMssus, which enters it from Phocis in the X.W., and, after a 
short course across the plain of Chseronea, discharges itself into Lake 
Copais. This lake forms one of the most striking features in Boeotia. 
So completely do the mountains shut in the basin, that no opening 
existed for the escape of the waters ; these, therefore, collected in 
the deepest part of the basin, and formed a considerable lake, origi- 
nally named CepMssis, from the chief river flowing into it, afterwards 
Copais, from the town of Cop^e, and now TopoUas, whence the surplus 
waters escaped by subterranean channels (called katavotlira) to the 
Euboean Sea, distant between four and five miles. These hatavothra 
are four in number, three communicating with the sea, and one with 
Lake Hylica ; the central, or main stream, emerges at L^pper La- 
rymna, and the two others on either side of it. These natural outlets 
being found occasionally insufficient, two artificial tunnels were 
constructed in the heroic age, probably by the Minya3 of Orchome- 
nus. As long as these channels were kept clear, the greater part 
of the bed of Lake Copais was under cultivation. The size of the 
lake has varied at difterent times. Strabo states its circumference at 
forty miles ; it is now sixty, in consequence of the channels becoming 
choked. Numerous lesser streams poured into Lake Copais from all 
directions. In the plain of Thebes is a large lake named Hylica, 
Livadhi, filling a deep crater surrounded by mountains : it lies at a 
lower level than Copais, and received some of its surplus waters by 
a tunnel. Another lake, now called Moritzi, more to the eastward, 
forms a connecting link between Hylica and the sea. Southern 
Boeotia is watered by the Asopus, which rises in Mount Citha^ron, 
and flows in an easterly course with a sluggish stream ^ to the 



' Homer characterizes the Asopus as "rushy " and " abounding in grass :" — 

'AcrcoTTo;^ 5' lkovto ^aOvcrx^OLvov, kex^'^olrji'. II. iv. 383. 

Euripides also speaks of the " low spreading plains " about its banks : — 

JleSttov vTroracret?, at Trap' 'Acrco— ov poat? 

'EvK.apTtov e/cjSaAAovcrt ©rj^aidiv cttolxvi', 

'Ycrta? T ''EpvOpds B' , cCl Kt^atpaji'o? \^TTa<; 

'SipBev KaTioKT^KaaLU. Bacch. 748. 



Chap. XX. 



IXHABITATTS-TOAVXS. 



809 



Eubcean Sea : its valley (in length al»out forty miles) is divided into 
three parts by spurs of Teumessus — the plain of Parasopia along its 
upper course, the plain of Tanagra, and the plain of Oropus. 

§ 18. The original inhabitants of Boe-otia were a Pelasgic race, 
and were known by various tribal names. The later inhabitants 
were an ^Eolian race, who immigrated into this province from Thes- 
saly. A Phoenician colony also settled at Thebes under the name 
of Cadmeans. The Boeotian character was supposed to be influenced 
by the climate, which was dull and heavy : it may, however, have 
been equally affected by the sensuality of the people. To whatever 
cause it vras due, the stupidity of the Bceotians passed into a pro- 
verb.^ It should at the same time be stated in their favour, that 
they cultivated a taste for music and poetry, and that they reckoned 
among their countrymen Hesiod, Pindar, and Plutarch. The 
Boeotian towns occupy a promiuent place in Greek history. This is 
due to a A^ariety of causes : (i.) their wealth Avas great, in conse- 
quence of the extreme fertility of the soil ; (ii.) their situations were 
secure, the spurs of the ranges surnjunding the plain, offering re- 
markably fine sites ; (iii.) the position of Boeotia between norther^ 
and southern Greece rendered it the passage of every invading host ; 
and (iv.) the plains of Boeotia ofiered the very best ground in 
Greece for military evolutions. Boeotia was what the Low Countries 
were at one time to Europe, the "cock-pit" of Greece. Orchome- 
nus, at the X.W. extremity of the Copaic Lake, originally took the 
lead of all the Bceotian towns. After the immigration of the 
Boeotians, Thebes gained the supremacy, and Orchomenus took the 
second place, remaining however, for a long period, a powerful rival, 
and retaining its position as capital of its own plain. The chief 
towns were formed into a coniederacy, under the presidency of 
Thebes : of these there Avere originally fourteen, of Avhich Ave can 
certainly name ten, viz. : Thebes, Orchomenus, Lebadea, Coronea, 
Copa?, Haliartus, Thespia?, Tanagra, Auithedon, and Plata?a, while 
the remaining fuiu are supposed to have been Ocalea, Chalia, On- 
chestus, and Eleuthera^. Oropus AA'as probably once a member, but 
afterwards btcame subject to Athens ; and Plataea withdrcAv from 
the confederacy as early as ex. 519. The towns of Boeotia flou- 
rished until the extinction of independence, consequent upon the 
battle of Clia?ronea in 338 and the capture of Thebes in 335. They 
then sunk so fast that in the Eoman age Tanagra and Thespije were 
the only ones remaining : the rest were a heap of ruins. We shall 



3 The expressions were Botco-ta v? and Bolcqtlov gv<; ; — 
Qicriv A670C9 el (p^vyoixev, Botwrtav 



400 



BCEOTIA. 



Book IV. 




describe tliese towns in order, commencing from the X.'W., and pro- 
ceeding round by the "W. to the S. 

CiLaeronea, the key of Boeotia on its noi-thern frontier, was situated 
at the edge of the valley of the Cephissus, with its citadel posted on a 
steep granite rock. It was the scene of engagements between the 
Athenians and Boeotians in B.C. 447. between the Macedonians under 
Philip and the Boeotians in 338, and between the Romans under 
Sulla and the forces of ^Mithiidates in 86. Orchomenus was strongly 

posted on a hill over- 
looking the marshes of 
the Copaic Lake, the 
Cephissus '^winding like 
a serpent " ^ about the 
base on the S. and E., 
while the small river 
Melas washes its north- 
ern side. The walls 
Coin of Orchomenus. extended to a distance 

of two miles in cir- 
cumference : the most remarkable object in the town was the Treasury 
of Atreus, the ruins of which still remain. Orchomenus was at one 

period the first, and after 

the rise of Thebes con- 
tinued to be the second 
city in Boeotia, owing its 
wealth to the rich allu- 
vial plain on which it 
stood. It was, in the 
Homeric age, famed for 
its treasures,^ and was 
the seat of the powerful 
races of the Minyse ^ and 
the Phlegy?e." It took 
the patriotic side in the 
Persian War, was on 
friendly terms with 
Thebes during the Pelo- 
ponnesian "War, but 
afterwards joined the 
Spartans, and sufi'ered 
utter destruction at the 
hands of the Thebans, 
B.C. o68. It was after- 
wards rebuilt, again de- 
stroyed by the Thebans, 
in 346, and restored 
by the Macedonians, 




Plan of Orchomenus. 



A A. The Cephissus. 
C. Mount Acontium. 
1. Acropolis. 



BB. The Melas. 
D. Orchomenus. 
2. Treasury of Minyas. 



Kat re 'Opvo/u-ej'ov etA.ty/xeVo? elcrt SpaKoov cj?. — Hestod. ap Stral). is., p. -J24. 

5 Ol'6' oct' e? 'OpxofJievov iroTLvicrcrera.i. ov5' ocra QrjBa's 
AL-yu~Tta9, 'q9l —^elcrra 56|aot? h' K-njiJ-ara /cetrat. IJ. ix. 381. 

6 "Os TTor' ii' 'Op\oix€i'(^ 'Munj-qLco tot aracraei', Od. si. 2S3. 

7 '^I^e? 6' is ^/^eyvijov ai'8pCov TroAti' v^pi-j-rdcov, 
Ot Atb? ovK aAeyovres errl ;(^^oj'l vaLe-da-jKOV 

'Ev KoXrj ^Tjcrcnj, KTjc^tcrtSo? iyyvdi Ai'u;-,79. — HOM, H>/mn. in ApoU. 275 



Chap. XX. 



TOWNS. 



401 



but it never afterwards flourished. Lebadea, Livadlda, was situated 
near the -western border, with its acropolis on a spur of Helicon, by 
whose base the Hercyna flowed. It owed its importance to the pos- 
session of the oracle of Trophonius which was delivered from a cave 
in tlie rock. Lebadea was taken and plundered both by Lysander 
and by Archeki.us the general of Mithridates, Coronea was situated on 
a height overlooking the Copaic plain: at this point the roads from 
Orchomenus and Lebadea in the X. joined those from Thebes and 
Platsea in the S. It was thus the scene of several important military 
events — of Tolmides's defeat and death in B.C. 44-7, of Agesilaus's 
victory over the Argives a,nd Thebans in 394, and of a double siege 
in the Sacred AVar. Kalia.rtus stood on the southern side of Lake 
Copais, amid well-watered meadows,^ on the road between Coronea and 
Thebes. It is chiefly memorable for the engagement in which Lysander 
perished, B.C. 395. It was twice destroyed— by the Persians in 480, 
and by the Romans in 171. Thebse was situated in the southern plain 
of Boeotia, on a spur of 
Mt. Teumessus, which rises 
about 150. feet above the 
plain: at the base of the 
hill, on either side, run the 
streams Ismenus and Dirce,^ 
which unite in the pla,in 
below the city : a third 
stream of less importance, 
named Strophia, runs 
through the city.^ The 
Cadmeia, or citadel, is supposed to have stood at the southern end of 
the town, and the temple of Ismenian Apollo a little to the E. of it, 
while the Agora and other buildings stretched out towards the X. Of 
the seven gates ^ for wdiich Thebes - was so celebrated, three opened 



^ Hence the Homeric epithet, " grassy," applied to it : — 

Ot re Kopc'Sfetav, kol rroLrievO' 'AAtaprov. II. ii. 503. 

'''EvOev ap et? 'AAtaprov c.'^iKeo TroLTjevTa. — Hi/mn. in AjJoU. 243. 
9 The streams of Dirce and Ismenus are frequently commemorated by the 
Greek poets, particularly by Euripides, who speaks of them as the "twin streams," 
and applies to the water of Dirce the epithet "^rhite," or "limpid," and " fair- 
flowing ;" and by Pindar, who applies similar epithets to it. 
AlSvixoov TTorajJMV, rropov aixSl fxiaQV 

TJpoTTap 'IcriMt-jvov KaroLdevet. EuR. Phcen. 825. 

Ne/cpcov drravT 'lo'j.Lrjvhv karrXri'jOi (fiovou, 

AioK-rj'; re vof.La. ^evKov aLjj.a.\9-q<jeTai. Here. Fur. 5'ri. 

Atp/ca 0' a. K.akkLppee6po<;. Id. TSO. 

TTLcra) (Tf^e Atp/ca? 
'AyVOV vSoop, TO ^o.Oxi^u^voi Kopci 
UpvaOTTerrXov 'Mvaixoavvac ave- 

reikav ~ap' evTeLxdcni' Ka5/xov -uAat?. — PlND. Isthm. vi. 108. 
1 From the two moi-e important streams, Thebes is described as " the two- 
river ed city :"■ — 

At—orajU.oj/ u/a ttoXlv jUoAcu. EuR. Sl'.j^j^L 623. 

- The erection of these walls was attributed to Amphion and Zethus : — 
Kat p' exerev 5uo TratS', WixcbLOvd re, ZvjOov re, 
01 TTpoJTOL ©yj/S'/jg eSo? eKncrav e—raTTuAoto. 
Tivpycocrdv r'* eTrel ov ixkv dirvpycorov y' iSvi'avro 
Xateuev evpvxopov Qrj^riv, Kparepio -ep eovre. — Ho:^r. Gd. xi. 262. 




Coin of Thebes. 



402 BCEOTIA. Book IV. 

towards the S. and one towR,rds the W. ; the position of the northern 
gate is self-evident, that of the two others is doubtfuL Thebes was 
believed to have been founded by a Phoenician colony under Cadmus, 
whence the title of the citadel. Cadmeia, and the old Homeric name 
of the people, Cadmeans. The tovm holds an important place both in 
mythology, as the birth-place of Dionysus and Hercules, and in the early 
annals as the scene of the wars of the " Seven against Thebes" and of 
the Epigoni. Its subsequent history is involved in that of Bceotia, and 
indeed in that of Greece generally. Its fall dates from its capture by 
Alexander in 335, when it was utterly destroyed. It was rebuilt, in 316, 
by Cassander, and again destroyed by Mummius, in 146. Thespiae was 

situated at the foot of 
Helicon, W. of Thebes. 
It was generally hostile 
to Thebes, and took a 
prominent part in the 
Persian War on the 
patriotic side. It was 
several times dismantled 
and depopulated by the 
early Thebans, but it 
survived to the Roman 
era and became then 
one of the chief towns of Boeotia. It derived celebrity both as a seat 
of fine arts —possessing statues cut by Praxiteles — and as the place 
where the Erotidia Tgames in honour of Love) were celebrated. It had 
a port named Creusis on the Corinthian Gulf. Plataea stood about 
6^ miles S. of Thebes, at the foot of Cithseron, and commanding the 
pass across that ridge into Attica. It was the scene of the remarkable 
victory over the Persians in B.C. 479, and of the no less famous siege 
in the Peloponnesian War in 42 9 -4-! 7. After the destruction of the 
to^^m by the Thebans, Plat?ea remained in ruins until 387, when it 
was partly restored, but again destroyed by the Thebans in 374, and 
permanently restored after the battle of Ch^eronea in 338. Tanagra 

was on a circular hill 
close to the left bank of 
the Asopus, and from its 
proximity to Attica it 
became the scene of en- 
gagements between the 
Athenians and Lacedse- 
monians in B.C. 457, 
between the Atheni- 
ans under Myronides 
and the Boeotians, the 
latter being defeated at 
GEnopliyta in 456, and between the Athenians and Boeotians in 426. 
Larynma was the name of two towns on the Cephissus, one of which, 
named Upper Larymna, was at the spot where the river emerged from 
its subterranean channel ; the other, Lower Larymna, at the mouth of 
the river. The former originally belonged to Locris, the latter was 
a member of the Boeotian confederacy. The Romans removed the 
inhabitants of the Upper to the Lower Larj^nma, which became a con- 
siderable town: its ruins are named Kasiri, and consist of the circuit 
of the walls and other vestiges. 




Coin of Thespije. 




Coin of Tanagra. 



CiiAP. XX. 



TOWNS. 



403 



Of the less important towns we may notice — Alalcomenae, at the foot 
of ^[t. Tilphossium, celebrated for the worship of Athena ;^ Onchestus, 
S.E. of Haliartus, and belonging to it, famed for a temple and grave 
of Poseidon ;^ A sera, on Mt. Helicon, W. of Thespiao, the residence of 
Hesiod;^ Thisbe/' in the S.W., near the sea, and possessing a low 
enclosed plain which was liable to be flooded, but was rendered in 
)jarts cultivable by means of a causeway made to divert the waters ; 
Creusis/ at the head of a small bay of the Corinthian Gulf, serving 
as the port of Thespise but difficult of access in consequence of the 
storms and headlands ; Eutresis, an Homeric town between Creusis 
and Thespia?, possessing a temple and oracle of Apollo; Leuctra, a 
little S.E. of Thespise, the scene of the celebrated battle between the 
Thebans and Spartans in B.C. 371, the battle-field being marked by a 
tumulus in which the Spartans were probably buried; Hysiae, at the 
iSI^. foot of Citheeron, on the high road from Thebes to Athens, and at 
one time belonging to Athens ; Erythrae, a little S. of the Asopus, at 
the foot of Cithseron, the extreme E. point to which the camp of 
Mardonius reached ; Scolus, between Tauagra and Platsea, and hence 
visited by Mardonius and selected by the Thebans as a spot to throw 
up an intrenchment against the Spartans in B.C. 377; Eteonus, after- 
wards named Scarphe, to the right of the Asopus, under Cithseron;^ 
Delium, on the sea-coast, close to the border of Attica, with a cele- 
brated temple of Apollo, the scene of the Athenian defeat in B.C. 424, 
and also of the defeat of a Roman detachment by the troops of 
Antiochus, in 192; Aulis, on the Euripus,^ the place where the Grecian 
fleet assembled before tliey started for Troy/ identified with the 



3 'Hprj T "XpyeCrj, K.aX ' XXaXKOiJ-evriXq 'XO-fjvq. II. iv. S. 

Onchestus was famed for a grove of Xeptune near it : — 

' Oy\r](7r6v 9' Ispov, UoaiSri'LOv o-YAabv aA.O"0?. Jl. ii- 506. 

''Oyxyjo-TOV 6' tfes, JlocnSriiov ayAabv aAcros" 

""EvOrj. veoSjUrjs ttcoAo? ai/a7rj/eet ax^d/xevo? KTjp. — Hymn, ill ApoU. 230. 
5 Hesiod thus describes his native place : — 

Natrcraro 6' ayx '^XtKoovo? bi^vprj evl i<.(^}J^r\, 

'' Xo-Kpr], K^O-K^V^ OepeL apyaker], ov8e ttot' ea-Okrj. — Oj). et Di. 639. 

<^ The rocks on the sea-coast have in all ages heen the resort of vast numbers 
of wild pigeons : — 

HokvTpriptjiva re QCcr^rjv. II. ii. 502. 

Quee nunc Thisbseas agitat mutata columbas. — Ov. Met. xi. 300. 
Nysa, Dioneeisque avibus circumsona Thisbe. — Stat. Theh. vii. 261. 
" A very difficult route led from this place to Megaris, along the heights of 
Cithceron. The Spartans passed this way under Cleonibrotus in e.g. 378, and after 
the battle of Leuctra in 371. 

8 Hence the terms which Statins applies to it : — 

Qui Scolon densamque Jiigis Eteonon imquis.-~~Tliel). vii. 266. 
9 ''E/xoAoi' aju-.it napaKTiav 
'irdiJ.aOov AuAtSos ei^aAtas, 
EvptVou Slcl \eviJidr(jL)V 
Ke'Acracra, crrevoTTopOiJLOv 

XaAKtSa. Iph. in Aid. 164. 

It is characterized by Homer as the " rocky," by Euripides as the " tranquil " 
Aulis : — 

Ot 6' 'YpCrjv h'ifJiovTO. kcli AvXCSa ~€rprj€crcrai'. II. ii. 496. 

AvAti^ cLKkvo-Tav. Iph. ill Aid. 121. 

or" e? AvAtSa r->)es 'A^"-'^'^^ 
'Kyepe^ovro, KaKo. ITptaao) /cat Tpcocrl ^ipovaai. II. ii. 303. 



404 



BCEOTIA. 



Book IV 



modern Yatliy, a name evidently representing the $a6vs \ifx'r]v of Strabo 
''ix. p. 403 : Mycalessus, anHomeric to^Ti '11. ii. 498 some^yhere near the 
Em^ipus, chiefly famous for the massacre of its inhabitants by the Thracians 
in B.C. 413; Salganeus, on the coast X. of Chalcis, commanding the X. 
entrance to the Enripns : Anthedon, on the coast, celebrated for its 
wine, and occupied by a non-Boeotian race; Schoenus, on a small river 
of the same name which flows into Lake Hylica, the birth-place of 
Atalanta : Hyle, on Lake Hylica, erroneously described by 5loschus 
as the birth-place of Pindar; Teumessus, X.E. of Thebes, on a low 
rocky hill of the samie name, chiefly known from the legend of the 
Teumessian fox which ravaged the territory of Thebes; AcraepMum, 
on the E. of Copais on the slope of Ptoum, with a celebrated oracle of 
Apollo near it, which was consulted by Mardonius; Copae, on the X. 
extremity of the lake and the site of Topolia, a place which, though 
a member of the Boeotian confederacy, was of small importance ; and, 
lastly, Tegyra, very neai' Orchomenus, with a celebrated temple and 
oracle of Apollo, 

History. — The withdrawal of Platcea from the confederacy was the 
first event that involved the Boeotians in a foreign war: Athens sided 
with the seceding town and war followed, in which Plataea wa<> rendered 
independent, probably in B.C. 519. In the Persian AVar the Thebans 
sided with the invader, much to the dissatisfaction of the other towns ; 
and they retained their supremacy only through the aid of the Spartans. 
The Athenians invaded Boeotia in 457 and 456, meeting vdih a defeat 
at Tanagra, but succeeding at (Enophyta, and for a while establishing 
democracy. The invasion of Tolmides in 447 was unsuccessful, and 
oligarchy was reinstated. The attack on Plataea in 431 was the first 
act of the Peloponnesian War, throughout which the Thebans steadily 
opposed Athens. Jealousy of the Spartans produced an opposite 
policy after the conclusion of the war : Thebes and Sparta became 
hostile, and the Boeotian "War at length broke out in 395, signalized by 
the death of Lysander at Haliartas and the victory of Agesilaus at 
Coronea in 394. The peace of Antalcidas in 387 and the seizure of 
the Cadmea in 382, by which Sparta endeavoiu'ed to humble Thebes, 
were followed by the expulsion of the Spartans in 379, and the increase 
of Theban power. The peace of Callias in 371 permitted the con- 
centration of the Spartan eflorts against Thebes ; but these were foiled 
on the plain ofLeuctra in 371. and, under Epaminondas, Thebes became 
the leading military power in Greece until the battle of Mantinea in 
362. Throughout all this period Orchomenus and Thespiae had sided 
with the enemies of Thebes : the former was burnt in 368. and the 
latter dej^rived of its inhabitants about the same period. War with 
Athens ensued in connexion with Euboea in 358, and this was followed 
by the Sacred "War in 357, which, throtigh the intervention of Philip, 
terminated in the recovery of the cities which Thebes had lost in the 
early part of the war. The alliance with Athens was renewed in 339 in 
opposition to Philip, who defeated the joint army at Chaeronea in 338, 
deprived Thebes of its supremacy, and held possession of the Cadmeia. 
The attempt to expel the Macedonian garrison led to the total destruc- 
tion of the city by Alexander in 335. It was rebuilt in 316 ; was twice 
taken by Demetrius in 293 and 290 : its walls were destroyed by 
Mummius in 146 ; and it Avas finally reduced to insignificance by Sulla 
in the r^Iithridatic AVar. 



The Parthenon in its present state. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

CEXTPvAL GREECE — COntillUecl. ATTICA, MEGARIS. 

VIII. Attica. § 1. Boundaries ; general character. § 2. Monntains. 
§ 3. Rivers. § 4. Inhabitants ; divisions. § 5. Athens and the 
other Attic towns ; history ; islands. § 6. Euboea. § 7. The Cy- 
clades. IX. Megaeis. § 8. Boundaries; mountains. §9. Towns; 
history. 

YIII. Attica. 

§ 1. Attica is a peninsula (as its name, derived from clkty],^ pro- 
bably implies) of a triangular form, having two of its sides washed 
by the sea, viz. by the ^g^ean on the E. and the Saronic Gulf on 
the W., and its base united to the land, being contiguous on the X. 
to Bceotia. In the N.W. it was bounded by Megaris, which natu- 
rally belongs to the peninsula, and was originally united to Attica, 
but was afterw^ards separated from it. The area of Attica is about 
700 square miles ; its greatest length is 50, and its breadth 30 miles. 
The position and physical character of this country destined it for 
commercial and political supremacy. Standing at the entrance of 
the Peloponnesus, it commanded the line of communication between 
Northern and Southern Greece ; and 3'et, being actually off the high 
road, it was itself tolerably secure from the passage of invading 

^ The name would thus have been originally 'Akti/ct? : this etymology has 
been questioned of late, and the name referred to the root Att, or Ath^ which we 
see in Ath-enee. 



406 



ATTJCA. 



Book IV. 



armies. On the N. it is shut off from Boeotia hj a line of lofty and 
in most places inaccessible mountains, -while on the S. the passes of 
Megaris were easily defensible. The E. coast was guarded by the 
isle of Euboea, and by the narrow intervening strait of Euripus, and 
the W. by the adjacent islands of Salamis and uEgina. As the 
most easterly jDart of Greece, it was the nearest point to Asia, with 
which it held easy communication by the intervening chain of 
islands. It was also practically the nearest point to Egypt. The 
soil is light and dry, and little adapted to the growth of corn. The 
primitive limestone, which is the geological formation of the country, 
protrudes on the mountain-sides, and even on the plains. The 
country was too hilly, and the soil too poor, for the breeding of 
horses or cattle. On the other hand, Attica was rich in mineral pro- 
ductions. The silver mines of Laurium and the marble quarries of 
Pentelicus were soiu'ces of national wealth. Hence, though agricul- 
ture was held in honour, maritime commerce was the natural occu- 
pation of the population ; and this, combined with the centrality 
of its position, secured that ascendency which rendered Athens so 
conspicuous in ancient histor}^ 

§ 2. The mountain-chain which separates Attica from Boeotia in 
the AV. part of the province, where the line of communication l^e- 
tween Xorthern Greece and Peloponnesus ran, was named Cithaeron. 
This was continued towards the E. in the range of Pames>- Xozia ; 
and towards the S. in the Onean moimtains of Megaris. The 
northern ranges were crossed at three points : viz. in the W. by 
the Pass of Dryoscephalce. " Oak-heads," between Platfea and Eleu- 
sis ; in the centre by the wild and rugged Pass of Phyle, through 
which ran the direct road between Thebes and Athens ; and in the 
E. by the Pass of Decelea, leading from Athens to Oropus and 
Delium. From the N.W. angle of Attica a range runs towards the 
S., terminating on the "W. of the Bay of Eleusis in two summits 
named Kerata, " the Horns,'' now KandUi. Another range de- 
scends from Parnes, under the name of ^galeus, to the E. of the 
Bay of Eleusis. Another, also emanating from Parnes, runs in a 
parallel direction more to the E., and was named, in its X. portion, 
Brilessus, or Pentelicus, Mendeli^ and in its S. portion Hymettus.^ 



- Parnes vas favourable to the growth of the vine : — 
Dives et J^galeos nemorum, Parnesqne benignus 
Yitibus. " Stat. TJieh. xii. 620. 

3 Hyniettus ^vas famed for its honey ; it ^vas also formerly well clothed with 
wood': the passage quoted from Ovid describes the source of the Ilissus on 
this mountain : — 

Est prope purpureos colles florentis Hymetti 
Fons sacer, et viridi cespite mollis humus. 
Silva nemus nou alta facit ; tegit arbutus herbam : 
Ros maris et laurus, nigraque myrtus olent. 



Chap. XXI. 



MOUNTAIXS. 



407 



The latter is subdivided into two parts by a remarkable break, — the 
northern or Greater Hjmiettiis, now named Telo-Vuni ; and the 
southern or Lesser, which was formerly called Anhydrus, Water- 
less," and now Mauro-Vuni. Between the ranges specified, plains 
intervene : viz. the Eleusinian or Thriasian Plain, between Kerata 
and ^galens ; and the Athenian Plain, or, as it was frequently 
tenned, " the Plain" (to liebtov), between ^galeus and Penteliciis. 
The moimtainons district at the head of the latter, between Parnes, 
Pentelicus, and the sea, was named Diacria, " the Highlands." 8.E. 
of Hymettns is an undulating district named Mesoggea, " the Mid- 
land and this is followed by the Paralia, " the Sea-coast," a hilly 
and barren district, including the whole southern division from 
Prom. Zoster on the W., and Brauron on the E., down to Sunium. 
In the S. of this lies the ridge of Laurium,^ Legrana, probably so 
named from the shafts (kavpa, " a street " or lane ") sunk for ob- 
taining the silver-ore, some of which still remain, as do also the 
heaps of scoria. The chief promontories are Zoster, the extreme 
point of Hymettus ; Sunium, at the extreme S. of Attica, rising 
almost perpendicularly from the sea to a great height, and crowned 
with a temple of Minerva, to the ruins of which the promontory 
owes its name of C. Kolonnes ; and Cynosura, Dog's Tail," a long 
rocky projection, bounding the Bay of Marathon on the X. 

§ 3. The rivers of Attica are little better than mountain torrents, 
almost dry in summer, and only full in winter or after heavy rains. 



Nee clensum foliis buxum, fragilesqiie myricEe 

Nee tenues cytisi, eultaque pinus abest. 
Lenibus impulsae Zepbyris, auraque salubri, 

Tot generum frondes, berbaque summa tremunt. — Ov. Art. Am. iii. 687. 

Hoc tibi Thesei populatrix misit Hymetti 

Pallados a silvis nobile nectar apis. — Martial, xiii. 104. 

Ingenium, dulcique senex yicimis Hymetto. — Ji^v. xiii. 185. 

Tbe marble of Hymettus was also famed : — 

Non trabes Hymettiee 
Premuut columnas ultima recisas 



* Homer gives it tbe epitbet "sacred;" tbe epitbet "silvery" in Euripides 
bas reference to tbe mines of Laurium : — 



Africa. 



Hon. Carm. ii. 18, 3. 



'AAA.' ore Souviov ipov a^i/c6/u.eO', aicpov 'XOrjvoiv. 



Od. ill 278. 



VevoLfJiav 
"Iv v\dev eTrecTTt ttovtov 
Jlp6^X.y]fx akCickvaTov, aKpav 
'Ytto TrkaKa 'S.ovvlov, 
Ta? lepa? ottco? TrpoaeC- 




SOPH. Jj. 1217. 



Eur. Cycl. 293. 



408 



ATTICA. 



Book IV 



The Athenian plain is watered by two rivers : the CepMssus,' a 
perennial stream which rises in Fames and IIoavs on the side of 
Athens into the Phaleric Bay ; and the Ilissus, a less important 
stream rising in Hymettns, and, after receiving the Eridanus, flowing 
through the S. of Athens towards the Phaleric Bay. These rivers 
still retain their ancient names. The former is now subdivided into 
several streams for the purpose of irrigating the olive-groves and 
gardens ; the latter is generally exhausted before it reaches the sea. 
The Cyclo"b6rus^ was a torrent descending from Parnes, probably 
the Megalo Potamo. The Eleusinian plain is watered by a second 
CepMssus, Sarandaforo, which rises in Citlia^ron, and l)y another 
stream now named the Janida. 

§ 4. The population of Attica belonged to the Ionian branch of 
the Hellenic race, and made it their particular boast that they were 
aiUochtJionoiis,'^ a circumstance which Thucydides (i. 2) attributes 
to the }X)verty of the soil. The Athenians were originally named 
Cranai, and afterwards Cecropidce, and did not assume their later 
name until the reign of Erechtheus. The earliest political division 
of Attica was attributed to Cecrops, who parcelled out the country 
into twelve independent communities, which were afterwards con- 
solidated into one state by Theseus. Another ancient division, attri- 
buted to the sons of Pandion, was based upon the natural features of 
the country, .tJireus receivino- tlie coast-land (aKr-q), with tlie plain 
of Athens (/reSa/?) ; anutht'r brotlier the highlands (dcaKpLa): and 
another the southern coast (TrapaX/a). These districts sujjplied the 
basis of the three political parties in the time of Solon and Pisis- 
tratus. Another division was into four tribes {(f)vXaL), the names of 
which varied at different times, the most important designations 
bein^ those which prevailed in the time of Cleisthenes into Geleontes, 
Hoplites, Argades, and ^Egi cores. Idiis division was superseded 
by that of Cleisthenes into ten tribes, named after Attic heroes ; two 
more were added in bx. 307, named after Antigonus and his son 
Demetrias; and a third in the reign of Hadrian, after whom it was 
named. There was a further division into townships or cantons 
(drjixoi), of which there were 174 in the third century b.c.^ The 



5 Ou6" aVTTVOL 

KpTjvat fjLLvvOovcn 
KT7(/)icroi) vojJidSes pziOpoiV. 
'AAA' atei' ctt' fju-art 

'Q.kvt6k.o<; -eSloiv k-LvicraeTai.. SoPH. (Ed. Col. 685. 

^ Aristophanes refers to the roaring sound of its waters : — 

'Ap— a^, KeKpdKTr}(;. Ki-'/cAo/Sopov <j)ojvriv ex^ov. Equit. 137. 

7 eh'at <^acrt ras avT6\dova<; 

KAetva? 'AOyji^a? ovK. e-eCcraKrov yevo^. EuR. Ion. 592. 

^ Herodotus (v. 69} appears to give 100 as the original number of the de/ni ; 
there is, however, some little doubt about the meaning of the passage. 



Chap. XXI. 



ATHENS. 



409 



tribes and tlie demi were to a certain extent a cross division, the 
latter being originally a local, the former a purely xKjlitical arrange- 
ment ; and thus adjacent townships belonged in many cases to 
difierent tribes. Even the demus lost its local character by degrees, 
as change of abode did not aftect the original arrangement, the 
descendants of a man always remaining members of the derails in 
which their ancestor was enrolled in the time of Cleisthenes. The 
larger demi contained a town or village, the smaller ones only a 
temple or place of assembly. The names of most of them are pre- 
served, but their positions are very often unknown. 




Plan of Athens. 

1. Pnyx Ecclesia. 2. Thestum. 3. Theatre of Dionysus. 4. Odgum of Pericles. 

5. Temple of the Olympian Jove. 



§ 5. Athenae,^ the capital of Attica, was situated in the central 
plain already described, at a distance of about 4i miles from the sea- 
coast. The site of the city was diversified by several elevations, the 
most conspicuous of which was the Acropolis, an oblong, craggy 
rock rising abruptly about 150 feet, with a flat summit 1000 feet 
long from E. to W., and 500 broad ; while grouped around it were 
the lesser heights of the Areopagus and the Pnyx on the W., and 
the Museum on the S.W. The river Ilissus traversed the southern 



^ The name is said to have been derived from the worship of Athena, which 
was introduced by Erechtheus. 

AXC. GEOG. rp 



410 



ATTICA. 



Book IV. 



quarter of the city, near the base of the Museum ; the Cephissus ran 
outside the walls on the W. side of the town, about 1 J mile distant. 
In addition to the hills already enumerated, we must notice Lyca- 
bettus/ ]\Lonnt St. George, a lofty conical peak to the E. of the 
Acropolis, not included within the limits of the city. The walls of 
Themi stocks passed along the AY. base of the Pnyx, and crossed the 
Ilissus near the W. extremity of the Museum ; thence they turned 
E., and included some heights to the S. of the Ilissus; on the E. side 
of the town they passed below Mt. Lycabettus, and returned with a 
broad sweep towards the N. to the neighbourhood of the Pnyx. 
The town within these limits consisted of two parts — the Acropolis 
or Polls, and the Asty or " City " — the former consisting of the 
central rock already described, on which the original city - of Cecrops 
stood, and which subsequently formed the citadel of Athens ; the 
latter consisting of the towm, which lay beneath and around it, and 
which was divided into the following districts : — Inner Ceramicus, 
extending from the gate of Eleusis to the Agora ; Mellte. cornrirising 




Athens and its Port-1 owns. 



1 Aristophanes alludes to Lycabettus as a mountain of some celebrity : — 

'^Hi/ ovv (TV Ae7T7? AvKaj3r]TT0vs 

Kal Uapvacroov rjixlv ixeyeOrj. Han. 1056. 

2 This was the " ancient Cecropia :" — 

Avrov T avaKra, TralSa Kkecvov Ai-yeo)? 
Kal Toijs (Tvi> avru), Se^Lov rera-y/xeVovs 

Kepas, TTttAatag Ke/cpo7rtas ot/CTyropa?. EURIP. SupJ)l. 666. 



Chap. XXI. ATHENS AND ITS PORT-TO^YNS. 



411 



the hills of the Piiyx and Museum ; ScambonIda3 and Colyttiis, in 
the same quarter, and sometimes included under Melite ; Ccele, be- 
tween the xMuseum and the Ilissus ; C} dathenteum, on the of the 
Acropolis ; Diomea, including the whole eastern district ; and Agr^e, 
in the S.E., beyond the Ilissus, The appearance of the town was 
striking from the number of fine public ]3uildings in it, and particu- 
larly those on the summit of the Acropolis, llie streets and private 
liouses, on the other hand, Avere of very inferior character. The 
port of Athens was on the Saronic Gulf, at a distance of about 
4J miles from tlie city. The original port was at Phalerum, on the 
E. side of the Phaleric Bay (i), at a spot noAV named Treis Pyvfjoi (d). 
Subsequently to the Persian War this was abandoned for a more 
westerly situation, where the Peiraic peninsula afibrded three natural 
basins, — the largest being Pirsus (h) on the W. side, now named 
Drako or Port Leone ; and the two smaller ones on the E. side, 
MunycMa, Faiiari (k), and Zea, Stratiotihi (l), the former being 
the most inland of the two. Gradually the peninsula was covered 
with buildings, and important suburbs grew up at the extremity 
and oh the AV. side of it, named respectively Piraeus (b) and Muny- 
chia (c). The }:ort-towns were connected with the city (a) by three 
walls, two of which ran in a S.W. direction to Pir^us, in parallel 
lines 350 feet apart, and were together named the " Long "Walls," or 
separately the Northern or Outer (e e), and the Southern or Inter- 
mediate (f f), while the third, called the Phaleric (o g), connected 
Athens Avitli Phalerum. The genej'al aspect of Athens thus re- 
sembled two circular cities connected by a long street. Tlie port- 
town wa^ described as the Loiver City, in contradistinction to the 
Asty or Upper City : occasionally, however, the latter term, as 
already observed, was apjTied to the Asty itself, in contradistinction 
to the Acropolis, which tow^ered above it. The population of the 
whole city is variously estimated at from 120,000 to 192,000 souls. 
We proceed to a more minute description of the town and its most 
remarkable x^ublic buildings. 

(1.) The Acropjolis. — The rock of the Acropolis stood in the centre of 
Athens, and was the very heart of the city^ its fortress and its sanc- 
turary.^ On three sides it is inaccessible : towards the W. it is ascended 
by a gentle slope. The summit was enclosed with walls, said to have 
been originally erected by the Pelasgia.ns, but certainly rebuilt after 
the Persian War : the northern, which retained the name of the Pelasgic 
Wall, was probably restored by Themistocles^ and the southern by 
Cimon, after whom it was named. The name of Pelasgicum extended 
to a space of ground below the wall, probably at the N.W. angle of the 



2 Hence Aristophanes describes it as — 

a^arov aKpoirokcv 
'lepov Te/aei/o?. 



Lysistrat. 483. 



412 



ATTICA. 



Book IV. 



Acropolis. The rocks on the X. side were named the Long Rocks/ a 
title equally applicable to those on the S. side, but restricted in use to 
the former, probably as being the more conspicuous from the Athenian 
plain. The western entrance was guarded by the Propylaea (Plan, 3, 3), 
erected by the architect Mnesicles in B.C. 4 j7-432, under the direction 
of Peiicles, consisting of a double central portico, through which a mag- 
nificent flight of steps led up from the town, and two projecting ^^ings, 
26 feet in front of the western portico — the northern one containing a 
chamber named Pinacotheca. from its walls being covered ^vith paintings, 
while the southern had no chamber. Opposite the latter stood the small 
temple of Xike-^ Apteros (Plan, 4), Wingless Victory," built to com- 
memorate the victory of (^^imon at the Eur^medon : the whole was of 
Pentelic marble, and extended along the whole AV. end of the Acropolis, 
a distance of 1 68 feet. Of these buildings the inner portico still remains, 
together with the northern wing. The temple of Nike Apteros has been 
rebuilt in modern times with the original materials, which were found 
on the spot. Just in front of the northern wing is the so-called Pedestal 
of Agrippa, formerly surmounted by the equestrian statues of the two 
sons of Xenophon (Plan, 5). The chief building within the Propyla?a was 
the Parthenon (Plan, 1), which stood on the highest part of the Acro- 




Plan of the Acropolis. 



polls : it was built by the architects Ictinus and Callistratus, under the 
direction of Pericles, and was dedicated to Athena the ^'virgin," so 
named as being the in^dncible goddess of war. It was built entirely of 

4 *EcrTtv -yap ovk. a.(Tr}ix0'5 '^k\-qvcov ttoAi?, 
Tt)? xpvcroAoyxo^^ IlaAAaSog KeK\r)ix4in], 
Ov ttolS' ''Epex9eu)<; ^oi/Sog e^ev^ev yajaot? 
Bta Kpeoucrai', €v9a TrpocrjSoppovg Trirpa^ 
IlaAAaSog vtt' ox^cu 7-^5 'A^yjvatcov x^o^^o? 
Ma/cpa? /caAovcrt yrjq avaKjeq 'At9l8o<;. Eur. Igu. 8. 

s From the position of this temple at the entrance of the Propylcea, the goddess 
was invoked by persons quitting or entering the Acropolis : — 

Nt/cT] r 'AOdva IToAtag, rj crco^et /u' aet, SOPH. Pliiloct. 134. 

Aeo'TrotP'a Nt/07 ^vyyevov, Toiv r' TroAet yvvaiKCiv. 

Aeistoph. Lysistrat. 317. 



Chap. XXI. 



THE ACEOPOLIS OF ATHENS. 



413 



Pentelic marble in the purest Doric style, its dimensions being 228 feet 
in length, 101 in breadth, and 66 in height to the top of the pediment. 
It consisted of a cella, surrounded, by a peristyle, having eight columns 
in each fronts and. seventeen at each side — in all forty-six. Before each 
end of the cella there was an interior range of six columns. The cella 
itself was divided into two chambers, the eastern of which was the 
Naos, or shrine, and specially named the Hecatompedon, beiDg ninety- 
eight feet long, and the western, named the Opisthodomus and the 
Parthenon, in its special sense, forty-three feet long. The former con- 




The Propylaia restored. 

A. Pinacotheca. \ D. Road leading to the Central Entrance. 

B. Temple of Xike Apteros. j E. Central Entrance. 

C. Pedestal of Agrippa. { F. Hall corresponding to the Pinacotheca. 

tained the colossal statue of Athena of ivory and gold, the work of 
Phidias, while the latter was used as the Treasury of Athens. Round 
the summit of the outer walls of the cella was a frieze in low relief, 
520 feet in length, representing the Panathenaic procession : the slabs 
of which it was formed are the well-known Elgin Marbles in the British 
Museum. The Parthenon remained almost entire until a. d. 16S7, when 
it was accidentally blown up during the siege by the Venetians ; it was 
again injured in 1827. The Erechtheum (Plan, 2 ; stood X. of the Par- 
thenon, and was the most revered of all the sanctuaries of Athens, 
being connected Avith the most ancient legends of Attica. The original 
temple was attributed to Erechtheus, and contained the statue of Athena 
Polias, of olive-wood, which fell down from heaven, the sacred tree, and 
the well of salt water — the former evoked by Athena, and the latter by 
Poseidon in their contest — and the tombs of Cecrops and Erechtheus. 
The building contained two separate sanctuaries, dedicated to Athena 
and Pandrosus. This temple was destroyed by the Persians, and a new 
one faunded on its site about the commencement of the Pelopounesian 
War, but not completed until about B.C. 393: its form was peculiar, 
consisting of an oblong cella, seventy-three feet long, and thirty- seven 
broad, with a portico at the E., and two porticoes at the western end, 
not facing the W., but the X. and S., and thus resembling the transepts 



414 



ATTICA. 



Book IV. 



of a cliurcb. The E. portico consisted of six Ionic columns, of wliich 
five are now standing; the X. portico had four columns in front, and 
two at the sides, all of which remain; the S. portico had its roof sup- 
ported by six caryatides, instead of columns, and was low : five of these 
•are st^mding, and the other is in the British Museum. The building 
contained two principal chambers — the eastern, or larger one, sacred to 
Minerva, the lesser to Pandrosus : the former contained the olive-wood 
statue covered with a j,)e|)7o8,'' and the latter the olive-tree. These 
compartments were on different levels, the eastern being eight feet 
higher than the western. The X. portico, which gave entrance to the 
Pandrosiam, contained the sacred well : and the S. portico was the 
Cecropium. or sepulchre of Cecrops, accessible only from within. The 
whole was surrounded by a Temenos, or sacred enclosure, within which 
were numerous statues. The Acropolis further contained the colossal 
statue of Athena Promachus (Plan, 5), seventy feet high, facing the Pro- 
pyla?a, and so lofty that the point of the spear and crest of the helmet 
were visible from Sunium ; a brazen quadriga on the left hand as you 
entered the Acropolis ; the Gigantomachia, a piece of sculpture on the 
Cimonian wall ; and a temple of Artemis Brauronia, between the Pro- 
pylasa and Parthenon. 

(•2.) The Astij. — The first object that meets one descending from the 
Acropolis is the Areopagus, ''the hill of Ares, or Mars,"" memorable 
as the place of meeting of the Upper Council, which held its sittings on 
the S.E. summit of the rock in the open air: a bench of stone excavated 
in the rock, forming three sides of a quadrangle facing the S., served as 
their chamber. Here it was that St. Paul addressed the men of Athens 
(Acts xvii. 22). At the X.E, angle of the hill was a dark chasm, which 
formed the sanctuary of the Eumenides.^ About a quarter of a mile 
from the centre of the Areopagus is the Pnyx, or place of assembly of 
the people, an area of nearly semicircular form, gently sloping towards 
the agora, artificially formed out of the sidie of a rocky hill by excavat- 
ing at the back, and embanking in front: the lienia, whence the orators 
spoke, faced the X.E. in the direction of the agora ; it is a large stone, 
twenty feet high and eleven broad, and commanded a view of the Acro- 
polis and city. The area of the Pnyx contained 12,000 square yards, and 
was unencumbered with seats. Behind the herna, on the summit of the 
rock, is an artificial terrace, whence a view of the sea could be obtained: 
this has been supposed by some to have been the original Pnyx, but it 
was more probably an appendage of the other. The Agora, or market- 



s This is the image referred to by .Eschylus : — 

'I^ov TroAatbi/ ayKaOev Aa/Swv /Spera?. Eum. 80. 

7 "Earat 8e /cat to A.otTrbi' Atyeco? crpaTcp 
'Aet St/cacTTa)!/ tovto ^ovXevrqpLOv 
Ho-yov 5' " \peiov t6v5' " Xixa^oviiiV eSpav 
^KYjvd^ 6\ 6t rj\6ov Sriaeui<; Kara (\)96vov 
'^rpaTqXa.jovaai, kol ttoAip' i^eoTTToAti/, 
Trivd' vxj/L—vpyov avTeTrupycoaai/ Trore* 
"Apet 6' eOvov, ev9ev ecrr' ^Tnxunjjxoq 

Jlerpa, ndyos r Apeto?. .ESCH. Eum. 6S3. 

s The position of this sanctuary is frequently alluded to by the trag-ic poets : — 
Udyov Trap avrov xacr/u.a bvaomai x9ov6<;. EuR. Elect)'. 1269. 
"Ire Koi (T(f)ayLii)v Tuiu6^ vtto a^p-voju 

Kara yrj? (Tv/xevat. JEtCH. Eum. 1006. 



Chap. XXI. 



PUBLIC BUILDIXGS OF ATIIEXS. 



415 



place, was in the depression between the Acropolis, the Areopagus, the 
Pnyx.audtiie^^Iuseum : it contained several stose, or colonnades— the Stoa 
Eleutherios dedicated to Jupiter: the Stoa Basileios, where the Archon 
Basileus held his court ; and the Stoa Poecile fso named from the frescoes 
with which it was adorned , from which the school of the Stoics derived 
their name. The other public buildings and objects in the Agora were 
— the Metroum, where the public records were kept ; the Tholus, where 
the Prytanes took their meals ; the Boulenterion, or council-chamber 
of the 5C>l"i ; the statues of the ten Eponymi, or heroes of Athens ; the 
Prytaneum ; and the central altar of the Twelve Gods. On the hill of 
the Museum was the monument of Philopappus, who lived in the age 
of Vespasian : portions of it still remain. Beneath the S. vrall of the 
Acropolis, near its E. end. was the stone Theatre of Dionysus, com- 
menced in B.C. 500 and completed in 340 ; the middle of it was excavated 
out of the rock, and its extremities supported by strong masonry. The 
area was large enough to hold all the population of the city, which here 
viewed all the grand productions of the Greek drama. The seats vrere 
arranged in curved rows hewn otit of the rock, and, as the area was un- 
enclosed, the spectators commanded a Tiew of Salamis and the sea, vrhile 
behindL them were the Parthenon and the other buildings of the Acro- 
polis.^ Adjacent to the theatre on the S. was the Lenseum, containing 
within its enclosiu^e two temples of Dionysus; and immediately E. of the 
theatre was the Odeum of Pericles, the roof of which is said to have 
been an imitation of the tent of Xerxes. On a height X. C'f the Areo- 
pagus stands the Theseum, founded in b c. 469 and completed in 465, 
containing the bones of Theseus, which Cimon brought from the isle of 
Scyros : it was built of Pentelic marble, and in the Doric style of archi- 
tecture, 104 feet long by 45 broad, with six columns at each end, and 
thirteen on each side, thirty-four in all, and divided m the interior into 
a central cdJa 4' ) feet long, with a proiiaus, facing the E., 33 feet long, 
and an OjjisthodunUis facing the AV., 27 feet long; tlie porticoes being 
included in each case. The pediments of the porticoes and the metopes 
of the E. front were filled with sculptures, representing the exploits of 
Theseus and Hercules. The building is nearly perfect at the present 
time, having been formerly used as a Christian church cleddcated to 
St. George, and now as a national museum. The great temple of Zeus, 
named the Olympieum, stood S.E. of the Acropolis, near the right bank 
of the Ilissus : its erection w^as spread over nearly Too years, having 
been commenced by Pisistratus and his sonS;, carried on by Antiochus 
Ej^iphanes B.C. 174, and again in the reign of Augustus by a society of 
princes; and finally completed by Hadrian. Its remains consist of 16 
gigantic Corinthian coltimns of white marble, 6 J feet in diameter, and 
above 60 feet high. The temple was 354 feet long, and 171 broad. 

Among the less important objects we may notice— the Odeum of 
Herodes, near the S.W. angle of the Acropolis, built in the time of 
the Antonines by Herodes Atticus. and capable of lioldiug about 
6,000 persons ; the Cave of Apollo and Pan, at the X.W. angle of the 



Illusion is made to its position in the follo"wing lines : — 
Xatper' acrrcKO? Aeojg, 
''I/crap r}fxevoL Acb?, 
HapOevov (piXaq 0tA.ot 
2a)</)poi'OuvTe? ev xP^vco. 
IIaAA.a5o? S' v—o Trrepoig 

"Ovras enteral -ar-qp. .ESCH. Eum. 997. 



ATTICA. 



Book IV. 



Acropolis, 18 feet long, 30 high, and 15 deep, frequently noticed in 
the Ion of Euripides; the Clepsydra, a fountain so named from its 
being supposed to have a subterraneous communication with the 
harbour of Phalerum ; the Ag-lauriuni, a cave in the Long Rocks, 
whence a flight of steps led up to the Acropolis ;^ it was the sanctuary 
of Aglaurus. a daughter of Cecrops ; the Gymnasium of Hadrian, to 
the X. of the Acropolis ; the Horologium of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, 
commonly called the '^Temple of the Winds," which served as the 
weather-cock and public clock of Athens, supposed to have been 
erected about B.C. 100 ; the Street of Tripods, along the E. side of 
the Acropolis, so named from the tripods which the victorious clioragi 
dedicated to Dionysus in the small temples in this street : one of these 
temples, erroneously called the ^' Lantern of Demosthenes,"' was 
erected by Lysicrates in B.C. 335, and still exists; Callirhoe, a spring 
situated S. of the Olympieum, yielding the only good water in 
Athens ; the Pisistratidge erected over it a building with 9 pipes, 
hence called Enneacrunus ; - the Arch of Hadrian, a poor structure 
still existing opposite the X.W. angle of the Olympieum, and erected 
probably, not hij, but in honour of Hadrian ; and the Panathenaic 
Stadium, situated between two parallel heights on the S. side of the 
Ilissus. 

(3.) Siihurhs of the City. — The most beautiful and interesting of the 
suburbs was the Outer Ceramicus,^ outside the Dipylon, through which 
mn the road to the Academia, some 6 or 8 stadia distant from the gate. 
The Academy is said to have belonged to the hero Academus : it was 
converted into a gymnasium, and was adorned with walks, groves,-* 
and foimtains, as well as with numerous altars and a temple of 
Athena. Here Plato taught, and hence his school was called the 
Academic. Sylla had its groves destroyed, but they were afterwards 
restored. It still retains the name of Akadhimia. A short distance 
beyond it was the hill of Colonus, immortalized by the tragedy of 



1 The position of the Aglaurium and its flight of steps are alluded to by 
Eui'ipides : — 

'Q Ilai^b? OaKyjimaTa Koi 
IlapauAt^ovcra Trirpa 

*'lva ;^opoy? (XTeL^ovcn ttoSoiv 
'AypauA-ou Kopat rpCyouoL 

SraSta x^oep«- Trpo IlaAAaSo? vaojv. Ion, 504. 

- Et quos Callirhoe novies errantihus undis 
Implicat. Stat. Theh. xii. 629. 

3 The Ceramicus was the burial place for those who were honoured with a 
public funeral ; hence Aristophanes saj-s : — 

'O Kepofxetffos Several vcu, 

Arj/xocrta ya.p iva Taff)C}fjiev. Av. 395. 

The olive-trees in the Academy were particularly fine : — 
TaSe OdWec ueyLCTTa X^^Pfj 
T\avKa<; TTaL8oTp6(j)Ov (PvWov eAata?' 
To /u-eV Ti9 ovre veapo^ ovre yripa 

^y]p.aivhiv oAtwcret x^pt Tepo-as. — SoPH. (Ed. Col. 700. 
'Er evcr/ct'ot? 8p6p.oi<Tiv 'AKaSry/uiou 0eou. — EuPOL. Fragm, 
Atque inter silvas Academi qua?rere verum. — Hor. Ep. 11. 2, 45. 



Chap. XXI. 



HISTOEY OF ATHENS. 



417 



Sophocles.^ On the E. of the city was Cynosarges, where the Cynic 
School was established by Antisthenes : a grove, which surrounded 
it, was destroyed by Philip in B.C. 200. A little S. was the Lyceum, 
the chief of the Athenian gymnasia, where Aristotle and his suc- 
cessors in the Peripatetic School taught : it was sacred to ApoHo 
Lycius. 

History. — The foundation of Athens was attributed to Cecrops, the 
first king of Attica, in whose reign Poseidon and Athena contended 
for the possession of that country. The greatness of the town, how- 
ever, dates from the reign of Theseus, who consolidated the 12 states of 
Attica into one kingdom, of whicli Athens became the capital. The 
first attempt to embellish the town was made by Pisistratus .aid his 
sons, B.C. 56U-514. Xerxes reduced it to a heap of ashes in 4Nij, but 
it was afterwards rebuilt with great splendour under the direction of 
Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles, the former of whom secured the 
town by walls. On the capture of the city in 41 4, the Lona- Walls and 
fortifications of Piraeus were destroyed by the Lacedtemonians, but 
were again restored by Conon. After the battle of Chteronea in 33fe, 
Athens became a dependency of Macedonia, but it retained nominal 
independence down to the time of the Roman dominion. Having 
sided with Rome, it was attacked by the last Philip of Macedonia in 
200, when all the suburbs were destroyed. A greater calamity befell 
it in 86, when Sulla took the town by assault, and destroyed the 
Long Walls and fortifications of the city and Pireeus. Though the 
commerce of Athens thenceforward decayed, the town enjoyed a high 
degi^ee of prosperity as a 



thus secru^ed against the 
attacks of the barbarians. Tn the sixth century, the schools of phi- 
losophy were abolished by Justinian, and the temples converted into 
churches. 

The otlier Toinis of Attica— k(ih.dLni2e, the largest demus of Attica, 
was situated near the foot of Parnes about 7 miles X. of Athens : its 
soil was fertile, but the chief occupation of its inhabitants was the 
manufacture of charcoal for the supply of the capital : its exact site is 



^ An altar of equestrian Xeptiine stood there, to ^vhich reference is made by 
Sophocles : — 



school of art and litera- 
ture. The Roman em- 
j^erors, particularly Ha- 
drian, added new build- 
ings, and the town was 
never more splendid 
than in the time of the 
Antonines. The walls 
were restored by Valerian 
in A.D. 258, and it was 




Coin of Athens. 




T 3 



418 



ATTIC.\. 



Book IV. 



not known/' Eleusis, Lepsina, stood upon a height near the sea, 
opposite the island of Sahxmis ; the fertile Thriasian plain spread inland 
from it, and tiie road from Athens to the istlnnus passed through it. 
Eleusis owed its celebrity to the worship of Demeter, whose coming 
(^€\euaLs) appears to be implied in the name : the road which connected 
the place with Athens was named the Sacred Way," /"from the solemn 
procession which travelled along it annually at the time of the Eleu- 
sinian festival. The temple of Demeter was bui'iit by the Persians in 
B.C. 484; its restoration was commenced by Pericles, who employed 
Ijtinus as architect, but it was not completed until B.C. 318 ; it was 
the largest in Greece, and regarded as one of the four finest specimens 
of Grecian architecture in marble. The only noteworthy remains at 
Eleusis are the fragments of the Propylsea, the platform of the temple, 
and traces of wharfs. The plain of Eleusis was exposed to periodical 
inundations of the Cephissus ; to check these Hadrian raised some 
embankments. Oropus, Slaila, was situated on the shore of the mari- 
time plain, which lies about the month of the Asopus on the border 
of Boootia : from its position it was a frequent cause of dispute between 
the Athenians and Boeotians. In B.C. 412 the latter people gained 
possession of it, and in 402 they removed the town 7 or more pro- 
bably 17 stadia from the sea, to the site now named Oropo, whence 
it was shortly removed back to its old site. It changed hands fre- 
quently ; after the battle of Chseronea Philip gave it to the Athe- 
nians. In 318 it became independent, but in 312 it was taken by 
Cassander, and, after the expulsion of his troops, handed over to the 
Boeotians. It possessed a temple of Amphiaraus. Eliainnus, Orrio- 
Kastro, stood on a rocky peninsula on the E. coas^t, between Oropus 
and Marathon, and was chiefly celebrated for the w^orship of Nemesis ; 
the temple stood near the town, and contained a colossal statue of the 
goddess by Phidias : traces of two temples have been discovered, — a 
smaller one which is supposed to have been destroyed by the Persians, 
and a larger one subsequently erected on a contiguous site ; the latter 
was a peripteral hexatyle, 71 ft. by 33 ft., while the former was only 
31 ft. by 21 ft. Marathon v/as the name both of a place and of a 
plain ^ about 26 miles N.E. of Athens, the latter of which has obtained 
an undying celebrity from the victory which the Athenians here 
obtained over the Persians in B.C. 490. The plain skirts a small bay 
formed by the promontory of Cynosura on the N. and a projection of 
Pentelicus on the S. ; inland it is backed by the heights of Brilessus 



^ It gives title to a well-known play of Aristophanes, in which the sufferings 
of the agriculturists during the Peloponncsian War are dei;icted, the position and 
occupation of the Acharnians exposing them to serious losses. 

^ The Sacred Way left Athens by the Sacred Gate, though it might also be 
reached by a branch road passing through the Dipylum. It traversed the Outer 
Ceramicus, M here it was lined with tombs and statues ; it then crossed the 
Cephissus and suriDountcd tlie range of .l-:galcus by the pass of Dhafni ; the 
temples of Apollo and Venus were in this ])art of its course : it then descended to 
the sea, near where tbe llheiti or salt-spriuLis gush out from the base of .Egaleus, 
and thence followed tlie line of tlie sliore to Kleusis. 

8 It was noted in mythology as the place where Theseus destroyed the 
Cretan bull : — 

Te, maxime Theseu, 
Mirata est Marathon Cretaei sanguine tauri. — ^Ov. 3Iet. vii. 433. 



Chap. XXI. 



TOWXS. 



419 



and Diacria, aud on either side it is closed in hj marshes.^ It is about 
6 miles long, and 3 miles at its greatest breadth^ and of a crescent 
form. A small stream, the Marathona, flows through the centre of it. 
On this plain stood a Tetrapolis, or confederacy of four towns, viz. : 
Marathon, which occupied the site of Vmna, on a height fortified by 
the ravine of a torrent ; Probalinthus, probably at the S.W. of the 
plain ; Tricorythus at the other extremity, near Sull ; and QCnoe, at 
Inoi, near the head of the valley of Marathona. Tiie village which 
now bears the name of Marathona is on the left bank of the river 
below (Enoe. In the plain, about ^ a mile from the sea, is the Soro or 
artificial mound which covers the bodies of the Athenians slain in the 
battle: it is about 30 ft. high and 200 yds. round. X'ear I'rana Rre 
the traces of a temple, j^robably that of Hercules noticed by Herodotus, 
w^hile 1000 yds. to the X. is the Pijrgos, or remains of the tower, which 
may be the site of the trophy of Miltiades. Brauron, near the E. coast 
on the river Erasinus was chiefly celebrated for the worship of Artemis, 
v/ho had a temple both here ^ and at its port, named Halai Araphenides 
the latter contained the statue brought from Tauris by Orestes and 
Iphigeneia. 

Of the less important places we may notice — Eleutherae and (Enoe, 
which commanded the Pass of Dryoscephal^ over Citheeron ; their 
positions are uncertain, — the latter is probably represented by the ruins 
of Gkyfto-castro at the entrance of the pass, and the former by Myupoli 
about 4 miles to the S.E.; Phyle, Flli. a strong fortress on a steep 
rock, about 10 miles from Athens, commanding the pass across Parnes, 
and memorable as the point selected by Thrasybulus in B.C. -1:^4 as the 
base of operations against the Thirty Tyrants; Decelea, on a circular 
and isolated spur of Parnes, which commanded the pass across Parnes 
to Oropus, now named the Pass of Tatoy, through which the Athenians 
dre\v . their supplies of corn from Eubcea : the Lacedaemonians under 
Agin seized it in B.C. 413, and thenoe carried on a guerilla warfare 
against the Athenians ; ApMdna, between Decelea and Khamnus, 
probably on the hill of Kotroni, tlie birthplace of Tyrtseus the poet, 
and of Harmodius and Aiistogeiton, and celebrated in mythology as 
the place w^here Theseus deposited Helen ; Pa,llene, on the road from 
Athens to Marathon, between Hymettus «iud Pentelicus, possessing a 
celebrated temple of Athena; ^ Stiria, on the E. coast, S.E. of Brauron, 



^ Large quantities of water-fowl frequented the marshes, as well as the ''i^iea- 
sant mead of Marathon " itself : — 

oTa T evSpocrov^ re 
Tr)S TOTTOv? ^X^Te, /cat A.et/xd)- 
va rov epoev-a IMapa^coj/os' 
"Opi/t? re TrrepoTT ot/ctAo? 

'Array as, array a<;> ArISTOPH. Al\ 24 5. 

Bpavpcoj/tas Bel rrjcrSe K\r]Sovx^lv Oeas- — EUR. 7}j/i. Taur. l-iT4. 

- Xcopd? T6? ecmv 'Ar^t'So? npoq ecr;i(aTOt? 
'OpoLCTL, yetroov SetpaSo? Kapvcrrta?, 
'lepb?. 'A/Va? vlv ovf-ios ovofxo^eL Aecos* 
EvravOa rev^as uaov, tSpvaaL /SpeVas, 

'Ettmvvijlov ttj? TavptKr)?. KUR. Jph. Taur. 1 162. 

3 TIaAAr/vtSo? yap aefxvov e/<77epd)v Ttdyov 

Ata? 'Xedvas. EuRir. Ilerad. S40. 



420 



ATTICA. 



Book IV. 



connected with Athens by a road named the ^' Sthian Way;" Prasiae, 
on the E. coast with an excellent harbour, Porto Bafti, whence the 
Theoria, or sacred procession, used to sail, and with a temple of Apollo; 
Paeania, the birth-place of Demosthenes, E. of Hymettus; Thoricus, 
Theril'o, on the E. coast, about 7J miles X. of Sunium, celebrated in 
mythology as the residence of Cephalus, whom Eos carried off to the 
gods, and a place of importance, as testified both by its ruins and by 
its occupation by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War; Sunium 
on the promontory of the same name, fortified by the Athenians in 
B.C. 413. and regarded as one of the most important fortresses in 
Attica : the temple of Athena which cro^^iied the heights was a Doric 
hexastyle, the only remains of -srhich are 9 columns of the S. flank and 

of the X., together with 2 columns and 1 of the antee of the pronaus; 
Anaphlystus, Anavyso, X.W. of Sunium, near the mines of Laurium; 
Sphettus in the same neighbourhood, connected with Athens by the 
•'* Sphettian AVay " which entered the city by the X. end of Hymettus ; 
a manufactory of vinegar appears to have existed there ;"^ and Halae 
jExonides, nearer Athens, where were some salt-works. 

History. — The histoiy of Attica and of its capital Athens is almost 
synonymous with the history of Greece itself : so prominent is the 
position which it holds in all ages. Our limits will not permit us to 
do more than point out the chief periods into which its history may 
be divided, and which are — 

(1.) The early period do^^n to the time of Solon's legislation B.C. 594. 
dm-ing the first portion, of which Athens was governed by kings ; the 
historical events during the whole of this period are few and un- 
important. 

2.) The growth of the Athenian state from the time of Solon, B.C. 
594, to the attainment of its su23remacy in 478, This period is signa- 
lized by the Persian Wars 49U-479 , in which Athens took a con- 
spicuous part, and by the gi-adual extension of the political influence 
of Athens through its maritime power. 

(3.) The period of Athenian ascendency, which lasted from 478 to 
413, when the army and fleet were destroyed at Sicily. Under the 
administration of Pericles Athens arrived at the heigh c- of its glory. 
The Peloponnesian War broke out in 431, and proved destructive of 
Athenian supremacy. 

(4.) From the decline of the ascendency of Athens to the Eoman 
conquest of Greece in 146. The battle of ^gospotami in 405 and the 
capture of Athens by Lysander in 404 completed the humiliation of 
Athens. In 378 Athens joined Thebes, and again became the head of 
an important maritime ascendency, which lasted until 355, when the 
Sc>cial Wars terminated in the independence of her allies. A subsequent 
alliance with Thebes against Philip was brought to a close by the 
battle of Chseronea in 338, where the Athenians were totally defeated. 
On the death of Alexander the Athenians endeavoured to shake off 
the Macedonian yoke, but the Lamian War ended disastrously in 
322, and Athens surrendered to Antipater. The Macedonian governor 
was expelled in the reign of Cassander by Demetiius Poliorcetes in 
307, and Athens wa.s captured by him in 295. Antigonus Gonatas, 
king of Macedonia, the son of Poliorcetes again reduced Athens in 
292. On the death of his successor Demetrius, in 229, Athens joined 



KaTeVAao-ei/ avTOV tol /3Ae(^apa. ArIsTOPH. rlut. 720. 



Chap. XXI. ISLANDS OFF THE COAST. 



421 



the iEtolian League. In 200 Philip V. besieged Athens, and she was 
only relieved by the Koman fleet : she afterwards joined Rome against 
Philip. Attica was finally added to the other dependencies of Rome 
in 146. 

Islands off the Coast of Attica. — Salamis, Kuluri, lies between the 
coasts of Attica and Megaris, closing the bay of Eleusis on the 8. 
Its shape resembles an irregular semicircle facing the W. ; its lengtli 
from N. to S. is a^bout 10 miles, and its greatest width from E. to W. 
about the same. It had in early times the names of Pityussa, Sciras, 
and Cychria,^ the former from the pine-trees on it, the two latter after 
the heroes Scirus and Cychreus. The island is mountainous, and the 
shore much indented : the most salient points are the promontories 
of Sileniae or Tropsea, C. St. Barbara, at the S.E,, off which lies the 
small isle of Psyttalia, Llpsolcutali, a mile long and from 200 to 3<»0 
yards across ; Sciradium, probably at the S.W., where stood the temple 
of Athena Sciras ; and Budorum at the W. The old city of Salamis 
stood on the S. shore ; the new one on the IST. shore. The island is 
chiefly memorable for the defeat of the Persian fleet by the Greeks in 
B.C. 480, Yvhich took place in the channel^ between the island and 
Attica, and was witnessed by Xerxes from his seat on Mount ^Egaleus. 
Salamis was colonised at an early period by the ^Eacidse of ^gina, and 
was the residence of Telamon and his son Ajax at the time of the 
Trojan War. It was independent until about B.C. 620, when a dispute 
arose for its possession betw^een the Athenians and Megarians. The 
question was ultimately referred to the Spartans, who decided in favour 
of Athens ; and to this power it belonged until the establishment of the 
Macedonian supremacy in 318. In 232 the Athenians purchased it of 
the Macedonians, and expelled the inhabitants in favour of Athenian 
settlers : thenceforward it was attached to Athens, ^gina, Eghina^ 
lies in the centre of the 
Saronic Gulf nearly equi- 
distant from the shores 
of Attica, Megaris, and 
Epidaurus. In shape it 
is an irregular triangle. 
The S. portion of the 
island is occupied by the 
magnificent conical hill 
named >S'^. Elias : the 
W. side is a well culti- 
vated plain. The ori- 
ginal inhabitants were Achseans/ but these were superseded by 
Dorians from Epidaurus. The chief town, also called JEgina, stood on 
the N.W. coast, and possessed tw^o harbours and numerous public 
buildings, particularly the shrine of iEacus. The moles of the ports 
and walls of the city can still be traced. On a hill in the X.E. of 



5 This name occurs in .Eschylns : — 

'AK-ag aju,(/)l Kvxpeta?' — P^rs. 570. 

2aAa/ati/o? a/cral ttol? re 77p6cr\copo<; r6-o<;. — -ESCH. Per$. 272. 

' The mythical account of its orisrinal population is, tl^at Zeus changed the ants 
(javpiUTj/ce?) of the island into Myrmidons, over whom .Eacus ruled. See Ov. 
Met. vii. 6 2 4, seq. 




Coin of .Egina. 



422 



EUBGEA. 



Book W. 



the island are the remains of a magnificent temple of the Doric order, 
which has been variously regarded as that of Zeus Panhellenius, and 
that of Athena noticed by Herodotus (iii. o9). The sculptures which 
adorned it, and which were discovered in 1811, represent events con- 
nected with the Trojan AVar. The temple was erected early in the 
6th century. Another town named CEa was in the interior of the 
island. ^Egina, as a dependency of Epidaurus, became subject to 
Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about B.C. 748. It soon became a place of 
gi'eat commercial activity : as early as 5');? it had entered into relations 
with Egypt, and about 50() it held the empire of the seas, and planted 
colonies in Crete and Italy. The authority of Epiclaurus was renounced, 
and .Egina became an independent state. As such it entered into a 
league with Thebes against Athens in 505, and ravaged the coasts of 
Attica. The .Eginetans did good service to the Greek cause at the 
battle of Salamis. The Athenians, to whom iEgina had become, in 
the expressive language of Pericles, the '^eye-sore nf the Pir?eus," 
defeated them in 460, took their town in 456, and expelled the whole 
population in 431 : the refugees were settled at Thyrea by the Spartans, 
and were restored by Lysander in 404. 

In addition to these we have to notice — Helena or Maoris, Malrronisi, 
off the E. coast, a long, narrow island, uninhabited in ancient as in 
modern times ; Patrocli Insula, off the S. point, so named after a 
general of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who built a fort on it ; and Belbina, 
St. George^ at the enti'ance of the Saronic Gulf, described by The- 
mistocles as one of the most insignificant spots in Hellas. 

§ 6. The important island of Euboea, Xegrojjont,^ lies opposite to 

the coasts of Attica, Boeotia, and Lo- 
cris. Politically it was closely connec- 
ted with the first of these countries, to 
w^hicli we therefore append it. Geo- 
grajihically it lay in closer contiguity 
Coin of Euboea. to Bceotia, the strait separating them, 

named Euripus, being only 40 yards 
across at Chalcis. The length of the island from N. to S. is about 90 
miles ; its breadth varies from 30 miles to 4. The mountain-ranoe 
which traverses it throughout its wdiole length may be regarded as a 
continuation of Pelion and Ossa ; on the E. coast it rises to the 
hei::ht of 7266 feet ; it terminates in the promontories of Cenaeum,^ 
Lithadhr/, in the X.W. ; Arteniisium in the N., opposite the Thes- 
salian ^lagnesia, the scene of the Persian defeat in B.C. 480 ; Caphe- 




^ The modern name is compounded of Egripo, a corruption of Euripus, and 
potite, '* a bridi^e." 

It ^vas croTvned with a temple of Zeus, surnamed Cenaeiis : — • 

'A/cTvj Tt9 ecrr' Ev/Soils, ev9' opt^erat 

B(u/xov9, tcAtj t iyKaprra Krji/aio) Att. SOPH. Track. 237. 

'A/CTTj TL^afJi(})LKX.v<rToq Ev/3oia9 aKpov 
KrjvaLOi' ecrriv, ev9a narptoft) Au 

Bco/jLOvs bpC^ei, T€ix€VLav re (})v\\aBa. Id. 752. 



Chap. XXI. TO^VXS. 423 

reus/ Kavo Boro, in the S.E. ; and Geraestus,^ Mandih% in the S.E. 
Thongli generally mountainous, the island contains some rich plains, 
particularly those about the towns of Histia^a and Chalcis — the latter 
being named Lelantum.^ The E. coast is remarlvably rocky, and 
both the prevalent winds and the currents render it extremely 
dangerous. The part called the "Hollows" was somewhat K of 
Gera?stus. The streams are of trifling size. The island was fertile : 
the plains produced corn, and the hills fed sheep. The marble quar- 
ries of Carystus were far-famed. The original inhabitants were the 
Abantes,^ after whom the island was sometimes named Abantis ; 
but in historical times these gave place to Ionian Greeks, who 
founded the most important towns; viz. Chalcis, Eretria, Oreus 
or Histia?a, and Carystus. 

Chalcis, Egripo, stood on the shore of the Euripus, just where the strait 
is divided into two channels by 
a rock, which now forms a central 
pier for the bridge that connects 
the island with the mainland. The 
extraordinary flux and reflux of 
the currents^ at this point were 
noticed by the ancients. Chalcis 
rose to great commercial import- 
ance, and planted colonies in 
Sicily, Italy,*^ and Macedonia. The chief events in history are — its 
capture by the Athenians in B.C. 506; its revolt from that state in 
44-5, and its subsequent reconquest by Pericles; its second revolt 



^ On this promontory the Greek fleet was wrecked on its return from Troy : — 
Tapaftu — eAayo? Atyata? aAos. 
'A/crat, 5e 'SIvkovov, A>]Atot re ^otpaSe?, 
S/cupos re Xr]fxv6<; (9' at. Ka^rjpetot t' aKpac 
HoWujv OavovTojv crco/xa^' t^ovcriv veKpoov, — EuR. Trcad. 88. 
Scit triste ]\[inervce 
Sidus, et EuboiccB cautes, ultorque Caphereus. — .l^n. xi. 260. 
2 'Op-ro 6' cTTt \iyv<; ovpos a>;/aepaf at Se /xaA' a;/ca 
"IxQvoevra. KekevOa SieSpafjiov es' 6e TepaLcrrov 
''Evvv^LaL KardycvTO. HoM. Cd. in. 176. 

2 Krjvaiov 8' eTre/Sr)? vavcrt/cAetTTj? Ev/SotT]?. 

2t-!7? 6' eirl ArjXdinoi TreStw. Ho^r. Hymn, in ApoU. 219. 

4 Ot 5 Eu/Sotai/ exov /xeVea TTV&iovreq ^AjSa^reg. II. ii. 536. 
Tcoi/ 6 a.v9' rjyefxovev' 'EAe(/)77i/cop, 6^09 'ApTjo?, 
XaA/ccoSop-TtaST]?, fxeyaOvixoov apx^? WBavTLov Id. 540. 
5 Aretatus rapido fervet qua gurgite pontiis 
Euripusque trahit, cursion niidantibus undis, 
Chalcidicas puppes ad iniquam chissibus Anlim. — Lrc. v. 234. 
6 The most famous of these colonies ^ras Cumee, whicli consequently received 
the epithet " Chalcidian :" — • 

Chalcidicaque levis tandem super adstitit arce.' — Vikg. .En. vi. 17. 

Hfiec ego Chalcidicis ad te, Marcelle, sonabam 

Littoribus, fractas ubi Yesbiiis egerit iras. — Stat. Silr. iv. 4, 7 8. 




Coin of Chalcis in Eubcea. 



424 



EUBOEA. 



Book IV. 



in 411, ^vllich was again unsuccessful; the attacks upon it by the 
Romans in 207 and 192; and its destruction by Mummius. From 
its position in command of the Euripus it was termed by Philip 
of Macedon one of the ''fetters of Greece." Eretria, stood S. of 

Chalcis at the S.W. extre- 
mity of the plain of Lelan- 
tum, which was a bone of 
contention between the two 
cities. The original town, 
near Vatluj, was destroyed 
by the Persians in B.C. 49u 
for the part it had taken in 
the Ionian revolt, but was 
again rebuilt more to the S. 
at Kastri. The defeat of the Athenians off its harbour, in 411, led to 
its revolt from that power. It was governed by tyrants from about 400 
to 341 : and was taken by the Romans and Rhodians in the war with 
Philip Y. It was the seat of a philosophical school, founded by Mene- 
demus, a'nd the birth-place of the tragic poet Arhgeus. The remains 
of the acropolis and of a theatre still exist at Kastri. Oreus stood on 
the X. coast, and was originally named Histisea:' it was occupied by 
the Persians after the battle of Artemisium, and afterwards became 
subject to Athens, from which it revolted in B.C. 445, and was in con- 
sequence taken by Pericles, its inhabitants banished, and Athenian 
settlers placed in their stead. After the Peloponnesian War, Oreus 
became subject to Sparta, and remained so until the battle of Leuctra. 
In the wars between Philip and the Romans it was taken by the 

latter in the years 207 and 
2o0. Carystus was situated 
on the S. coast, and is 
chiefly known in history 
as the place where the Per- 
sians landed in B.C. 490. The 
marble quarries were on the 
slopes of the neighbouring 
hill of Ocha : the marble was 
of a green colour with white 
bands, and was much prized 
at Rome.*' 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Dium,^ near Prom. 
Ceneeum, the mother-city of Cause in ^olis ; ^depsus, on the X.W. 
coast, with some warm baths : Orobiae, opposite Cynus in Bcjcotia, with 
an oracle of Apollo Selinuntius: the town was partly destroj-ed by an 
earthquake in B.C. 42'! : -Egae, opposite Anthedon, possessing a famous 
temple of Poseidon ;' Amaryntlius, about a mile from Eretria, with a 



It is noticed under this name by ITomer, as abounding in grapes :■ — 
7ro\v'rTd(f)v\6v B' '\<Triaia.v. II. ii. 537. 

^ Quidve domus prodcst Phrygiis innixa columnis, 

Taenare, sive tuis, sivc, Caryste, tuis ? — Tibull. iii. 3, 13. 
Idem beatas lautus exstvuit thermas 

De marmore omni, quod Carystos invenit. — Mart. ix. 76. 

9 K-qpLvBov t' €(fja\ov, Atov r alrrv rrroXUBpov. — IIOM. II. ii. 538. 




Coin of Eretria. 




Coin of Carystus. 



Chap. XXI. 



THE CYCLADES. 



425 



temple of Artemis Amaryntliia ; Portlimus, a harbour on the narrowest 
part of the Enboean channel opposite to Khamnus, and hence a place 
of importance as a point for attacking the coast of Attica; Styra, X. of 
Carystus, occui^ied originally by a Dryopian population, a place noticed 
in the Persian War and subsequently subject to Athens ; Geraestus, on 
the promontory of the same name, ^vith a celebrated temple of Posei- 
don ; and, lastly, Cerintlius,^ on the X.E. coast. 

Eistonj. — As Euboea never formed a single political state, its history 
resolves itself into that of its separate towns. We have already seen that 
Chalcis and Eretria were powerful cities in early times : they continued 
so until the time of the Pisistratidte, when Chalcis engaged in war with 
Athens, and lost its territory in consequence in B.C. 5U6. After the 
Persian War, the whole of Euboea became dejDendent on Athens: it 
revolted in 445 and again in 411, but was reconquered on each occa- 
sion. With the decline of Athenian supremacy, tyrants established 
themselves in the towns ; these submitted to Macedonia without a 
struggle, and the island remained a part of the Macedonian dominions 
until 194, when the Romans took it from Philip Y. 

§ 7, Xot far distant from the coast of Attica lies an important 
group of islands, to which the name of Cyclades- was given, because 
they lay in a circle (eV kvkXco) around Delos, which, though the 
smallest, was the most important of them. These islands appear 
to be physically connected with Euboea, and to be a continuation of 
the same elevation, rising from the sea at intervals. The numbers 
and Dames of them are variously giA'en ; but, according to the best 
authorities, the following twelve constituted the group : — Ceos, 
Cythnos, Seriphos, Siphnos, Paros, Xaxos, Delos, Elienea, Myconos, 
Syros, Tenos, and Andros. The order in vrhicli they are enume- 
rated is in a circle commencing at the X.AY. These islands were 
for the most part occupied by Ionian colonists. 

Ceos or Cea, Zea, is abotit 1 3 miles S.E. of the promontory of Sunium, 
and is 14 miles in length by 10 in breadth. It was said to have been 
originally occupied by nymphs who were driven from it by a lion. 
The lonians colonised it and built four towns ; of which Ifilis, the 
capital, in the X., was the most celebrated as being the birth-place of 
the lyric poets Simonides ^ and Bacchylides, and of the philosopher 



• Atya?' evOa 6e ot Kkvra. Stjoixara ^ivOeai XL^vriq, 

XpiJcrea, ixapfxalpovra, rereuxa-Tat, acpOcTa atet. — IL xiii. 21. 
- The general appearance of these islands hardly justifies the epithet of 
" glittering " applied to them hy Horace ; they are for the most part hare and 
hrown : — 

Interfiisa iiitentes 

Vites aequora Cycladas. Carm. i. 14, 19. 

Fulgentesque tenet Cycladas. Id, iii. 28, 14. 

2 Horace alludes to him in the lines :■ — ■ 
Non, si priores Mteonius tenet 
Sedes Homerus, Pindaricoe latent, 
Ce£eque, et Alc?ei minaces, 

Stesichoriqiie graves Camoense. Carm. iv. 9, 5. 



THE CYCLADES. 



Book IV. 




Coin of Gvihnos. 



Ariston: its laws were so excellent as to pass into a proverb. The 
other to\^^ls were — Coressia, which served as the port of lulis ; Car- 
threa,"* in the S.E. ; and Poceessa in the S.W. Cythnos, Thermia, is 

seldom mentioned : its chief 
celebrity in ancient times 
was derived from its ex- 
cellent cheeses, and in 
modern from some hot 
springs to which it owes 
its present name. It pos- 
sessed a town of the same 
name on the AY. coast at 
HehrcTO-l-astron, oi v^hich some remains still exist: this town was oc- 
cupied by Philip's troops in B.C. 200, and was unsnccessfnily besieged 
by Attains and the Rhodians. Seriphos, Serplio, was chiefly famed for 

its poverty and insignific- 
ance, and was hence nsed by 
the Romans as a place of 
banishment.^ It possessed, 
however, iron and copper 
mines. It was the fabled 
scene of the education and 
exploits of Perseus.^ Siph,- 
nos, Siplmo, attained a high 
degree of prosperity from 
its gold and silver mines, 
and possessed a treasury at 
Delphi. These mines, however, were at length worked out, and the 
inhabitants became poor even to a proverb. They manufactured a 

superior kind of pottery. 



The chief town lay on the 
E. side of the island, on the 
site of the modern Kastro. 
Paros, Pai'o, is one of the 
largest of the Cyclades : it 
consists of a single round 
mountain, sloping evenly to 
a maritime plain which sur- 
rounds it on all sides. It 
was celebrated for its fine 
marble, dug out of the sides of Mt. Marpessa,'' and for its ligs. The 




Coin of Siphnos. 




Coin of Paros. 



^ Transit et antiques Cartlieia mcenia Cca3. — Ov. Jlct. vii. 3G8. 
^ .Estuat infelix angusto limite mundi, 

Ut Gyaraj clausus scopulis, parvaque Scripho. — Ji v. x. 169. 
^ Ilepcrev? oTrore rpirov a- • 
I'vcrev KaaiyvriTav /xepo?, 
Eti/oAta Sep 10 w 

Aaotcrt re ixolpav ayojv. — PlXD. Pi/th. xii. 19. 
^ Xec mapris incepto vultum scrmone movetur, 
Quam f?i dura silex aut stet Marpesia cautes. — Virg. ^En. vi. 470. 
IrdXav Gd/xev, JJapCov 

\l6ov XevKorepav. PiXD. Xem. iv. 131. 

Urit me Glycora; nitor 

Splendentis Pario marmore purius. — IIor. Cann. i. 19, h. 



Chap. XXI. 



THE CYCLADES. 



427 




Cuin of XaxGS. 



capital was on the W. coast: remains of it exist at Toroichia. Its chief 
historical event Is the unsuccessful attempt of Miltiades to subdue it 
after the battle of ^larathon. The poet Archilochus was born there. 
Naxos, y<i:''!(<. wns the largest of the C}-clades, being 19 miles in length 

by 1") in I'lY-ulth: it was a]so 
eminently fertile, producing . 
corn. wine., oil, and fruit of 
the finest description. In the 
centre of the island a moun- 
tain, named Drius, rises to 
the height of oriQi) feet. Its 
capital stood on the X.AV. 
coa>t. on trie site of the modern 
town. Tiie ruins of a temple 
still exist there. Xaxos was the seat of a tyranny before the Persian 
War. The failure of the Persian expedition aa'ainst it in r..':. o 'd was 
indirectly the cause of the Ic'uian revolt. The island was cruelly l avaa'ed 
by the Persians in 490. After the Persian AVar it was subject to AtLtns, 
from which it revolted in 471 to no good effect. L'elos,- DA'Tc-s-. lies in 
the centre of the Cyclades. 
between Rhenea and ]\Iyconos. 
It is little more than a rock, 
being only five miles in cir- 
cumference, but it was re- 
garded as one of the holiest 
spots in all Hellas, having 
been called into existence as 
was believed by the trident of Poseidon, and fixed in its place by 
Zeus that it might become the birth-place of Apollo and Artemis. It 
enjoyed a sinu-ular immttnity from eartliquakes. which was attributed 
to its miracuLjiis origin. The worship of Apdlo was celebrated by a 
gTeat periodical festival, in wliich the Athenians and other nations took 
part. The sanctity of the isle is attested by the rej-ard shovrn to it by 
Datis and Artapliernes. as well as by its beiDg seleotcd as the treasury 
of Greece in B.C. 477, and by the pm^fication of it by the Athenians 
in 4-:'o. After the fall uf Corinth, in 14'^. it became the^ centre of 
an extensive commerce, and was particularly celeorated for its bronze. 
It was ravaged by the generals of Mithridates. and thenceforth ^sank 
into iiisigniticance. The town stood on the V\'. side of the island, 
just under ]\Iount Cyntlius,^ a bare granite rock, about 4oo feet 




Coin of Pelos. 



^ Dclos had a variety of poetical names, of which the most important was 
Ortyo-ia, connected ^vith the legend, that Latona was changed by Jupiter into 
a quail op-rvS' . The name Ortygia occurs in Homer, Od. v. 123: xv. 403 ; 
hut in the latter passage it is described in terms odi rfio-al ^-.^aloio' ^hich make 
it doubtful whether it can be applied to Delos. See note^, p. 42S. 
^ Sacra m.ari colitur medio gratissima tellns 
Nereidum matri. et Neptuno JEgceo : 
Quam plus Arcitenens. oras et littora circum 
Errantem, Gyaro celsa Myconoque revinxit, 

Immotamque coli dcdit, et contenmere ventos. — Vino. ^Iln. iii. 73. 
''H ai? ere — pcuroz' At^toj re'/ce, xap^xa ^porolcTLV, 
KXii-Oelcra —pbs Kt'i'Oov opos Kpavafj h'l vqcru 
AtjAo) oLixc^ipv-rQ. IIOM. Hymn, in AfoU. 25. 

1 Ipse jugis Cynthi graditur, molliqne fluentem 

Fronde premit crinem fingens, atque implicat auro. — Virg. .Ffi. iv. 147. 



428 



MEGARIS. 



Booiv IV. 



high, which served as its acropolis. A small stream, named Inupus, 
and au oval lake are noticed by the ancients. The foundations of 
the theatre, of a stoa, and of a few houses, are all the remains of the 
once splendid town : the rest of the materials were transported to 
Venice and Constantinople. Rheuea- is separated from Delos by a 
strait about half a mile wide : it is about ten miles in circumference, 
and is divided into two parts by inlets. It served as the burial-place 
of Delos. Mycoiios,^ Myhono, is little else than a barren granite rock, 
ten miles in length and six in its greatest breadth, with two towns on 
it: its' inhabitants were famed for their avarice. Syros, Stjrci, was a 
more fertile island, but hardly deserves the praises bestowed upon 
it by Homer, though it still produces good wine. It possessed two 
cities, one on the E. the other on the W. coast. The philosopher 
Pherecydes was a native of Syros. Tenos, Tino, lies about fifteen 
miles from Delos, and is about fifteen miles long. It is one of the 
most fertile of the Cyclades. The inhabitants were wealthy, and paid 
a yearly tribute of 3600 drachmce to Athens. The capital stood on 
the S.W. coast, and possessed a celebrated temple of Poseidon. The 
island was famed for its fine garlic. Andros, Andro, the most north- 
erly of the group, is twenty-one miles long and eight broad: it w^as 
fertile, and particularly famed for its wine. The town lay in the middle 
of the AV. coast : it was besieged by Themistocles after the Persian War, 
and by the Romans in their Avar with Philip. S W. of Andros is the 
small island of Gyaros, JiU'Ci, a barren rock, about six miles in circum- 
ference, which the Roman emperors used as a place of banishment :^ a 
purple fishery was carried on there. 

IX. Megakis. 

§ 8. The small district of Megaris occupied the northern portion 
of the Isthmus of Corinth, extending from the confines of Boeotia 
on the X. to Corinthia on the S. ; the limit in the latter direction 
having been originally at Crommyon on tlie Saronic, and Therma^ 
on the Corinthian Gulf, but afterwards more to the X.. at the Sci- 



2 Na^09 t', rjSk Ilapo?, 'Pr]vald re Trerp-qeacra. — HOM. Hymn, in Apoll. 44. 
The epithet humilem^ applied to this island by Ovid, is incorrect : it was one 
of the islands to which Delos was anchored (see note ^, above). 

Hinc humileni Myconon, cretosaque rura Cimoli. — Ov, Met. vii. 463. 

Ipsa tua Mycono Gyaroque revelli, 
Dele, times. Stat. Tlieh. iii. 438. 

■* N^o-d? Tt5 Ivpiri KiKk-qaKerai, el nov (iKOuet?, 
'Oprvyirji; KaOvnepOev, 69l Tpoiral rjeXioLO, 
OvTL TreptTrAr/drj? XCrjv Tocrov dAA' ayaOq fxeu, 
EuiSoTO?, evixrjkos, ott'OTrArjdrj'?, TroAvTrupo?. — Od. xv. 402. 
There is room for doubt whether Homer's S3rrie i^ identical with Syros, or 
whether it is not rather a poetic fiction. The question turns partly on the 
further question whether Homer's Ortygia represents Delos. 

^ Aude aliquid brevibus Gyaris, et careers dignum. — Juv. i. 73. 
Ut Gyarae clausus scopulis, parvaque Seripho. — Id. x. 170. 
It is noticed by Yirgil as one of the rocks to which Delos was anchored (see 
note ^, p. 42 7 , though it is not particularly near that island. The epithet celsa 
is misplaced, whether it be applied to Gyarus or 'as in some copies) to Myconus. 



Chap. XXI. 



EOUXDARIES. 



429 



Ionian rocks. In tlie X.E, Megaris Avas contiguous to Attica ; else- 
where it Avas bounded by the sea, viz. by the Corinthian Gulf on 
the and the Saronic on the E. It thus lay open on the side of 
Attica alone, and was naturally connected with that country rather 
than with any other. It is a rugged and mountainous country, and 
contains only a single plain abuut 6 or 7 mile> long, and about the 
same in breadth, which opens tOAvards the Saronic Gulf on the- S., 
and was named Leucon, the AVhite Plain." The chief mountain- 
range WDS named Geranea, JlaJcrijJai//, a southerly extension of 
Cithan-on, which stretches across the isthmus like a vast Avail, and 
forms the natural boundary between Xorthern Greece and the Pelo- 
ponnesus. It was crossed at three points : on the AY. by a road near 
the sea-coast, little frequented from its distance : in the centre by 
the pass now iiiimedlJervenia, which was probably the mainline of 
communication in early times ; and in the E. by a coast-road, which 
afterwards became the main line of communication, and which 
is celebrated for its difficulty, being carried for seA'eral miles along 
a narrow ledge cut in the face of the cliff some 600 or 700 feet above 
the sea. This pass is the Scironia Saxa^ of antiquity, the KaJce- 
sccd'i, " Bad Ladder," of modern times." On the border of Attica 
were the heights of Kerata, before noticed. The promontory of 
^giplanctus ^ is on the AY. coast. 




Minoa. Xis^a. Megara. 

§ 9. The capital, Megara, stood on a low hill Avith a double sum- 
mit, in the plain already noticed, about a mile and a half from the 



^ They \^-ere said to hare "been so namecV after Seirou, a robber whom Theseus 
destroyed : — 

Tutus ad Alcathoen, Lelegeiu mcenia, limes 
Composito Scirone patet : sparsique latronis 
Terra negat scdem, sedeni negat ossibus unda : 
Qua^ j aetata diu fertur durasse vetustas 

In scopulos : seopulis iiomen Scironis inhoeret. — Ov. !Met. vli. 443. 
' Hadrian rendered this road passable for carriages, 

8 ALjjLVTjv 6' vrrep TopyoiTrip eatcq-^ev (j)do?' 
''Opo<; t' err' AtytV Aay/cror e^iKvov/JLevov, 
"Hrpvi-e Becr^ov w-tj x^-'^C^^^'^'- ^^^po?' — ^ESCH. Ag, 302. 



430 



MEGARIS. 



Book IV. 



Saroiiic Gulf. The summits were named Caria and Alcatboe, 
Caria being probably the highest, and were each the site of an 
acropolis. Below the city was a port-town named Nisaea, connected 
with Megara by long walls, which have now wholly disappeared. 
The port itself was formed by a small island named Iilinoa, which 
was united to Nisaea- by a bridge over a morass. This island is now, 
in all probability, incorporated with the mainland, and is a rocky 
hill on the margin of the sea. It has been otherwise identified 
with a small island still existing off the coast, but at too great a 
distance (200 yards)" to be connected by a bridge, and with the pro- 
montory of Tiklio more to the E., which is too distant to accord with 
the lenojtli of the walls. Megara possessed a second port on the 
C-orinthian Gulf, named Pagae or Pega?, Psatho. 

The town of Megara is said to have been founded by Xisus son of 
Pandion, and to have been subsequently restored b}' Aleathous ^ son 
of Pelops. The Megarians themselves attributed its origin to Car, son 
of Phoroneus. Its situation was highly favourable for commerce, as all 
the roads between Xorthern Greece and Peloponnesus passed through 
its territory, Avhile its ports gave it communication with the E. and 
W, It was beautified with numerous edifices, particularly the Olym- 
pieum or inclosure of Zeus Olympius, the Bouleuterion, the Pry- 
taneum, numerous temples and tombs, and a magnificent aqueduct built 
by Thea^enes. The whole of these buildings have disaj^peared, and 
modern Jfegara is a poor place, occupying the western summit. 

History. — Megaris was originally a part of Attica, a.nd thus an Ionian 
state. It was afterwards conquered by the Dorians, and was for a long 
time subject to Corinth. The Dorians were expelled in Solon's time, 
and Megara rose to great commercial prosperity, not only attaining 
its independence, but becoming the mother-city of numerous colonies 
in Sicilv and Thrace. Its power was weakened partly by its internal 
dissensions and partly by its contests with the neighbouring states of 
Athens and Corinth. In B.C. 4o5 the Megarians formed an alliance 
with Atliens which lasted for ten years. In the early part of the 
Peloponnesian War they suffered severely from Athenian inroads: in 
427 Xicias blockaded Xica^a, and in 424 they got possession both of it and 
of the Long Walls, but did not succeed in taking Megara. The Mega- 
rians themselves levelled the Long Walls shortly after. Thenceforward 
Megara is seldom noticed. It became the seat of a philosophical 
school, founded by Eucleides, and it obtained under the Romans an 
ill fame for licentiousness. 



^ Apollo is said to hive aided Aleathous : the stone on which he deposited his 
lyre, when struck, returned a musical sound : the stone was preserved in the 
Prodomeis : — 

<I>or/3e ai'o^, avTOs fxkv eTrvpywcra? ~6\lv aKpr\v, 

'AXKaOoio IleAoTros -at6t xcM3t^6/u.ei'o?. — ThcO[jn. 111. 
Kesjia turris erat vocalibus uddita niuris : 
In quibus auratam proles Lctoia fertur 

Deposuisse IjTam : saxo sonus ejus inhaesit. — Ov. Met. viii. 14. 



Corinth. 



CHAPTEE XXII. 

PELOPOXXE5U5 : COEIXTHIA, ACHAIA, ELIS. 3IESSEXTA. 

§ 1. Peloponnesus. 1. Corixthia, &c. §2. Corinthia. §3. Corinth. 
§ 4. Sicyonia. § 5. Phliasia. § 6. Cleonae. II. Achaia. § 7. 
Boundaries; ^Mountains; Rivers. §8. Inhabitants; Towns; History. 
III. Eli^;, § 9. Boundaries; Mountains. § 10. Rivers. § 11. 
Inhabitants; Towns; History. IV. Messexia. § 12. Boundaries; 
Mountains; Rivers. §13. Inhabitants; Towns; History: Islands. 

§ 1. The [biysical features of the Peloponnesus have been already 
noticed in tlie general description of Greece. It only remains for us 
here to account for the name, and to enumerate the provinces into 
Avhich it was divided. The name of Peloponnestis, " the Isle of 
Pelops," came into vogue subsecjuently to the Dorian immigration, 
and embodied the belief of the later Greeks as to the wealth and in- 
fluence of Pelops, the hero of Olympia. The earlier names, as given 
in the Iliad, Avere Apia^ (from aVo, "the distant land"), and 
Argos. Its area is computed at 1779 square miles ; and its popula- 



1 Kat fjikv TOLCTLV eyto fxeQoixCkeov e/c HvAou kkdoiv, 

TriXoBev 'X—irjS yatrj?* KaXdaavTO yap avroi. — II. i. 269. 

yvvoLK eveLdd' dvTjyes 
"E^ 'A/Ttrjs yaC-qg, vvov avSpdv alxH-'r}~OL(*iV ; IL iii. 48. 



432 



CORINTHIA. 



Book IV. 



tion, during the flourishing period of Greek history, at upwards of a 
niilHon. It was subdivided into numerous states of various sizes, 
of which the following six were the most important : — Achaia, Elis, 
Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, and Arcadia ; while Corinthia, Sicyonia, 
Phliasia, and CleonaB, were of small size. 

I. Corinthia, Sicyonia, Phliasia, and Cleon^. 

§ 2. The territory of Corinth, described by the Greeks under the 
name of CorintMa (77 KopLvdla), occuj^ied the isthmus which connects 
Xorthern Greece with Peloponnesus, together with a certain amount 
of district ou either side of it. Towards the N. it extended to the 
border of Megaris, from which it was separated by the Geranean 
range ; towards the S. it bordered on Argolis, and was bounded by 
the Onean range. The Saronic and Corinthian Gulfs approach 
one another bet'sveen these ranges, and are divided by a low ridge 
about 3 J miles across, the^ highest point of which is only 246 feet 
above the level of the sea. A glance at the map will show how 
favourably this district was situated both for military and com- 
mercial purposes. It was the gate of the Peloponnesus. X. and S. 
it was shut oft" from the adjacent countries by mountain ranges 
which were difficult to cross ; E. and W. it held easy intercourse 
with the shores of the -iEgasan and of the Ionian seas,^ by means of 
the Saronic Gulf in the former direction, and the Corinthian in the 
latter. The intervening land served to connect as well as sepa- 
rate these seas, and rendered Corinth the entrepot of commerce be- 
tween Asia and Europe. In addition to these natural advantages, 
nature provided an admirable acropolis in the celebrated Acro- 
corinthus, an outlying member of the Onean range, which rises in 
an isolated mass to the height of 1900 feet/ at a short distance from 
the Corinthian Gulf. The soil of Corinthia was by no means fertile, 
the coast-plain in the direction of Sicyon being the only arable land 
in the wliole district. 



2 When Agesilaus captured Cormth, he is described as — 

apa-CTaaas t^? IleAoTroi/i'Tjcrov ras TrvAa?. — Xen. Ages. 2. 
It has been termed in modern times the " Gibraltar of Greece." 

3 Hence Corinth is described as the " city of the two seas : " — 

diTTopov KOpv(})av *l(x6fXL0v. EuiUP. Troad. 1087. 

Landabunt alii claram Rhodon, aut Mitylenen, 

Aut Ephesum, bimarisve Corinthi 
Mania. IIor. Ccu m. i. 7, 1. 

* The description of Statins is hardly exag-j^erated ; modern travellers have 
lemarked on the conical shadow of the rock stretching midway across the 
isthmus : — 

Qua summas caput Acrocorinthus in auras 
ToUit, et alterna gcminum mare protcgit umbra. — TJceh. vii. 106. 



Chap. XXII. 



THE ISTHMUS OF CORINTH. 



433 



The Isthinus was the most important part of the Corinthian territory, 
both as the spot where the merchandise was conveyed from sea to sea, 
and as the scene of the Isthmian games. The name probably comes 
from the same root as the Greek l-euai, and the Latin i-re "to go," 
and thus meant a ])assage." ^ The traffic was originally carried on 
by means of the Diolcus, a level road, on which small vessels could be 
transported bodily by means of rollers, and the merchandise of the 
larger ones conveyed in carts. A canal was frequently projected, and 
actually commenced by Xero, but the scheme was not carried out : it 
may be traced near the Corinthian Gulf for I'i'.xi yards. A short 
distance S. of the Diolcus the Isthmus was crossed by a wall, which 
may still be traced in its whole extent.: it was fortified with square 
towers. Tlie date of this work is uncertain: it probably was re-erected 
on various occasions. Temporary defences were thrown up at the 
time of the Persian invasion, and again in B.C. 369 by the Spartans. 
The Isthmian games were celebrated at a spot immediately S. of the 
wall. The sanctuary was a level spot of an irregular quadrangular 
form, enclosed by stronfr Avails, and containing the temple of Poseidon 
and other sanctuaries. The stadium lay to the S. and the theatre to 
the Yv . of the sanctuary. The games were celebrated every two years 
in honour of Poseidon, 'J under the presidency of the Corinthians, and, 
during the ruin of Corinth, of the Sicyonians. 

§ 3. The mountain ranges have been already noticed. Onea was 
so named from its resemblance to an ass's back. It closes the 
entrance of the Isthmus on the S., and was passable at two points — 
by a ravine between its AY. extremity and the Acrocorinthus, and by 
a road that skirted the Saronic Gulf at its E. extremity. Geranea, 
in the X., terminates in the promontories of Olmiae and Heraeum, on 
the shores of the Corinthian Gulf. The latter, now C. St. Xikolaos, 
was the most westerly point of the Isthmns, and was crowned ^^ith 
a temple of Jnno, which did service as a fortress.. The only stream 
of importance is the Nemea, wTiicli rises in Apesas and flows north- 
wards through a deep vale into the Corinthian Gulf, forming the 
boundary between the territories of Corinth and Sicyon. The inha- 
bitants were mainly ^Eolians, but the dominant race in historical 
times were Dorians. The capital, Corinthus, was the only important 
town in the district. It lay at the northern foot of the Acro- 
corinthus, with its acropolis on the summits of the rock, and pos- 
sessed two ports — LechaBum on the Corinthian, andCenchrea?. on the 
Saronic Gulf. 

The site of Corinth was not strictly on the plain, but upon a broad 
level rock some 200 feet above the plain. It was surrounded with 



Pmdar expressly terms it the "bridge of the sea — 
Kal ye({)vpav TromaSa 

Upo KopCi^Oov TeLxe(x>v. Isthm. iv. 34. 

6 'laOfXLaV l-TTOLO-L VLKaV. 

Tav =.€i'OKpa.T€L IlocretSacov OTracratg, 
Acoptcov avroj orec/xxvco/jia KOfxav 

UeiJLTrev avaSelcrOaL aeKtviov. FiXP. Ijthm. ii. 20. 

ANX'. GEOG. U 



1 



434 



COEIXTHIA. 



Book IV, 




Plan of Corinth. 



walls,, extending (those of the Acroeorintlius included) to 85 stadia : 
and it was connected with Lecluoum by two walls (Plan, 10, lO^. each 12 
stadia long. The population has been estimated at from 70,000 to 
80,000. The buildinc:^ r]u^ ,,],] town were almost wholly destroyed 

by ?.Iammius in ]5.c. 146, 
E 'c^^,^-,,,^^^-^ r " ] '^^■^'■^ only account we 

1^=*=^^=^^^ ~ \ ^^^^ ' „,,'r ? ^*^| have of the place refers 

to the new town, which 
was visited by Pausanias. 
The Agora (1) stood in 
the centre of the town, 
and was adorned with a 
vast number of temples 
and statues : from it four 
main arteries ran at right 
angles to each other, 
leading to Acrocorinthus, 
and to the gates of Cen- 
chreae (4), Lechaeum (5), 
Sicyon \ and Tenea (7). 
Below Acrocorinthus was 
an edifice named Sisy- 
pheium ;9). The Pro- 
pylaea, Odeum, Gymna- 
sium, and other public 
buildings, were grouped 
about these streets. 
Very few remains now exist of the old Greek town ; we have in the W. 
seven Doric colunii:is, conjectured, but on insufficient grounds, to be- 
long to the tem]3le of Athena Chalinitis (2 and in the X. foundations, 
supposed to be of the Temple of Apollo ' 3): of the Roman town in the 
E., an amphitheatre, and the ruins apparently of some baths. The 
Acrocorinthus (a) was partly enclosed vdth walls : in the greater part of 

its circuit it was inacces- 
sible from its cliffs ; the 
summit is not perfectly 
level, but rises into 
crests : it was once 
covered with buildings 
now in ruins ; the ancient 
temple of Venus stood on 
the E. crest, but all traces 
of it have vanished. The 
celebrated fountain of 
Peirene " '^S , still remains : 
the chief spring is on the 
summit of the Acrocor- 
inthus : two other springs 
in the city were supposed to be connected with it. and were also known 

' So celebrated was this fountain, that Pindar describes Onrinth as the "city 
of Peirene :" — 

Totcrt fjiCLV e^evxer" a- • 

oret ITetpai'a? <T<^^T4pov 
Mei/ Trarpb? apxav /cat paBvt 
KAapoi/ €p.fJLev Kal fidyapou. 




Fountain o 



Olymp. xiii. 85. 



Euripides 



Chap. XXI] . 



COPJXTH. 



435 



by the name of Peireue — one being at the foot of the Acrocorinthus, 
and now named Mustapha ; the other, F<iJ!ho, on the road to Le- 
chffium. Outside the walls^ on the E., was the suburb of Craneum 

(b) , the favourite residence of the wealthy citizens. Lecliaeiiin 

(c) , was the chief station of the ships of war/ and the emporium of 
the traffic with the W. coasts of Greece and Italy ; the site of the 
port, which was artificial, is now a lagoon. Cenchreae, distant about 
8J miles, was the emporium 
of the trade with Asia, and 
was a natural port improved 
by moles : the name of 
KeTiliries is still attached to 
the site, but no town exists 
there. Corinth was one of 
the earliest seats of Greek 
art : painting is said to have 
been invented there : the 
most ornate style of Greek architecture still bears the name of Cor- 
inthian : statuary also flourished, and the finest bronze" for this pur- 
pose was known as 

Coiiiitlikicurn, 
while its pottery was 
hardly le>s cele- 
brated. Ship-build- 
ing was carried on, 
and the first trireme 
was bulk there. 
Though Corinth pro- 
duced Arion, the 
second inventor of 
the dithyramb, and 
the Cyclic poets 
-Eson, Eumelus. and 
Eumolpus, yet lite- 
rature was U'jt much 
patronized there. The wealth^ and licentiousness^ of the place were 



Euripides also speaks of it as the " revered water," and describes it as the 
resort of the Corinthian elders who played at draughts there ; the foimtaiii to 
which he refers is the northern one : — 

Hccrcrov? 77poa'e\6iov, evOa 8rj Tra/XatVepot 

QdcrcrovaL, cre/xvb;' a./x6l HeLpijvrjs vSujp. Med. 67. 

H IletpTjvas vSpevaofxdva 

Up6a~o\os oiKTpa asfxi/oov, vSdriov. T/oad. 208. 

The fountain whence Pegasus was caught up by Bellerophon was probably the 
one on the Acrccorinthus. 

^ Illusasciue auro vestes, Ephyreiaque cera. — Yieg. Georo. n. 4.o-> 

9 Even in the Homeric age it was emphatically the "wealthy " Corinth : — 

'Ac^retdv re Kdptr^ov, ei/KxtjaeVa? re KAecora?. — //. ii. 570. 
^ Hence the well known expression ov -ai'rb? ai'5pb? el? K6piv9oi' eo-ru' 6 

Xon cuivls homini contingit adire Corinthum. — Hor. Ep. i. 17, 36. 

u 2 




Coin of r.jrinth. 




Roman Coin of Corinth. 

Oq the obverse, tlie l:;ad of the Emperor Anionin'Os Pius. 
On the revers:-. tiie port of Cenchrese. 
The letters C . L . I , COR, sUnJ, for Coionia Laus Julia Corinthus. 



43(3 



CORIXTHIA. 



Booic IV. 



proverbial ; it was favoiirabl}' known for its liospitality towards 
strangers.- 

Of the other places in Corinthia, we must notice — Schoenus, KaJa- 
mali'i, which stood on the Saronic Gulf at the narrowest part of tlie 
Isthmus ; Solygeia, on a hill of the same name, S. of Ceuchreae, the 
scene of an engagement between the Athenians and Corinthians in B.C. 
425 : Piraeus, Purto Franco, a harbour on the confines of Epidaurus, 
where the Athenians blockaded the Peloponnesian fleet in 41 J : Tenea, 
in the yalley that runs S. of Corinth, probably at Cliilimoch' , tlie town 
where CEdipus was said to have passed his childhood, and whence Archias 
drew most of his colonists for Syi'acuse : its inhabitants claimed a 
Trojan origin, and were on this account spared by Mummius ; Piraeum, 
Teracliora. near the Corinthian Gulf, between the promontories Hera^um 
and Olmicie. and (Enoe, more to theE., each possessing a strong fortress 
for the defence of this district ; and Crommyon, on the Saronic Gulf, 
once the property of Megaris : its ruins are near the chapel of 
St. Theodorus. 

History. — The foundation of Corinth was carried back by its inha- 
bitants to the mythical ages. In the Homeric poems it is noticed under 
the two-fold appellation of Ephyra^ and Corinthus— the first said to 
have been derived from a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, the second 
from a son of Zeus. A Phoenician colony settled on the Acrocorinthns 
at an early period, and introduced the worship of Aphrodite, for which 
the town was ever celebrated. The original population was of the 
^Eolian race, but the place was conquered by the Dorians, who thence- 
forth became the dominant class. The earliest dynasty was that of the 
Heracleids, commencing with Aletes and continuing for twelve gene- 
rations, from B.C. 1074 to 747. This was followed by an oligarchy, 
under the presidency of the Bacchiadae, Avhich lasted until 657, and 
under which the foundations of the commercial greatness of Corinth 
were laid, and the colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra planted. A tyranny 
succeeded under Cypselus, 657-627, Periander. 6275-8S, and Psam- 
metichus, 58o-5S0, when an aristocracy was established under the 
auspices of Sparta. The Corinthians sided with Sparta in the Pelopon- 
nesian War, but after the conclusion of it opposed her, and was engaged 
in war with her from 395 until the peace of Antalcida.s in 387, when the 
alliance was resumed. After the battle of Chgeronea, Corinth was held 
by the Macedonian kings, and continued in then- hands until the battle 
of Cynoscephalse, when the Romans declared it free, but retained pos- 
session of Acrocorinthus. Cormth afterwards became the head-quarters 
of the Achaean League, and was consequently taken and utterly destroyed 
by Mummius in 146; and thus the ''light of all Greece," as Cicero 
termed it, was quenched. It remained in ruins until 46, when Julius 
Ca?sar planted a colony of veterans and freedmen there, and it again 
became a flourishing town, with the title of Colonia Julia Corinthus. 

St. Paul's Travels. — Corinth was visited by St. Paul on his second 
apostolical journey. A large community of Jews was settled there, and 



Tpt(joAu/u.7rtoi't/cai/ CTraivduiV 
OIkov. aiJ.epov atrrot?, 
HeVocTi Sk B^po-TTOVTa, Yi'cijcro/u.at 
lav oX^iav KoolvBov, 'IcrOixtov 

UpoBvpov Hocreidavos, aykaoKovpov. — PiND. Ohjmp. xiii. i. 

3 'Ecrrt TToAt? 'E(i)upi7 fi.v\tp, *ApYeos Imro^oroio, 

"Ei'^a de ^t<Tv<i)09 iaKcv. o /cepStaro? yeVer* avSpoji'. — vi. 152. 



Chap. XXII. 



SICYOX. 



4:^,7 



was temporarily increased by the decree of Claudius, whicli expelled all 
Jews from Rome, He remaiued there eighteen months, and founded a 
church, to which he afterwards addressed two epistles. Thence he 
went to Cenchrea?, and sailed for Syria (Acts xviii. 1-18"^. He pro- 
bably visited it again from Ephesus during his three years' abode at 
that place, and certainly at a later period of his third journey (Acts 



§ 4. The territory of Sicyon lay along the coast of the Corinthian 
Gulf, contiguous to Corinthia on the E., Achaia on the AV., and 
Pbliasia and Cleona? on the S. It consi>ted of little Ijeyoiid the 
valley of the Asopus, St. ^'rporge^ which, as it a['}iroaches the sea, 
opens ont into a wide and remarkably fertile j^'Jain, on which the 
olive^ more particularly flourished. In addition to the Asopus, the 
Nemea ran along its E., and the Sythas along its AV. border : these 
were but small streams. The inhabitants of this district were 
lonians, with a dominant race of Dorians. They were divided into 
four tribes, of which the Dorians formed three — Hylleis, Pamphyli, 
and Dymanata? ; and the old Sicynnians the remaining one — 
^Egialeis. 

sition on a fiat hill, about 



strong pi 



fi I 



The capital, Sicyon, occupied 
two miles from the gulf _ 
where the village of Fa-s/'- \ 
HVm nov\' stands. The 1 
height is defended on 1 
every side by a natural 
wall of precipices, and is ' 'j j 

accessible only by one or 1 J/^j''-' / ~ 

two narro^v passages : the y \ / 

Asopus flows along its E . t^c''^^^. ^ - ' ^ 

side, and the Helisson r^i / 

along the W. The town r^^p^^^ .... 7' 
in its greatest extent \ f " /j"^ 

consisted of three parts 
— the Acropolis, on the 
hill; the lower tOAvn at 
the northern foot of the 
hill; and the port-town, 
which was fortified, and 
connected with the acro- 
polis by means of long 

walls. The town pos- ^^iteofSicvu 
sessed numerous tine a. n,^i7;'cd. hl.h.v.^c^ 
temples and public 

buildings : of these, the remains of the theatre, cut out of the rock ; 
of the stadium, adjacent to it; and of the temple of Tyche and Dioscuri, 
may still be seen.-'' The only other place of importance in Sicyonia was 
Titane, which stood more to the S., on the right bank of tlie Asopus, and 
possessed a temple of Asclepius: the ruins of it are called P((ZcTo/.-a{^-/ro/<. 



ns of aiicienl; Wails. 



* Qiiot Sicyon baccas, qiiot parit Ilybla faros. — Or. cx Pont. iv. 15, 10. 

Yenit hieins : teritur Sicyonia "bacca trapctis. — -Virg. Georg. ii, 519. 
s The modern name VasUUca ra Sacrt/Vt/ca has reference to these ruins. 



438 



PHLIUS. 



Book IV. 



IIisio)'i/. — SicYon was one of the oldest cities of Greece, and was in 
the earliest ages known by the names of ^gialea, Mecone, which was 

its sacerdotal designation, 
and Telchinia, as being 
one of the earliest seats 
of workers in metal. In 
the heroic age it was the 
abode of the Argive Ad- 
rastus.6 It was at first 
dependent upon Argos; 
it then became the seat 
of the tyranny of the 
Orthagoridse from B.C. 




Coin of Sicyon. 



676 to 560 : subsequently the Sicyonians were staunch allies of Sparta, 
and took an active part against Athens in the Megarian and Peloponne- 
sian Wars, as well as against Corinth in 394, and Thebes in 371; the 
latter power gained possession of the place in 368, but did not retain it. 
In 323 Sicyon joined the other Greeks in the Lamian War. A series of 
rulers succeeded one another, and the place had no settled master until 
its decline about the commencement of the Christian era; the chief events 
were its capture by Demetrius Poliorcetes in B.C. 303, when its name was 
changed for a while to Demetrias, and the devastation of its territory 
by Cleomenes in 233, and by the ^tolians in 221. Sicyon was famed as 
the earliest school of painting and statuary, and also for the skill of its 
inhabitants in articles of dress. The painters Eupompus, Pamphilus, 
and Apelles, and the sculptors Canachus and Lysippus lived here. Its 
finest paintings were removed to Eomeby M. Scaurus. 

§ 5. The territory of 
Phlius was bounded by 
Sicyonia on the 
Arcadia on the W., 
Cleonse on the E., and 
Argolis on the S. ; it 
consisted of a small 
valley about 900 feet 
above the level of the 
sea, surrounded by 
mountains, from which 
tributary streams pour 
down to the river 
Asopus, in the middle of 
the plain. The chief 
heights were named 
Cameates, or Arantinus, 
FoJyfengo, in the S., in 
which the Asopus rises ; 
and Tricaranon, in the 
N.E., which rises to 
three summits. The 




Map of the Neighbourhood of Phlius. 



A. Phlius. 

B. Arwtliyrea or Arantia. 

C. Mount'Tricaranon. 
D D. Tlic Asopus. 



1. Ruinp, perhaps of AIcjt. 

2. Tlie £;ate leading to Corinth, 

3. Pahukastron on Mount 

Tricaranon. 

4. The way to Nemea. 



6 Kat SiKUtoJi'', od' ap' " \hp-q<TTO<; Trpwr' efx^a<ri\€vev» — /?. ii. 572. 



Chap. XXII. 



PHLIUS — CLEOX.E. 



439 



ancient capital was on Arantinus, and was named Arantia and 
Araethyrea. The later capital, Phlius, stood on one of the spurs of 
Tricaranon, above the right Ijank of the Asopus, near the village of 
St. George, where its foundations may still be traced. The town 
was commanded by the height of Tricaranon, on which the Argives 
built a fortress about b.c. 370, probably represented by the ruins at 
Paleohastron . 

History. — Phlius was a Dorian state subsecpiently to the return of the 
Heracleids, and was geuerally in alliance with Sparta. In n.c. 393 
internal dissensions occurred, and the Spartan faction was exiled : they 
were restored in 383, but the disputes continued, and led to the forcible 
entry of Agesilaiis in 379, after a siege of twenty months. The ojopo- 
site faction aj^i^ears to hare been now exiled, and the town was nearly 
captured by them, aided by Arcadians and Eleans, in 368. A foraiid- 
able attack was made in 337 by the Theban commander at Sicyon. 
After the death of Alexander, Phlius was suhject to tyrants. It is 
noted as the birth-place of Pratinas, the inventor of the Satyric drama. 

§ 6. The territory of Cleonse lay between Corinthia on the X., 
Argolis in the S. and E.. and Phliasia in the AV. : it contained the 
upper valleys of the riA'crs Xemea and Langea, Longo, which flow 
into the Corinthian Gulf. The road from Corinth to Argos passed 
through it, and was commanded by a remarkable pass on the S. 
border, named Tretus, bored," either from the numerous caverns 
in the adjacent mountains, or because the path itself appears to be 
"bored"; it is i\o\y c^Wq^ Derve no Irl it mi^iit be avoided by a 
footpath across the mountains, named Contoporia. In the X. is a 
conspicuous moimtain, named Apesas.^ Fulca, 3000 feet high, con- 
nected with Acrocorinthus by a rugged range of hills. 

The town of Cleonae was small, but well situated on an insulated hill, 
and strongly fortified; ^ its site, marked by the traces of its walls, near 
Kurtesi, retains the name of IHenes. Its history is uneventful: it was 



' This pass -^as the scene of Herciiles's conflict ^ith the Xemean lion, which 
occupied one of the caverns : — 

Xe/xetaloi' re Xeovra. 
Tov p "Hpr/ 6pi\!/aa-a. ^to? kuSi-;] TrapaKOLTS, 
TovvoiO'iv Kxrevaaae Xe/xeJ?]?. ~7],a' di'^poj^ot?. 
*Ev0' ap by' OLKeCojv €\e6aLpero 6v/\' ai'OpLorrujv, 
Kotpavecov Tpiirolo, Xe/o-etT]?. rj6' ' A-cVAj'to?. 
'AAA.a e t? eSa^aa-cre /Sct]? HpaK/\>7et.'7]?. Hes. Theog. 327. 

Tu cressia mactas 
Procligia, et vastuni Xemea sub rupe leonem. — Yirg. .En. viii. 294. 
s The appearance of the mountain justifies the description of Statins : — 
Mons erat audaci scductu.-s in cethera dorso 
(XomineLernsei memorant Apesanta coloni', 
Gentibus Argolicis olim sacer ; inde ferebant 
Xubiha suspenso celerem cemerasse rohitu 
Persea. T7ieb. iii. 460. 

9 "A6vetoV re KopivOov, eii/crt/xeVas re KA-ecova?. — 11. ii. 570. 

Xeris et ingenfi iiirritce mole Cleon£e. — Stat. Then. iv. 47. 



440 



ACHAIA. 



Book IV 



generally allied to Argos. It owed its chief importance to the public 
games which were celebrated at Nemea, in its territory, on the road to 
Phlius. The grove/ which was the place of meeting, lay in a deep, 
well-watered vale,^ about two or three miles long, and half a mile 
broad, at the head of the river Xemea. It contained a temple of Zeus, 
of which three columns, of the Doric order, still remain, a stadium, 
and other monuments. Near it was the village of Bembina^ the site of 
which is not kno^vn. 

II. ACHAIA. 

§ 7. The province of Achaia extended along the Corinthian Gulf 
from the river Sythas, whicli separated it from Sicyonia, to the 
Larissiis, on the borders of Elis : ou the S. it was contiguous to 
Arcadia. Its greatest length is about 65 miles, and its breadth from 
12 to 20 miles : it was thus a narrow strip of coast-land, as its old 
name of ^gialus ^ implies, skirting the mountain ranges of Arcadia, 
whicli form a massive wall, broken only by a few deep gorges, and 
wbich send forth numerous spurs to the very edge of the coast. 
Between these lower ridges are plains and valleys of great fertility, 
watered by numerous unimportant streams. The coast is generally 
low and deficient in good harbours. The only important mountain 
in Achaia itself was named Panachaicus, Voidhia ; it is in the AV., 
near Patra?, and rises to the height of 6322 feet. There are three 
conspicuous promontories — Drepanum, iJh rejx/ no, the most northerly 
point of Peloponnesus, a low sandy point about four miles E. of 
Rhium ; RMum, Castle of Jlorea, at the entrance of the Corinthian 
Gulf ; and Araxus, Kologria, AV. of Dyme, and at one time the 
boundary between Achaia and Elis. Of the streams we need only 
notice the Crathis, AJcrata, a perennial stream which joins the sea 
near ^Ega^, and which receives the Styx as its tributary : the Pirns, 
or Achelous, near Olenus ; and the border streams of Sythas and 
Larisus, Mana, whose positions have been already noticed. 

§ 8. The original inhabitants of Achaia, according to the Greek 
legends, were Pelasgians, named ^Egialeis : the lonians subsequently 



^ The grove was named after Molorchus, who is said to have entertained Her- 
cules there on his expedition against the lion : — 

Cuncta niihi, Alpheum linquens hicosque ^hlorchl, 
Cursibus, et crudo decernet Graecia caestu. — Georg. iii. 19. 
Dat Xemea comites, et quos in proeha ^'ires 
Sacra Cleoniae cogunt vineta Jlolorchi. — Stat. TJieb. iv. 159. 
2 The plain of Xemea is most abundantly watered, and well deserves the 
opithet of ^a0u7re5io9, which Pindar gives it : — 

Ka- 

(xaTOibiuiV 6e TrAayai^ 
'A/CO? vyiripov kv 
Ba0u' :5ia> Xe/u-ea 

To KaAAiVt/coi/ <|)e'pet. PiND. Nem. iii. 27. 

^ AtytoAoi' t' ava. Trai/ra, kcCi an<ft' 'EAt/crji/ evpslav. — Ih ii. 575. 



Chap. XXII. 



INHABIT AXIS — 



TOWXS. 



441 



settled in it, and remained there until the time of the Dorian con- 
quest, when the Acha^ans, having been ejected from Argos and 
Lacedsemonia, in turn ejected the lonians, and gave tlie country its 
historical name of Achaia. There is some doubt, however, whether 
the Achseans v\ ere not really an undisturbed remnant of the old 
population. The lonians are said to have lived in villages, and the 
cities to have been first built by the Achasans, who united several 
villages in each town. The Acha^ans formed a confederacy of 12 
towns, each of which was an independent republic, but united with 
the others in concerns of common interest, whether political or reli- 
gious. The list, as given by Herodotus, comprised the followiug 
towns from E. to W. : — Pellene, .Egira, -Ega?, Bura, Hellce, ^Egium, 
Ehypes, Patra3, Phara^, Olenus, Dyme, and Trita^a. Polybius gives 
Leontium and Cerynia in the place of Ehypes and iEg£e, which had 
fallen into decay : Pausanias, on the other hand, retains the two 
latter, and substitutes Cerynia for Patree. The meetings of the 
confederacy were held originally at Helice, and, after its destruction 
in B.C. 373, at ^^]gium. The Achaean towns were, almost without 
exception, well situated on elevated ground, more or less near the 
sea. Xone of them are knovn as commercial towns in the flourish- 
ing period of Greek history, though JEgium and Patras possessed 
good harbours : the Pvomans constituted the latter their port-town, 
and rendered it the most important place on the W. coast. AYe 
shall describe the towns more at length, in order from E. toAV. 

Pellene was situated about 7 miles from the sea^ upon a strongly 
fortified hill, the summit of which rose to a peak, dividiDg the city 
into two parts. It was a very ancient place, and appears m the Homeric 
Catalogue.'^ It was the first of the Achaean towns to join Sparta in 
the Peloponnesian War. In the wars of the Achaean League it was 
taken and retaken several times. The town possessed several fine 
buildings, particularly a temple of !Minerva with a statue by Phidias. 
The ruins are at Tzerkovi. Xear it was a village, also called Pellene, 
where the cloaks, which were given as prizes in the games of the citv, 
were made.^ Its port, named Aristonautse, was probably at Kamari. 
A little to the E. near the coast was the fortress of Olurus, which com- 
manded the entrance to the plain at XyJo-castro. ^gira stood on an 
eminence near the river Crius, about a mile from the sea : it occupied 
the site of the Homeric Kyperesia, and possessed a port probably at 
Mavra Lifharki, to the left of "svhich are some vestiges of .Eiira. 
The town contained numerous temples. In B.C. 220 it was surprised 
by some iEtolians, w^ho were, however, soon driven cut. JEgdB, at 
the mouth of the Crathis, is noticed by Homer, and was celebrated in 
the earliest times for the worship of Poseidon. It was earlv deserted 
by its inhabitants, who removed to ^Egira. Bura occupied a hei^rht 
about 5 miles from the sea : it was destroyed by an earthquake" in 

^ Ilek^rivrjv r elxov, rjS' At'ytoz' aix(^ev4ixovro. — //. ii. 57 J. 
^ Ko.\ xl/vxpo-f brror' evSia- 
vov (^apixoKOv avpav 
IleAAdi'a (f)ip^. PlXD, Clymp. ix. 146. 

u 3 



442 



ACHAIA. 



Book IV 



B.C. 373^ but was rebuilt, and took part in tlie proceedings of the League 
in 275. Its ruins have been discovered near Trupia. Helice, on the 
coast between the rivers Selinus and Cerynites^ was probably the most 
ancient of the Achaean towns, its foundations being ascribed to Ion, 
the progenitor of the lonians. It possessed a celebrated temple of 
Poseidon <^ where the lonians held their congress. The Achseans con- 
tinued to do the same until the destruction of the town by a tremendous 
earthquake in B.C. 373, by which the whole town was submerged by 
the sea : ' a precisely similar disaster occurred at the same spot in 
A.D. 1817. Cerynia was situated on a lofty height S. of Helice and 
near the river Cerynites : it is mentioned as a member of the League 
on its revival in B.C. 280^ and one of its generals became the first 
generalissimo of the League in 255. -ffigium stood between two pro- 
montories in the corner of a bay which formed the best harbour next 
to Patra^. It appears in the Homeric Catalogue, and, after the de- 
struction of Helice, became the chief town in the League. The meet- 
ings were held in the grove, named Homagyrhim or Homarium, near 
the sea. The site of zEgium was on a hill E. of Vostitza. Rlijrpes 
was 30 stadia W. of ^gium on the right bank of the river Tholo, and 
is only known as the birth-place of Myscellus, the founder of Croton. 
It fell early into decay, and its existence was terminated by Augustus, 
who removed its inhabitants to Patrae. Patrae stood on a spur of 
Panachaicus, which overhangs the coast W. of the promontory of 
Ehium : it was formed by the union of three villages. Patrae was the 
only Achaean town which j oined Athens in the Peloponuesian War. After 
the death of Alexander, Cassander got possession of it for a short time, 
but in 31-1: his troops were driven out by the general of Antigonus : in 
280 the Macedonians were expelled, and in 279 Patrae assisted the 
iEtolians. It suffered severely in the wars between the Romans and 
Achaeans, and for a while ceased to be of any importance except as a 
place of debarcation from Italy. It was restored by Augustus with 
the title of Col. Aug. Aroe Patrensis, and invested yvith the sovereignty 
not only of the adjacent district but even of Locris. jSTumerous build- 
ings adorned it, particularly a temple of Artemis Laphria, and an 
Odeum, second only to that of Herodes at Athens. A manufactory of 
head-dresses and garments of byssus or flax was carried on there. 
The modern town of Patras occupies its site, and is one of the most 
important seaports in Greece. Tritaea was situated near the borders 
of Arcadia RtKastritza, and was one of the four cities which revived the 
League in B.C. 280 : its territory wps annexed to Patrae by Augustus. 
Pharae stood on the banks of the Pirus, near Preveso, about 9 miles 
from the sea : its history is the same as that of Tritaea. Olenus stood 
at the mouth of the Pirus at Kato : it fell into a state of decay in the 
2nd century B.C., its inhabitants having removed to Dyme. Dyme was 
situated near the coast at Karavostasi, about 3 J miles of the I^a- 
risus : it was formed by an union of 8 villages. It was one of the 
towns which revived the League in 280. In the Social V\^ar it suffered 



<5 Homer refers to this temple : — 

Ot 6e TOt et? 'EAt/o^v re koL Atyag Scop' avdyovct 
noAAa re kol xapievra. II. viii. 203. 

"Ikcto 5' et? Atya?, 69l ot k^vtol Soofxar eaariv. — Od. v. 331. 
" Si quseras Helicen et Burin Acbai'das urbes, 
Invenies sub aqais, et adbuc ostendere nautae 
Inclinata solent cum moenibus oppida mersis. — Ov. J/ef. xv. 293. 



CiiAP. XXII. ACH.EAX EISTOEY — ELIS. 443 



from the Eleans, who captured the fortress of Teichos near the pro- 
.montory of Araxus. Dyme joined Philip of Macedon against the 
Eomans, and was consequently ruined by them. Pompey made an 
attempt to settle some Cilfcian pirates there. 

History. — The Acha^ans are seldom noticed in history until the time 
of Philip. Tn 338 they joined the Athenians and Boeotians at Chse- 
ronea, and in 330 the Spartans at "Mantinea^ and on both occasions 
they suffered severely. The Macedonians placed garrisons in their 
towns, but in 281 some of the cities rose against them, and in 280 
the old League was revived by four cities and was subsequently 
joined by six more. This League attained a national importance 
under Aratus of Sicyon in 251, who succeeded in uniting to it Corinth 
in 243, Megalopolis in 239, and Argos in 236, as well as other im- 
portant towns, with a view of expelling the Macedonians from Pelo- 
ponnesus. Sparta became jealous, and war ensued between Cleomenes 
and Aratus in 227 ; the latter called in the aid of the Macedonians, 
who thus again recovered their supremacy over Achaia. The Social War 
in 220 conduced to the same result, and the death of Aratus in 213 
completed the prostration of the League. It was regenerated byPhilo- 
poemen, who, under the patronage of the Eomans, again united the 
cities of Peloponnesus : but the Romans soon crushed its real power, 
and adopted an imperious policy, which ended at length in the defiance 
of the Achaeans, and in the subjection of Greece by Mummius in 146. 

III. Elis. 

§ 9. The province of Elis extended along the coast of the Ionian 
Sea, from the river Larisus in the X., on the borders of Achaia, to 
the Xeda in the S., on the borders of Messenia : on the E. it was 
bounded by the mountains of Arcadia. Within these limits were 
included three districts : Elis Proper or Hollow Elis in the X., ex- 
tending down to the promontory of Ichthys ; Pisatis, thence to the 
river Alpheus ; and Triphylia in the S. The first of these was di- 
vided into two parts : the fertile plain of the Peneus, which was, 
properly speaking, the "Hollow^" Elis; and the mountainous dis- 
trict of Acroria in the interior. The former consists almost wholly 
of rich alluvial plains, separated from each other by sandy hills, and 
well watered by numerous mountain-streams. These hills are the 
lower slopes of the Arcadian mountains, — the most prominent being 
Scollis, Sandameriotiko, on the borders of Achaia, identified by 
Strabo with the " Olenian Rock " of Homer ;^ Pholoe, in Pisatis, 
which forms the watershed between the basins of the Peneus and 
Alpheus ; Lapithas, Sm.erna, and Minthe, Alvena, in Triphylia, be- 
tween W'hicli the liver Anigrus flows. The latter is the loftiest 
mountain in Elis, and was one of the seats of the worship of Hades. 

§ 10. The coast of Elis is a long and almost unbroken sandy level. 



^ O^p' eTTc 'BovirpacTLOv TroKvirvpov ^-qcraixev Lir—ov<; 
TleTprjq t' 'QA.ei'tT]? Koi 'AA.etcrtov, ev9a KoXunTf 
KexAr^rat. II. xi. 755. 



444 



ELIS. 



Book IV 



varied by the promontories of Chelonatas, C. Tomese, a designation 
originally given to the whole peninsula, of which the promontory 
opposite Zacynthus forms part, from its supposed resemblance to a 
tortoise ; and Iclitliys, KataJcoIo, so called from its resemblance to a 
fish. Between these two projecting points is the Sinus Chelonites, 
while to the N. of Chelonatas is the Sin. Cyllenes, and S. of Ichthys 
tlie great Sin. Cyparissius. The chief rivers are — the Peneus, Gastuni, 
which rises in Erymanthus, receives the Ladon (the Homeric Sel- 
leeis) as a tributary, and hows across the plain of Elis, joining the 
sea S. of Prom. Chelonatas ^ — the Alpheus,^ Bufia, the loAver course 
of which alone belongs to Elis; it flows by Olympiad into the 
Cyparissian Gulf, and has a wide gravelly bed, well filled in winter, 
but shallow in summer — the Anigrus, Mauro-potamo, the Minyeius 
of Homer, in Triphylia, the waters of which had a remarkable foetid 
smell — and the Neda, Buzi, on the S. border. The plain of Elis 
produced hyssus or fine flax, wheat, hemp, and wine : its rich pas- 
tures were favourable to the rearing of cattle and horses, the latter 
being specially famous in antiquity 

§ 11. The earliest inhabitants of Ehs were Pelasgians, named 
Caucones : these afterwards withdrew into the N. near Dyme, and 
to the mountains of Triphylia. The Phoenicians probably had 
factories on the coast, and introduced the growth of flax. In the 
Homeric age the people were named Epeans, a race connected with 
the ^tolians, and occuiDying not only Elis Proper, but Triphylia 
and the Echinades. The name of Eleans was restricted to the in- 
habitants of Elis Proper, and described the fusion of the Eleans and 
the ^tolians, who entered at the time of the Dorian invasion. Tri- 
phylia was so named probably as being occupied by the three 
tribes" of the Epeans, Eleans, and Minyans, the latter of whom 



9 The Peneus appears to have formerly joined the sea north of the promontory. 
1 The Alpheus was believed to continue a submarine course, and to mingle 
with the fount of Arethusa in Sicily : — 

"AjaTTvevjaa ae[xvov 'AAc^eov, 
KKeLvav ^vpatcocrcrav OdXog, 'Oprvyta, 
Aejai/tov 'Apreixtdog. PiND. Xem. i. 1, 

Sicanio pra?tenta sinu jacet insula contra 
Plemmyrium undosum : nomen dixere priores 
Ortygiam. Alpheum fama est hue Elidis amnem 
Occultas egisse vias subter mare, qui nunc 
Ore, Arethusa, tuo Siculis confunditur undis. — -.En. in. 692. 
Hence Ovid terms the nymph Arethusa, Alphe'ias : — 

Tum caput Eleis Alpheias extulit undis. — Met. v. 487. 
- Aut Alphea rotis prselabi flumina Pisse, 

Et Jovis in luco currus agitare volantes. — Georg. iii. 180. 
3 "HAtS' e? evpvxopov Sta^-qfxevaL, ev9a ^oi l-mroi 

At65e,<a ^TjAetau Od i v. 6.3=1. 

Ov6' ocrcrot vqcroicn Trpb? *HAt5os t—7r6j3oTOto. — /a. xxj. 



Chap. XXII. 



TOWNS. 



445 



entered after tlieir expulsion from Laconia by the Dorians. The 
towns of Elis were for the most part very ancient, many of them 
being noticed by Homer : few, however, attained to any histo- 
rical celebrity. The great question which agitated this part of 
Greece was the presidency of the Olympian games. Pisa originally 
possessed this privilege ; but on its destruction, in B.C. 572, Elis ob- 
tained undisputed supremacy, and Ijecaine the capital of the whole 
country — a position to Avhich its admirable site, and the fertility of 
its territory, predestined it. The most interesting place in Elis was 
Olympia : but this, it must be remembered, was only a collection of 
public buildings, and not in any sense a tovm. Most of the Elean 
toA\ms occupied commanding positions, and were valuable in a 
strategetical point of view. The nature of the coast involved the 
absence of harbours, and consequently Elis never attained com- 
mercial importance. "We shall describe the towns from X. to S. 

Elis, the capita], was well situated on the banks of the Peneus just 
at the point where it 
emerges into the plain, 
and at the foot of a pro- 
jecting hill of a peaked 
form about 5u0 ft. high, 
on which its acropolis 
was posted. In the time 
of Pausanias it was one 
of the finest cities in 
Greece, and possessed a 
magnificent gymnasium 
named Xystus. an agora also us-ed as an hippodrome, a building called 
Hellanodicgeon, appropriated to the instruction of the jDresidents of the 
Olympic games, a theatre, and other buildings. The only remains are 
some masses of tile and mortar, a building square outside, but octagonal 
inside, and a few fragments of sculpture."* The site is occupied by two or 
three villages named FaleopolL Elis is noticed by Homer, but did not 
attain importance imtil after the Dorian invasion, when it became the 
seat of government. After the Persian "Wars the toAvn spread from the 
acropolis, to which it was originally confined, over the subjacent plain. 
Pisa, the old capital of Pisatis, stood a little E. of Olympia, on the 
bank of a rivulet now named MiraJca near its junction with the 
Alpheus : it was celebrated in mythology as the residence of (Eno- 
maus and Pelops : it had originally the presidency of the Olympian 
games, which led to frequent wars with Elis and to its utter destruc- 
tion-^ in B c. o72. Olympia was situated on a plain 3 miles long and 1 




Coin of Elis. 



^ The general disappearance of the building's in Elis is atn-ibutable partly to 
the accumulation of the alluvial soil, and partly to the porous character of the 
stone. 

5 Even its existence has been doubted ; but Pindar's testimony is conclusive 
on this point : — 

'Hrot ITtcra iJ.ev Atos* 
'Okvfji-LdSa. 8' ecrra- 

aev 'HpaK\erj<;, 
WKpoOwa TToXdfJLov. Ohjmp. ii. 4. 



446 



ELIS. 



Book IV. 



broad^ open towards the W., but surrounded on otber sides with hills, 
among which Mount Cronius in the N., and Typaeus in the S., are most 




Plain of Olympia. 

A A. Course of the Alpheus. I 1. Site of Pisa. 

B B. The Cladeus. ' 2 Mount Cronius. 



conspicuous. The Alpheus flows between these ranges in a constantly 
shifting course, and receives on its right bank a tributary from the X. 
named Cladeus. Along the banks of this stream lay the Altis ^ or 
Sacred Grove — a large enclosure^ bounded on the S. and E. by a wall, 
and elsewhere by hills, and adorned wuth trees, particularly a grove of 
planes in its centre. Within it lay the most important buildings, 
foremost among which we must notice the Olympieum or temple of 
Zeus Olympius near the S.W. corner, founded by the Eleans in B.C. 
572, completed about 470, and decorated by Phidias about 435. The 
date and cause of its destruction are unkno^m. Its foundations have 
been laid bare in modern times, from which it appears that it was a 
peripteral hexastyle building 230 feet long and 95 broad, of the Doric 
order, with columns exceeding in size those of any other Greek build- 
ing. The roof was covered with tiles of Pentelic marble ; the pedi- 
ments were filled with sculpture, and their summits crowned with a 



^ '^O 5' ap kv Ilicra e'Acra? okov re (TTpcLTOV 
Aetav re Tracrai' Atbs aA/ct/aos 
Ytos aTadfxaro ^dGeov aAcro? 
narpl fxeyCaroj- Trepi Se Tra^ai? 
AAtlv fxev 6y' ev KaOapw 

Aie'/cpti/e. PiND. Olymp. x. 51. 

'AAA", S) ITtcra? evSevSpov ctt' 'AAc^ew oAao?. — Id. viii. 12. 



Chap. XXII. 



TOWXS. 



447 



gilded statue of Victory. The colossal statue of Jupiter by Phidias, 
made of ivory and gold^ was the most striking object inside : it existed 
until about a.d. 393, when it was carried off to Constantinople, and 
was burnt there in 476. The Heraeum, which comes next in im- 
portance, was also a Doric peripteral building : it contained the table 
on which the garlands for the victors were placed, and the celebrated 
chest of Cypselus. The gi^eat altar of Zeus, 22 feet high, was centrally 
situated. The thesauri, or treasuries, stood near the foot of Mount 
Cronius. The stadium and hippodi^ome appear to have formed a con- 
tinuous area, the circular end of the former being at the back of 
Cronius. and the further end of the latter near the Alpheus. Various 
other temples were scattered over the intervening space, together with 
a large number of statues, computed by Pliny at 30i " The public 
games were said to have been originally instituted by Hercules : they 
were restored by Iphitus, king of Elis, in b,c. 8S4, and were celebrated 
every fourth year tmtil a.d. 394- ; these periods were named Olympiads, 
and became a chronological era after B.C. 776. Letrini stood near the 
sea on the Sacred AVay that connected Olympia with Elis : it joined 
Agis when he invaded Elis, and was made independent in B.C. 40'J : its 
site is at the village of >SY. John. Lepreum, the chief town of Tri- 
phylia, stood in the S. of the district, about 4rh miles from the sea. and 
appears from its ruins 'near Strocitzi) to have been a place of con- 
siderable extent. It was the only Triphylian town which took part in 
the Persian Wars ; it was also foremost in resisting the supremacy of 
Elis, from which it revolted in B.C. 421, and was formally freed in 4uO. 
Lepreum joined the Arcadian confederacy against Sparta about 37i>, 
and at a later period sided with Philip in his ^Etolian War. 

Of the less important towns we may notice —Buprasium, near the 
left bank of the Larissus, frequently noticed by Homer ; " Myrtuntiuni, 
the Homeric Myrsinus, near the sea between Elis and Dyme ; CyUene, 
a seaport town usually identified with G^^a/'e/ifra, but more probably 
about midway between the promontories of Araxus and Chelonata-s ; 
it was burnt by the Corcyrteans in 435 and was the naval station of 
the Peloponnesian fleet in 429 : Hyrmine, on the coast X. of Chelo- 
natas at Kunujjeli : Pylus Eliacus,^ at the junction of the Ladon with 
the Peneus, where are the ruins AgrapiflJw-}:l\or! : the only historical 
notices of it are its cajoture by the Spartans in 402, and its occupation 
by the exiles from Elis in 366 ; Ephyra,^ the ancient capital of Augeas, 
on the Selleeis, or Ladon, about 14 miles S.E. of Elis; Lasion, the 
chief town of Acroria in the upper valley of the Ladon, and for a long 



The fertility of its district is remarked both by Homer and Theocritus ; — 



^ This Pylus claimed to be Xestor's capital, on the strength of the following 
lines from the Iliad : — 



The lines, howeTer, only prove that the land or kingdom of Pylos extended to 
the north of Ens. 





V. 544. 




//. ii. 659. 



448 



ELIS. 



Book IV. 



period in the occupation of the Arcadians; Harpinna, on the Alphens 
near Olympia^ said to have been named after the mother of (Enomaus; 
Margana, in Pisatis. E. of Letrini; Pliea, on the isthmus of Prom. 
Ichthys, with a port on the N. side of the isthmus which was visited 
by the Athenian fleet in in 431 : the ruins of Pontilvokastro are on its 
site ; the Homeric stream of Tardanus ■ is probably the little torrent 
N. of Ichthys ; Epitalium, AguJenitza, near the mouth of the Alpheus^ 
and identified with the Homeric Thryoessa : - it commanded the coast 
road, and was hence garrisoned by Agis in 401, and taken by Philip in 
218; Scillus, S. of Olympia, in the valley of the Selinus, destroyed 
by the Eleans in 572, and restored by the Lacedemonians in 392, for 
20 years the residence of Xenophon, who has left an interesting de- 
scription of the place; Hypana, in the interior of Triphylia, but of 
uncertain position; Samicum, Khaiaffa, on a hill near the coast mid- 
way between the Alpheus and Xeda, identified with the Homeric 
Arene : ^ it commanded the coast which here traverses a narrow pass ; 
hence it was occupied by Polysperchon against the Arcadians, and 
taken by Philip in 219 : near it was the temple of theSamian Poseidon, 
where the Triphylian cities held their congress; on either side of 
Samicum a large lagoon extends along the coast, into which the 
Anigrus flows: its water was efficacious in cutaneous diseases; Ma- 
cistus or Platanistus, the chief town in Northern Triphylia, near 
Samicum, and not improbably the original name of the later town on 
the heights of Khaiaffa ; some authorities place it more to the S. ; 
Phrixa, on the left bank of the Alpheus. and on a hill now named 
Paleofanaro, founded by the Minyans ; Pylus Triphyliacus,-^ X. of 
Lepream, and in later times belonfriug to it : Pyrgus or Pyrgi, at the 
mouth of the Xeda, an old settlement of the Minyae; and lastly, 
Epeum, the Homeric .ffipy,^ so named from its lofty position, on the 
border of Arcadia, but of uncertain position. 

History. — Elis, from its remote position, as well as from its pmdleged 
character as the Holy Land of Greece, took but a small part in the 
general history of the peninsula. We have already referred to the 
disputes for the supremacy between Pisa and Elis, in which the latter 
came ofl" triumphant. A long period of peace ensued until in 421 
Lepreum revolted, and a quarrel between Sparta and Elis resulted, 
which led ultimately to the invasions of Agis and the destruction of 
the v-upreniPvCy of Elis in 4uO. An attempt to recover this supremacy 
after the battle of Leuctra in 371 led to an alliance between the Tri- 



1 $eta? Trap Tetx^crcnv, 'lapSdvov afxcf)! peeOpa. II. vii. 135. 

2 ^EcTTt he Tc? ©pvoecrcra 7r6A.t?, aiTreia Kokcovrj, 

TrjXov 677 'AA(/)e(.(S. ve6.Tr] TLvkov r]p.a66evToq. II. xi. TiO. 

3 Ot 6e TivXov r evifxovTO, teal 'Ap-qvqv epareLviqv. /?. ii.591. 

'^yyvQev 'Aprjvr/?. II. xi. 721. 

^ The Triphylian Pylus was believed by Strabo to have been Nestor's capital, 
his main reason being that the account of Nestor's expedition against the Epeans 
{II. xi. 670, seg.) implies a spot nearer than the Messenian Pylus, and that other 
passages [Od. iii. 423 ; xv. 199, seq.) are inconsistent with the idea of a seaport 
town. These objections are partly answered by the fact that Pylus apj)lied to 
the kingdom as well as the city of Nestor. On the other hand, the account of the 
journeys of Telemachus from Sparta to Pylus tlirryifjli Phcrce {Od. iii. 4F;^ ; xv. 
182) is decisive for the Messenian town, 

5 Kal ®pvov, 'AAcf)etoto rropov, kol evKTLTCv Al77y, — II. ii. 59? 



Chap. XXII. 



MESSEXIA. 



449 



phylian towns and the Arcadians, and to a war between the latter and 
the Eleans, which lasted from 366 to 362 without any very decisive 
result. The Eleans joined the Greeks in the Lamian War, and subse- 
quently became members of the ^Etolian League. They are not men- 
tioned after this. 

TV. Messexia. 

§ 12. Messenia ^ lay in the S.W. of the Peloponnesus, bounded on 
the N. by Elis and Arcadia, on the E. by Laconia,' and on the S. 
and W. by the sea, viz. by the Messenian Gulf in the former, and 
the Ionian Sea in the latter direction. The configuration of the 
country is simple : on the X. frontier there is a band of mountains, 
anciently named Ira, and now Tetrazi, forming the watershed of the 
rivers Xeda, Pamisus, and Alpheus ; from this, ranges emanate to- 
wards the E. and W., the fonner named Nomii Mts., MaJcrypIai, the 
latter Elaeum, Kuvela, whiehis continued in a series of ranges skirting 
the W. coast, named ^galeum, between CyiDarissia and Pylus, 
Buphras and Tomeus, near Pylus, and Temathia, Lykodimo, more to 
the S., and terminates in the promontory of Acritas, C. Gallo. Ee- 
turning to the X., the range of Xomii effects a junction, towards the 
E., with Taygetus, w^hich forms the general boundary on the side 
of Laconia in the X.E., but runs into the latter country towards 
the S. These mountains enclose an extensive plain, or rather series 
of jjlains, w^atered by a river named, in its lower course, Pamisus, 
Dhipotamo, and made up of the Balyra, the AmpMtus, the Aris, and 
other less important tributaries. The Pamisus falls into the Mes- 
senian Gulf, and is navigable for small boats. The basin of the 
Pamisus is divided into two distinct parts by a ridge of mountains 
crossing it in the neighbourhood of Ithome. The uj^per plain, named 
Stenyclarus, is small, and of moderate fertility ; the lower one, which 
opens to the Messenian Gulf, is more extensive, and remarkably fer- 
tile, w^hence it w^as sometimes named Macaria, " the Blessed." ^ The 



^ The Homeric form of the name is Messene : — 

Too 6' €V Mecrcriijvrj ^vp^^kr}Tr]v a.A.ArjA.ottV, 
Otwo) Iv 'Opaikoxoio. Od. xxi. 15. 

" The boundary on the side of Laconia varied at dilferent times, Messenia 
sometimes possessing and sometimes losing the border district, named Denthe- 
liates Ager, ^hich lay on the western slope of Taygetus, about Limnee. This 
was the cause of the first Messenian war ; it remained a subject of dispute under 
the Romans ; and even so late as a.d. 1835 it was transferred from the govern- 
ment of Mistra (Sparta) to that of Kalamata. 

® It is, doubtless, to this district that Euripides refers in the following lines : — 
KarappvTOV re p^vpLoiai va/ixacrt, 
Kal jSovcrt Ka\ noLfjivaLcnv ev^OTOjraTiqv, 

Ovt' av reOpLTTiTOLq rjkLOV Gepfxrjv aycLv. 

El'Rip. ap. Strab. viii, p. 366. 
The climate of Messenia contrasts favourably with that of other parts of Greece, 
in consequence of the lower elevation of the hills. 



450 



MESSEXIA. 



Book IV. 



coast is tolerably regular, the most remarkable break being the deep 
bay of Pylos, XavL'/rino^ on the coast, which was 2 J miles in 
diameter, bounded on the X. by the promontory of Coryphasium, and 
clost'd in front by the island of Sphacteria, SijlvAfjia. More to the X. 
are the p.romontories of Platamodes, near Aia KyriaJce^ and Cyparis- 
sium, which forms the southern limit of the Cyparissius Sinus. 

§ 13. The earliest inhabitants of Messenia are said to have been 
Leleges. To these ^Eolians were added at an early period, whose 
chief settlement was at Pylus, the capital of Xeleus. The Dorians 
conquered it, and remained the dominant race. It was divided by 
Cresphontes, tlie first Dorian king, into five parts, of which Steny- 
clerus, Pylus. Rhium, Hyamia, and Mesola, were the centres. The 
position of the two first is well knoT^m : Pihium was about the 
southern promontory, and Mesola between Taygetus and the 
Pamisus ; the position of Hyamia is unknown. The towns of Mes- 
senia were comparatively few. The earliest cajDitals were in the 
upper plain, Andania being that of the Messenian kings before the 
Dorians, and Stcnyclerus that of the Dorians themselves. Pylus, on 
the AV. coast, vwas the seat of an independent kingdom, which ex- 
tended along the coas^ as far X. as the Alj^heus. These towns fell 
into decay durinii the period when Messenia was subject to Sparta. 
The later ca;jital, Messtjne, was founded by EjDaminondas, B.C. 369, 
and was advantageously placed between the two plains : it became 
one of the most important cities in Greece. Messenia possessed the 
harbours of Pylus and Methone on the coast, Asine and Corone 
on the E. : these do not appear, however, to have carried on an ex- 
tensive trade. AVe shall describe the towns in order, commencing 
with those on the coast. 

Pylus wa? the mo?t important spot on the "W, coast : the original 
town. Xe>tor"> capital. wa> probably situated a little inland, with a port 
at Prom. Cory}:hj-siiim : the later town, which was the scene of the 
operatiuns in the Peloponnesian War, was on the coast itself, the inha- 
bitants having at some early period moved thither from the old town. 
In the accompanying map, a marks the island of Sphacteria, b the town 
of Pylus on Prorn. Coryphasinm. c the modern Xavarino. and n D the 
Bay of Pylus. Considerable changes have taken place in this locality 
since Thucydides wrote his account of it : tlie X. passage between the 
island and the mainland, which was formerly deep, and so narrow as to 
admit only two triremes abreast, is now 150 yards wide, and shallow, 
while the S. passage, which admitted only eight or nine triremes, is now 
1-ioO yards wide. There is now a lagoon^ at the back of the site of 
Pyliis: in this direction Coryphasium is precipitous; but on the W. 
side it slopes dovn gently to the sea. It is covered with the founda- 
tions of Hellenic buildings, erected at the restoration of the town by 



9 This lagoon was probably a sandy plain in old times ; hence the epithet 
which Homer applies to it : — 

Ilacrat 6' eyyv'i aAb?, vdarat IIvAov rjixaOoevro?. II. ix. 153. 



Chap. XXII. 



TOWNS. 



451 



Epaminondas. MetlLone, Modon. the Homeric Pedasus, was situated 
at the extreme point of a rocky rid^'e. which runs into the sea X. of 
the CEnuss£e Islands : it 
possessed an excellent har- 
bour. It was held by the 
Messenians in the second 
war, and was afterwards 
given by the Spai'tans to 
the Xauplians. In 431 the 
AtheniaDs vainly at- 
tempted to seize it. Tho 
Romans made it a free 
city. Asine, on the coast 
of the Messenian Gulf, 
was founded by the Dry- 
opes, and was a place of 
considerable importance 
till the <3th century a.d. : 
its site is now occupied 
by Koroni, whence it ap- 
pears to have received the 
population of Corone, which 
stood more to the X. at 
FetalidTti, where traces of 
the ancient mole and of 
the acropolis still exist. 
Pharae was situated upon 
a hill, near the liver Xe- 
don, about a mile from the 
Messenian Gulf, occupyinc: 
the site of Kalamata, the 
modern capital of Mes- 
senia. It is frec[uently 
noticed by Homer, ^ and 
appears in his time to have been the chief town in the .southern plain. 
It was annexed to Laconia by Augustus, but restored to Messenia by 
Tiberius. It possessed a roadstead, which was available only in the 
summer months. Thuria, on the river Aris, became one of the chief 
towns of the Lacedaemonian Periceci after the subjugation of Alessenia : 
it was identified with the Homeric Anthea. The old town occupie d the 
summit of a hill, now named PoJeol-astro : the later one was in the 
subjacent plain at Pcdea Lutra: remains of both exist. Messene. the 
later capital of Messenia. built by Epaminondas in B.C. 369, was situ- 
ated upon a rugged mountain which rises betAveen the two Messenian 
plains, and wLich culminates in the heights of Ithume and Eva. on the 
former of which the acropolis was posted, while the town lay in a 
hollow just W. of the ridge connecting the two summits. Ithome is 
■J33I feet high, with precipitous sides, and was connected by walls 
with the town. The circumference of the walls is about six miles, and 
the foundations still exist, together with the northern gate, called the 
Gate of Megalopolis, which has the appearance of a ch^cular fortress. 




Map of the Bay of Pylus. 



^ It was one of the 7 towns offered by Agamemnon to Achilles : — 
^pa.<; re <^a9ea?, rj5' "AvOeiav Sa0vAet,uov. I^-- ix. 151, 



452 



MESSENIA". 



Book IV. 



The chief buildings in ^lessene were the Agora^ near the village of 



Messene was in vain attacked by Demetrius of Pharus, and by Xabis, 
the tyi-ant of Lacedeemon: it was, however, taken by Lycortas, the 
Achsean, in 182. 

Of the less important places we may notice— Cyparissia, on the W. 
coast, possessing the best roadstead X. of Pylus, and well situated on 
an elevation ; Abia, the Homeric Ira, on the sea-coast near the border 
of Laconia ; Limnae, more to the X., possessing a temple of Artemis, 
which was used jointly by the Messenians and Lacedaemonians, the- 
ruins of which are at Bolimnos : CEchalia, in the plain of Stenyclarus, 
identified sometimes with Andania, the capital of the Leleges, and the 
birth-place of Aristomenes — and sometimes with Camasium, which stood 
a little to the X.E. of Andania, and possessed, in Pausanias's time, a 
sacred grove of cypresses, with statues of Apollo, Hermes, and Perse- 
phone; Stenyclanis, the capital of the Dorian conquerors, built by 
Cresphontes, in the plain which afterwards bore its name ; and Ira, a 
fortress on the hill of the same name. 

History. — The most important events in the early history of Mes- 
senia were the two wars with Sparta, the assigned dates of which are 
from B.C. 743 to 723, and from 685 to 66S : after the second the 
whole of Messenia was incorporated with Sparta, the very name being 
superseded by that of Laconia. In 464 the Messenians rose against the 
Spartans, and the third war ensued, which terminated with the with- 
drawal of the Messenians to Xaupactus in 455. The nationality was 
restored by Epaminondas in 869, when the Messenians returned from 
all directions, and rebuilt their old towns. After the fall of Thebes, 
the Messenians sided with Philip, and received in return Limnae and 
other districts. They joined the Achaean League, but afterwards 
quarrelled with it, and were consequently engaged in war, which re- 
sulted in the secession of Abia, Thuria, and Pharae, from the supremacy 
of Messene. Mummius restored these cities to it on the settlement of 
the affairs of Greece. 

Islands. — Off the coast of Messenia are the following islands : — The 
Strophades, so named because the Boreadfe here turned- from the pur- 
suit of the harpies: they are now named Strofadia and StrivaU ; Prote, 
which still retains ils name, X. of Pylus ; Sphacteria, Sphagia, oppo- 
site Pylus; the (Enussse, a group, of which the two largest are now 
named Cabrera and Sapienza : and Theganussa, VenetiJco, off the pro- 
montory of Acritas. 




Coin of ^Jessenia. 



Mauromati, containing a 
fountain in it named Ai^sinoe, 
.'md numerous temples; the 
stadium, some portions of 
which are still preserved : 
and the theatre, to the X. of 
it. of which there are also 
remains. The summit of 
It home is a small flat sur- 
face, extending from S.E. to 
X.W., and contained a 
temple of Zeus Ithomatas. 



2 Servatum ex undis Strophadum me litora primum 
Accipiunt. Stropliades Graio stant nomine dictae 
Insulge lonio in magno. Virg. iii. 209 



Gate of the Lions at AIycen£e. 

CHAPTEE XXIII. 

PELOPONNESUS — Continued. lacoxia, argolis, arcadl\. 

V. Lacoxia. § 1. Boundaries; Xame. § 2. Mountains; Rivers. 
§ 3. Inhabitants. § 4. Towns ; History ; Islands. VI. Argolis, 
with Cynuria. § 5. Boundaries; Xame. §6. Mountains; Rivers. 
§7. Inhabitants; Towns; History. §8. Cynuria. VII. Arcadia. 
§ 9. Boundaries. § 10. Mountains. § 11. Rivers. § 12. Inha- 
bitants; Towns; History. § 13. Sporades. § 14. Creta. Moun- 
tains ; Rivers. § 15. Inhabitants ; Towns ; History ; St. Paul's 
Travels. 

V. Lacoxia. 

§ 1. Laconia occupied the S.E. portion of Peloponnesus, and was 
bounded by Messenia on the W., Argolis and Arcadia on the N., and 
in other directions by the sea. Its natural features are strongly 
marked: it consists of a long valley/ surrounded on three sides 
by mountains, and opening out towards the sea on the south 
through the entire length of which the river Eurotas flows. The 
approaches to it are difficult : ^ on the there are but two natural 



1 Hence the Homeric epithet "hollow" Laced?emoii : — • 

Ot 6' elxov KoCKrjV XaKeSaiixova KiqTUiecrcrav . II. ii. 581. 

The shape of the Laconian valley has been compared to that of an ancient 
Stadium. 

2 This feature is forcibly described by Euripides : — 

TLoKvv jxev aporov, eKnovelv 6' ov paSiov- 
KotArj yo.p, opeat 77ept<5pojao9, rpaxeia re 

Auo-etV^oAos re TroAejutoi?. Ap. Strab. viii. p. 366. 



454 



LACOXIA. 



Book IV. 



passes by which the plain of Sparta can be entered ; on the AY. the 
lofty masses of Taygetus present an almost insurmountable barrier ; 
while on the E. the rocky character of the coast protects it from 
invasion b\^ sea. The plain of Sparta is blessed with a fine climate 
and beautiful scenery,^ but the soil is thin and poor, and adapted to 
the production of the olive rather than of grain crops. 

Name. — The ancient name, as given by Homer, was Lacedeemon, 
which was occasionally used even in later times {e.g. Herod, vi. 58). 
The origin of the name was referred to a mythical hero, Laco, or Lace- 
dsemon. Modern etymologists connect it with Xolkos, lacus, lacuna, in 
reference to its being deeply sunh in the mountains. 

§ 2. The chief mountain range of Laconia is Taygetus, which 
extends from the border of Arcadia in an almost unbroken line^ for 
70 miles to the promontory of Taenarum, C. Matapan, the extreme 
S. point both of Greece and of Europe. Taygetus attains its greatest 
elevation (7902 feet) near Sparta, in a hill named Taletum, St. Elias: 
there are several other summits near Sparta, whence its modern 
name oi Pentedadylum, "five fingers." Parallel to the central 
ridge is a lower one of less height bounding the plain of Sparta, 
which consists of huge j^i'oj acting masses of precipitous rocks. ^ 
More to the S., it sends forth a lateral ridge, which forms the 
southern boundary of the Spartan plain. The sides of Taygetus are 
clothed with pine forests, which were in ancient times filled with game 
and wild beasts.^ The southern part abounded in iron, marble," and 
green porphyry ; it also produced valuable whetstones. The range 
of Parnon, J/a/e^'o, which forms the boundary on the side of Argolis, 
consists of various detached mountains, the highest of which, attain- 



3 This portion of Laconia fully justifies the Homeric epithet " lovely :" — 
Ov6' ore ere —porepov Aa/ce5at/u.oi^o? epareiJ/Tj?. — II. iii. •443. 
The climate is favourable to the complexion, and the present appearance of the 
Spartan ^vomen, as compared with the other Greeks, illustrates the other Homeric 
expression, AaxeSat/xova K.a.Wiyvva.LKa. 

* The unbroken leng-th of this range is well described by the epithet Trept- 
Ix-qKCTov (see below, note 

5 The sides of Taygetus were much shattered by earthquakes, whence Laconia 
is described as " full of hollows :" — 

Ot 6' elxov KoCkrjv XaKeBaLp-ova K-qrooeacrav . II. ii. 581. 

^ Hence it was one of the favourite haunts of Artemis : — 
OIt] 8' "Aprejat? elcrt /car' ovpeo? lox^oapa, 
■'''H Kara TrjvyeTOV Trept/xry/teroi/, 77 'Bpvfj.av6op, 
Tep—op-evY] KdrrpoLcn Kol diKeCrj'; k\6.^0LaL. Cd, vi. 102. 

For the same reason its dogs were celebrated : — 

Vocat ingenti clamore Citheeron, 
Taygetique canes, domitrixque Epidaurus equJi•.lC>^ , 
Et vox adsensu nemorum ingeniinata remugit. — Georg. iii. 43. 
Yeloces Spartae catulos. Id. 405. 

' Illic Taygeti virent metalla 
Et certant vario decore saxa. Mart. vi. 42. 



Chap. XXIII. 



MOUNTAINS — EIYEES. 



455 



ing an elevation of 6355 feet, lies between the Eurotas and the sea. 
On the AV. Parnon sinks rapidly towards the yalley of the Eurotas, 
and breaks up into several hills, such as Olympus and Evas, near 
Sellasia ; Thornax, near the confluence of the Eurotas and (Enus ; and 
Menelaium, near Therapna?. The range continues towards the S. at 
a less elevation, but again rises to a height of 3500 feet in Mount 
Zarax, on the E. coast, and terminates in Prom. Malea. The ranges 
of Parnon and Taygetus are connected in the X. by a rugged moun- 
tain district on the borders of Arcadia, named Sciritis. The coast 
is varied by the promontories of Taenarum,^ C. Matajjcin, and Malea,^ 
C. Media, on the S., and Onugnatlius on the W. coast. The only impor- 
tant river is the Eurotas,^ Basili-]3otamo, which rises on the borders 
of Arcadia, and flows towards the S.E. into the Laconian Gulf, 



8 TfEiiarum is more properly described as a circular peninsula, about 7 miles 
in circumference, and connected with the range of Taygetus by an isthmus about 
half a mile ^Tide. The peninsula was originally held to be sacred to the Sun : — 

'I^ov, Kol x^opov TepxjjLiJi^poTOV 'HeAtoto, 

TatVapov, ev9a re {xrjXa ^a9vrpLxa. /SocrKerat. alec 

'HeA.toto avaKTO';, e^et 6" eTnrepTrea x^P^^' 

HoM. Symn. in Apoll. 4il. 
It was afterwards, however, sacred to Poseidon, who had a famous temple and 
asylum there ; reference is made to this in the line :• — 

'lepo? T aOpav(Tro<; TaLvapov fxivei \Lfx-qv. — EuRIP. Cycl. 292. 
Near it was a cave, by which Hercules dragged Cerberus from the lower regions, 
and which was hence regarded as one of the entrances to Hades : — 

Trap x^o^'toi' 

'AtSa arop-a, TaCvapov ec? lepav. PiXD. Pytli. iv. 77. 

Tsenarias etiam fauces, alta ostia Ditis, 
Et caligantem nigra formidine lucum 

Ingressus, Manesque adiit, regemque tremendum. — Georg. iv. 467. 
The marble quarries of Tsenarus were much valued : — 
Quidve domus prodest Phrygiis innisa columnis, 
Taenare, sive tuis, sive, Caryste, tuis ? — Tibull. iii. 3, 13. 
Quod non Taenariis domus est mihi fulta columnis, 
Xec camera auratas inter eburna trabes. — Peopert. iii. 2, 9. 

9 Malea was regarded with dread by ancient navigators : — 

'x\AAa jute KVfxa, p6o<; re, Trepiyvap-Trrovra MaAetav, 
Kal /Soperj? aTrecucre, TvapirrXay^ev 6e Kv^rjpcoy. Od. ix. 80. 

Nunc illas promite vires, 
Nunc animos ; quibus in Gsetulis Syrtibus usi, 
lonioque mari, Maleaeque sequacibus undis. — •Yirg. ^n. v. 191. 
Nec timeam vestros, curva Malea, sinus. — Ov. A7n. ii. 16, 24, 
1 The banks of the Eurotas were in some parts overgrown with a profusion 
of reeds : — 

^TTaprrii/ r Eupoora SovaKorpoc^ov a.y\aov acrrv. — Tlieogn. 783. 
Its groves were favourite haunts of the gods - 
Qualis in Eurotae ripis aut p'er juga CyntL 
Exercet Diana choros. Yirg. jEh, i. 498. 

Omnia quae, PlwDebo quandam meditante, beatus 
Audiit Eurotas, jussitque ediscere lauros. — Eel. vi. 82. 



456 



LACOXIA. 



Book IV. 



receiving as tributaries, the (Enus on its left bank from tbe borders 
of Argolis, and several lesser streams, of which the only ones that 
received specific names were the Tiasa, below Sparta, and the 
Phellias, which flows by Amyclee. The mid- valley of the Enrotas, 
below the junction of the (Enus, expands into a considerable plain. 
More to the S. the river flows through a narrow gorge formed by 
the advancing ranges of Taygetus : thence it emerges into the mari- 
time plain of Helos, and flows through marshes and sandbanks into 
the sea. 

§ 3. Laconia is said to have been originally occupied by Leleges ; 
then by AchaBans ; and finally, by a mixed population, consisting 
of (i.) the Spartans, or ruling caste of the Dorians ; (ii.) the Perioeci, 
" dwellers about the cities," who appear to have been partly Ach^eans 
and partly Dorians of an inferior grade ; and (iii.) the Helots, or 
SBrfs, Ach^ans who had been taken captive in war. The number 
of the Spartans at the time of the Persian wars was about 8000, and 
of the Perioeci x^i'obably 16,000 : the number of the Spartans dimi- 
nished, and in B.C. 369 did not exceed 2000, and in 244 not more 
than 700. The Helots were very numerous ; at the battle of 
Plataea there were 35,000 present. The towns were numerous, and 
were situated partly in the valley of the Eurotas, and still more 
numerously on the shores of the Laconian Gulf. In the Homeric 
age AmyclEe was the chief town of the interior, and Helos the chief 
maritime town ; Phare, Sparta, and Brysea? are also noticed as im- 
portant cities of the vale ; Las, (Etylus, ^lessa, and Augi?e, or 
^gia?, of the maritime district. Subsequently to the Dorian con- 
quest, Sparta became the capital, with Gythium for its port-town. 
With the exception of Sparta, the history of the Laconian towns is 
comparatively uninteresting : they took little part in the general 
affairs of Greece, and were rarely visited : indeed, without the 
valuable work of Pausanias, we should have been devoid of any 
description of them in their original condition. 

§ 4. Sparta, or Laced^emon, stood at the upper end of the mid- 
valley of the Eurotas,'^ on the right bank of the river, and about two 
miles E. of the modern Mistra. Like Rome, it was built partly on 
some low hills, and partly on the adjacent plain. The names and 
jDrobable positions of the hills were as follows : Issorium, in the N. ; 
Acropolis, more to the S., and divided from Issorium by a hollow 
way communicating with a plain ; Colona, on the E., running 



2 The position of Sparta presents a striking contrast to that of Athens : the 
former being inland, inaccessible by sea and land, remote from any great highway, 
and possessing in her own territories all the necessaries of life — the latter, mari- 
time, accessible, central, and dependent on other countries for her supplies. The 
effect of geographical position may be traced in tlie history, policy, and institu- 
tions of each. 



Chap. XXIII. 



SPARTA. 



457 



parallel to the Eiirotas ; and aiiotlier to the S., on which Xew 
Sparta is built. The town was made np of four villages — Pitane, in 




A. Acropolis. 

B. Mount Issorium 

C. HiU Colona. 

D. Xew Sparta. 



Sparta and its Environs. 

1. Theatre. 

2. Aeora. 

3. Amphitheatre or Odeum. 

4. Bridge across the Eurotas. 
8. Therapne. 



a a a. Circuit ot Walls. 

h h. Canals. 

c c. The Tiasa. 

e e. The Hvacinthian Road. 



the X., the residence of the wealthy; LimncT, on the low marshy 
ground near the Eurotas ; Mesoa, in the S.E. : and Cynosura, in 
the S.TT. The town was not enclosed with walls until the Mace- 
donian period: not a trace of tliem now remains. The general 
appearance of the streets was poor, the houses being rude and 
imadorned : there were, however, many fine public buildings, which 
we shall notice in detail. 

On the Acropolis stood the temple of Athena Chalcioecus^ i. e. of 
the brazen house." so named from the bronze j'^lates with which it was 
adorned; the temples of Athena Ergane. of the Muses, and of Ares 

A^C. GEOG. X 



458 



LACOXIA. 



Book IV. 



Areia, Below the acropolis was the Agora, surrounded with colon- 
nades, of which the most beautiful was the Persian stoa. so named as 
having been built out of the spoils of the Persian War, and repre- 
senting the figures of Persians, particularly Mardonius and Artemisia. 
The agora contained the senate-house, tlie temple of Ophthalmitis, 
erected by Lycurgtis on the spot v\-here one of his eyes was struck out^ 
and the Chorus, where the Spartan youths danced in honour of Apollo. 
W. of the Acropolis vras the theatre, the centre being excavated otit of 
the hill^ and the wings being built tip with enormous quadrangular 
stones, a large ntimber of which still remain, S.E. of the agora was 
the Scias, a building used for public assemblies, though the name also 
applied to a street leading to the S.E. The Roman amphitheatre stood 
on the eastern hill: portions of its wa^ls, 16 feet thick, remain: W of 
it is a valley in the form of a horse-shoe which was probably a stadium. 
The part of the town in which these lay was named Dromus, from 
the gymnasia erected in it. To the S. of it was the Platanistas, a flat 
spot thickly planted with phme-trees and surrounded by streams; 
still more to the S., outside the city, was the district of Phcebfeum. 
On the E. bank of the Eurotas, opposite Phcebieum, was the suburb 
of Therapne, or — as,^ situated on Mount ]\Ienelaium the Janictilum of 
Sparta . containing the temple of Menelaus. after which the hill was 
named, and the fountain of Messeis. According t^) the mythological ac- 
count, Sparta was founded by Laced?emon. a son of Zeus, who married 
Sparta the daughter of Eurotas. In the Homeric age it was subordi- 
nate to Argos, and the seat of the kingdom of Menelaus, the marriage 
of whose daughter Hermione with Orestes the son of Agamemnon, 
united these two kingdoms. On the Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus, 
Sparta became the capital. Its position secured it from attack until 
B.C. 390. when Epaminondas made an attempt on it from the side of 
Amy else. This was repeated in 06 2. when the Thebans penetrated into 
the agora. In 295 the town was surrounded with a ditch and palisade 
to withstand Demetrius Poliorcetes. In 218 Philip overran Laconia 
and passed the city twice without taking it. In 195 Q. Flaminius 
assaulted it, vrhen it was held by Xabis, the tyrant, who had stir- 
roimcled it with strong fortifications ; he gained possession of the 
subtirbs, btit retired from the acropolis on the submission of the 
tyrant. In 192 it was again attacked by Philopcemen : its walls were 
then destroyed by the Achjean League, but restored by ordt-r of the 
Romans, In a.d. 39d it was taken b^y Alaric. In the 13th century 
it was still inhabited, btit its inhabitants soon after removt-d to the 
fortress of I\Iistra, which became the chief place in the valley. The 
site of Sparta was occupied only by the villa^'es of Mcgula and FeycluTio 
ttntil the present Greek government biuit Xtv: Sparta . In C'^nuexion 
with Sparta we may notice Gythium, v-hich served as its port and 
arsenal : it was situated on the Laconian Gulf, about 30 miles from 
Spana. In 455 it was burnt by the Athenians under Tolmidas ; in 
370 it v-as vainly besieged by Epaminondas ; and in 195it v-as taken 
by the Romans, Its fortifications were strong. Its ruins are found at 
Fcdeojjoli. a little X. of Islaratlionisi : they belong to the Roman period, 
and consist of a theatre, sepulchres^. &c. 



3 Tui^SaptSa? 5', ev 'A\at.or? v- 

ev yvdkoL'; Gepa.—va';, 



PlXD. Istiuil. i. 42. 
Sera. x. 106. 



Chap. XXllI. 



459 



Of the less important towns we may notice : — 

(1.) On the Coast. — Gerenia, on the Messenian Gulf, originally some- 
what inland at Zarnata, afterwards at Kitries on the coast: it has been 
identified with the Homeric Enope: it was the reputed residence of 
Xestor in his youth, whence he was termed ^- Gerenian:" Cardamyla, 
on a rocky height about a mile from the sea, near Sl:ardliamula, one 
of the seven cities offered by Agamemnon to Achilles ; Leuctrum, ruins 
at Leftro, on the coast, said to have been founded by Pelops; Ihalaniae, 
on the minor Pamissus, probably at Platza, some distance from the 
coast, with a celebrated temple of Ino. ^^•here the future was revealed 
to those who slept in it ; CEtylus, Vltylo, mentioned by Homer, with a 
temple of Sarapis, fragments of which still exist in the modern town ; 
Messa, on the W. coast of the Ta?uarian peninsula at Mezapo, \N'here 
pigeons still abound Tesnarum. Kyijarisso. about five miles X. of the 
Ta^narian isthmus, named Caenopolis by the maritime Laconians after 
they had throwTi off" the yoke of Sparta; Psamatlms, QuagJio, a harbour 
on the Ttenarian promontory : Teutlirone, on the \^" . side of the 
Laconian Gulf at Kotrones, said to have been founded by the Athenian 
Teuthas; Las, about a mile from the W. shore of the Laconian Gulf; 
the town originally stood on the summit of a mount named Asia, 
Passara, but at a later time in a hollow between the three mountains, 
Asia, Ilium, and Cnacadium : it is noticed by Homer; ^ the name of 
Asine, given to it by Polybius and Strabo^ is probably a mistake for 
Asia: Helos, E. of the mouth of the Eurotas, on a fertile though 
marshy plain : it was taken by the Dorians, and sunk into an insignifi- 
cant place; its site is probably at Bizani ; Epidaurus Limera, at the 
head of a spacious bay on the E. coast of Laconia, near wliich was the 
promontory of Minoa, now an island connected with the continent by a 
bridge: the ruins of Epidaurus are at Old Jloneritvasia, and consist of 
walls, terraces. Szc. 

(2.) In the Literior.— CEyxm, or lum, in the district of Sciritis, com- 
manding the pas> of Klisiira, through which the road from Sparta to 
Tegea passed : Caryae, on the border of Arcadia, and originally an 
Arcadian town, but conquered by Sparta: it was celebrated for a 
temple of Artemis Caryatis, in which the Lacedasnioniau virgins per- 
formed a peculiar dance at the time of the annual festival; from this 
dance the Greek artists gave the name of Caryatides to the female 
figures employed in architecture: Carya3 was probably situated on one 
of the side roads between Tegea and Sparta, near AraJcliova : Sellasia, 
on a mountain in the valley of the (Eniis, just below the point where 
the roads fi^om Argos and Tegea to Sparta imite: it was hence particu- 
larly exposed to attack; in B.C. 369 it was burnt by the Thebans: in 
3d5 it was again destroyed by the LacedEemonians : and again, in 
221, after the famous battle between Cleomenes and Antigonus; the 
battle took place in the small plain of Krevata, w^hich lies X. of the 
town between the mountains Olympus on the E., and Evas on the "W.. 
and through which the CEnus flows, receiving a small stream named 
Gorcridus from the W. : Pellana, a fortress commanding the valley of 
the Eurotas, situated probably at Mt. Burlaia, about seven miles from 
Sparta; Glyppia, on the frontiers of Argolis, probably at Lympiada 

■* $ap7]v re, 'S.—dpT-qv re, 77oX.VTprjp(jJva. re 'yieo'crqi'. — ii. 582. 
^ Oi r' dp' 'A/xvKAa9 slxov, ''EA.os t'. €(ha\ov —rokLeOpov. — II. ii. aSl, 
Hap Se XaKiovida yaiav, 'EA-OS t', e0aA.oi' ~ToXie6pov. 

Ho^i. Hymn, in Apoll. 410. 



46a 



LACOXIA. 



Book IV. 



G-eronthrae, GlieraJd, on a height OTerlooking the valley of the Eurotas 
on the S.E. and famous for its prolonged resistance to the Dorian 
conquerors; Bryseae, an old Homeric town S.W. of Sparta, with a 
temple of Dionysus w^hich was accessible to women only; Phare, or 
Pharae, in the Spartan plain on the road to Gythium, an old Achsean 
town which maintained its independence rmtil the reign of Teleclus: 
it was plundered by Aristomenes in the Second Messenian ^"ar : its 
site at Bafio is marked by a tumulus with an interior vault, which 
probably served as a treasury ; Amyclae, on the right bank of the 
EurotaS; two miles and a half from Sparta, in a remarkably fertile and 
beautiful district : it is said to have been the abode of Tyndarus and 
of Castor and Pollux :^ it held out against the Dorians until the reign 
of Teleclus, after which it was chiefly famous for the festival of the 
Hyacinthia and for a temple and colossal statue of Apollo: its original 
site was probably at Agliia-Ki/rialn. whence the population may have 
been removed into the plain nearer Sparta, the former spot being more 
than 20 stadia from Sparta; lastly, Belemina, or Belbina, on the X.W. 
frontier, originally an Arcadian town conquered by the Spartans, but 
restored to its former owners after the battle of Leuctra : the sur- 
rounding mountainous district, named Belminatis, was a constant 
source of contention between the Spartans and Achseans. 

HUtiyry. — At the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, Laconia fell 
to the share of Eurystlienes and Procles, the sons of Aristodemus, who 
established themselves at Sparta. The Achpsan cities were gradttally 
subdued, and by the middle of the 8th century the Spartans were 
masters of all Laconia. Messenia was shortly after added to their 
territory, and by the time of the Persian Wars Spai-ta held the first 
place among the Greek powers. They retained this until B.C. 477, 
when the supremacy was transferred to Athens, and was not regained 
by Sparta until 404. The battle of Leuctra, in 371, deprived Sparta 
not only of her supremacy but also of the territories conquered from 
the neighbouring states. Attempts were made to recover her position 
during the Sacred War, and at a later period in the war with the 
Achfeans; but the battle of Sellasia, in 221, completely frustrated the 
last of these attempts. The coimtry now fell under the rule of tyrants, 
of whom Xabis was the most notorious : he was conquered by Fla- 
minius, and, in 195, Sparta lost the maritime towns, which were placed 
under the Achaean League for a while, but were finally made indepen- 
dent by the Romans, with the title of Eleuthero-Lacones. There were 
originally twenty-four of these towns. 

Off the S.E. extremity of Laconia lies the island of Cythera, Cerigo, 
of an irregular oval sliape, 20 miles long from X. to S., and 10 miles 
across in its widest part, very rocky, and containing only three towns; 
Cythera, on the E. coast at Aviemona : an inland city also named 
Cythera, about three miles from the former ; and Scandea, which 
appears to have been on the S. coast at Kaijsali, though Pausanias 
seems to identify it with the seaport-town Cythera. Tlie island was 
originally settled by Phoenicians, who carried on hence the purple 
fishery of the Laconian coast, and introduced the worship of Aphrc- 



Ca?tori AmyclEeo et AmrclaBO Polliici 

Reddita Mopsopia Ta?naris iirbe soror. — Ov. Reroid. viii. 71. 
Talis Amyclaji domitus Pollucis liabenis 

Cyllarus. Tirg. Georg. ui. 89. 



Chap. XXIII. 



ARGOLIS 



— MOUNTAIXS. 



461 



ditej It fell under the dominion first of the Argives^ then of the 
Spartans, and was conquered by the Athenians under Nicias in B.C. 
424, and under Conon in 393. Its chief productions were wine and 
honey. 

YI. Argolis, with Cyxukia. 

§ 5. Argolis, in its most extensive sense, was bounded on the N. 
by Corinthia and Sicyonia ; on the E. by the Saronic Gulf and the 
Myrtoan Sea ; on the S. by the Hermionic and Argolic Gulfs, and 
Laconia ; and on the W. by Arcadia. Within these limits are 
included the districts of Argolis Proper, i.e. the territory belonging 
to the city of Argos, and the peninsula between the Saronic and 
Argolic Gulfs, which was divided between the petty states of Epi- 
daurus, Troezen, and Hermione. The former of these districts was 
by far the most important in ancient geography. The plain is 
enclosed on three sides by mountains,^ and on the fourth lies open 
to the sea : it is from 10 to 12 miles long, and from 4 to 5 
wide. Its fertility was great ; and it was especially famous for its 
breed of horses.^ The remainder of Argolis consisted of a broken, 
hilly district, with occasional plains by the sea-side. 

Name. — The name Argos is said to have signified plain" in the 
language of the Macedonians and Thessalians : it may be derived from 
the same root as the Latin ager." In Homer, the name signifies both 
the town of Argos and the kingdom of Agamemnon, of w^hich Mycenoe 
was the capital. The territory of Argos was most frequently termed 
by Greek writers Argeia, and occasionally Argolice and Argolis. 

§ 6. The mountains of Argolis itself are not of much importance : 
they are connected with the great ranges on the borders of Arcadia, 
Parthenium and Artemisium. Araclinseuin was the name of the ridge 
that separated the territories of Argos and Epidaurus : several lesser 
heights received specific names, which are, however, of no interest. 
The coast is irregular, and lined with islands : the most important 
promontories were on the Argolic Gulf — Buporthmus, Mazaki, on 
the S. coast; and Scyllaeum, Kavo-Skyli, at the S.E. angle. On the 
N.E. coast is a considerable peninsula, connected by an isthmus, 
only 1000 feet broad, with the territory of Troezen, and containing 



' Est Amath.us, est celsa miM Paphus, atque Cythera, 
Idaligeque domus. jEji. x. 51. 

Hunc ego sopitum somno, super alta Cythera, 
Aut super Idalium, sacrata sede recondam. — Id. i. 680. 

Mater Amoris 

Nuda Cytheriacis edita fertur aquis. — Ov. Her old. vii. 59. 

8 It is hence described by Sophocles as "hollow Argos :" — 

To Kolkov ''ApYos ^0.5 (f)vya<; TrpocrAaju-jSavet. CEd. Col. 373. 

9 The epithet "horse-feeding" is constantly applied to it by Homer : — 

''EvOdSe rot areLxovTeq an' Apyeos ltttto^otolo. — II. ii. 287. 



462 



ARGOLIS. 



Book IV 



a mountain, now named CheJona, above 2000 feet high : the penin- 
sula was named after the town of Methana, which stood upon it. 




ENSUISH MILES. 

Plain of Argos. 

The rivers are imimportant : the chief ones are the Inachus,^ Ban- 



1 The Inachus was reg-arded as the national stream of Argos ; it was suj^posed 
to be connected by a siibterraneons channel with the Amphilochian stream of the 
same name : — 

'^Q yrj<; rraXaiOV "Apyog, 'Ii^a\ov poal, 
''OOev ttot' apa? vavai \ikCaiS *Ap7j 

'Es yrjv cTrAevcre Tpiodd' 'Xya^jLe^vuiv cwa^. EURIP. Electr. 1. 



Chap. XXIII. EIYEES — LAKES — IXHABITAXTS. 



463 



itza, and Erasmus,^ Kephalari, in the plain of Argos — tlie former 
rising on the borders of Arcadia, and flowing towards the S.E. into 
the ArgoKc Gidf, receiving the Charadrus, Xeria, a little below 
Argos ; the latter issuing in several large streams from the rocks of 
Mount Chaon to the S.W. of Argos, and flowing in a short course 
across the plain into the gnlf, receiving as a tributary the Phrixus 
shortly before its discharge. The celebrated Lake of Lerna lay at 
the S.W. extremity of the Argive plain, and was the centre of a 
marshy district ^ formed by numerous springs, and by the streams 
Pontinus and Amyraone,^ which rise in the neighbouring hill of 
Pontinus : this district was drained in ancient times, and covered 
with sacred buildings, among which the temples of Demeter and 
Dionysus were most famous. The grove of Leriaa lay between the 
rivers above named. The lake, which Pausanias names the Alcyo- 
nian Pool, was reputed to be unfathomable, and to be the entrance 
t-o the lower world : it is near the sea, and is a few hundred yards 
in circumference. Xear it was the fountain of Amphiaraus. which 
can be no longer identified. 

§ 7. The population of Argolis was of a mixed character : the 
plain of Argos was originally held by Pelasgians, and afterwards by 
Acha3ans, while the coast districts of Troezen and Epidaurus were 
held by lonians. The Dorians subsequently entered as a conquer- 
ing race and settled at Argos, and thenceforth the inhabitants of 
the Argolic plain were divided into three classes — the Dorians of 
the city ; the Perioeci, or Achaean inhabitants ; and the Gymnesii, or 
bond-slaves, whose position resembled that of the Helots of Laco- 
nia. The towns may be divided into two classes — those of the plain 



yevvarop, ttol Kprfvoiv 
IlaTpb? 'ClKeavov, /J-eya Trpecr^evojv 
*Apyov? re yvaL<;, "Hpa? re Trayot? 

Kal Tvpa-Tjvolo-L UekacryoU. SoPH. Fragm. 256. 

Coelataque ainnem funclens pater Inacliiis urna.- — Tirg. JEn. vii. 7 92. 

2 The Erasiniis was iniiversally believed to be the same as the river Stym- 
phalus, which disappeared under Mount Apelauron. The distance between the 
two streams is so considerable as to make this opinion doubtful. 

3 The draining of the Lernsean Marsh by the Argives was the historical founda- 
tion of the legend of the victory of Hercules over the Hydra. 

^ Amymone is said to have been named after one of the daughters of Danaus 
whom Poseidon loved ; the stream gushed forth at the stroke of the god's 
trident : — 

''06' eTTtv, alx^fxaXooTiSag 
''Os 6opl Q-fjSaiag 'MyK-qvaLO'L 
Aepvaia re Scacreiy "Ypiaivu. 
IlocretScoj^toi.? 'A/xv/xwi^coi.? 

"YSacrt, hovKeiav -epi^aXu^v. EUR. Flicev , IS 6. 

Testis Amymone, latices cum ferret in arvis, 

Compressa, et Lerne pulsa tridente palus.' — Propert. ii. 26, 47. 



464 



AEGOLIS. 



Book IV. 



of Argos, of which the chief were Argos, Mycen^, and Tiryns ; and 
p — ^ ^-^-^1 ' ' ^-^^^^ coast, 

\ mmim^' irV Epidaums, Troezen, 



stroyed the other about B.C. 468. The remains of these cities afford 
remarkable specimens of the Cyclopean style of architecture. The 
towns of Epidaurus, Troezen, and Hermione were well situated for 
purposes of trade, the two former facing the Saronic Gulf and ^gina, 
and the latter having a sheltered harbour on the S. coast. The 
secluded position of these to^vns enabled them to retain their inde- 
pendence, and they enjoyed at an early })eriod a large amount of 
prosperity. 

Argos or Argi, as the Romans usually termed it, was situated in the 



by a ridge named Deiras (2). Argos was reputed the most ancient city 
of Greece, and was certainly one of the largest. It was founded by a 
Pelasgic chief named Phoroneus ; and in the time of the Peloponuesian 
War it is computed to have had more than 16,000 citizens, and a total 
population of 110,000 in its territory. The city was surrounded by 
walls of Cyclopean structure, which extended over the acropolis and 




and Hermione. The 
former boasted of a 
remote antiquity, 
Argos being re- 
garded as the most 
ancient city of 
Greece, and the 
others as hardly of 
later date. My- 
cenae was the capital 
in the heroic age ; 
Argos held that post 
subsequently to the 
Dorian conquest, 
and ultimately de- 




Coin of Argos. 



plain named after it, about 
3 miles from the sea and a 
little W. of the Charadrus. 
Its chief citadel,^ Larissa 
(Map, 1), was built on an in- 
sulated conical hill, 900 feet 
high, on the W. side of the 
town. The second citadel 
stood on a lesser height 
named Aspis (Map, ?>\ in the 
N".W. of the city, and which 
was connected with Larissa 



5 The present castle of Argos is a building of comparatively modern times, but 
contains some traces of Cyclopean masonry. 



Cpiap. XXIII. 



To^yxs. 



465 



the adjacent hillS; including the one named Aspis in the X.W., on 
which the second citadel stood. The Agora (6) ^ stood in the centre of 
the town. The buildings in Argos were numerous : among them we 
may specify the temple of Apollo Lyceus (7) which stood near the agora; 
those of Zeus Larissseus and of Athena which crowned the summit of 
the Acropolis ; two temples of Hera ; the theatre (5) excavated out of 
the S. side of Larissa^ remains of which still exist; and the monument 
of Pyrrhus in the agora. Outside the town was the gymnasium (16), 
named Cylarabis, and about 5J miles from it was the Herseum, or 
national temple of the tutelary goddess Hera, which was originally 
under the protection of the neighbouring town of Mycen?e, but after- 
wards under that of Argos. It was well situated on a spur, overlooking 
the plain, and was adapted for the purposes of a fortress as well as of 
a temple. The first temple was burnt down in B.C. 423, and a new 
one was erected in its place by Eupolemus. The foundations of these 
temples have been discovered. -Argos was the seat of a famous school 
of statuary in which Phidias, Myron, and Polycletus were educated ; 
music was also cultivated there, particularly under Sacadas ; and in lite- 
rature Argos produced the poetess Telesilla. The remains of the town 
are few, and consist of traces of the walls, portions of the theatre, and 
of an aqueduct (9). In connexion with Ai^gos we may notice its port- 
town Nauplia " situated on a promontory running out into the Argolic 
Gulf about 6 miles from Argos, of which it became a dependency about 
the time of the second Messenian War : the modern town retains the 
ancient name. Mycenae was situated on a rugged height at the N.E. 
extremity of the Argive plain ^ near the village of Kliarvati. Its 
position gave it command of the roads between Argos and Corinth. 
The town was very ancient, its foundations being attributed to Perseus : 
it was the favourite residence of the Pelopidse, and, under Agamemnon, 
was regarded as one of the chief towns of Greece.^ The town consisted 
of an Acropolis on the triangular summit of a steep hill, and a lower 
town on the S,W. side of the hill. The Cj^clopean walls ^ of the Acro- 



^ The temple of Apollo Lyceus stood on one side of tlie Agora ; hence Sophocles 
says, 

roi) kuKOKTovov 6&ov 
'Ayopo. Av/ceto?. EJectr. 6. 

"H/cet yap e? yy}v Mep-eAeto? Tpotag cctto, 
At/xeva 6e XavTrAietoi^ kK.—ky]p(X)v TT?^drrj, 
'AKTolcnv opfxel, dapov ex. Tpotas XPO'^O^ 
"AAatcrt nXayxOeC';. EURIP. Ore.t. 53. 

s It is hence described by Homer as being " ui the corner " of the Argive 
land : — 

"HixeO'' 6 6' ev/crjAo? fJ-vx^? "Apyeos l-mro^oTOLO. — Od. iii. 263. 
^ Its wealth was proverbial : — • 

'^H avTOV ^acTL^rja TroAvxpvcrot-o Mv/ct^vt]?. IL vii. 180. 

ol 5' LKOLVOlJieV 

^dcTKeLj/ Mv/CT^i^a? ras irokvxpva-ovg bpdv. SoPH. Electr. 8. 

Aptum dicet equis Argos, ditesqvLQ Mycenas. — Hor. Carm. i. 7, 9. 
1 The walls of Mycena3 excited the astonishment of the ancients, and were 
attributed to the Cyclopes ; Homer gives the town the epithet " well-built :" — 
"^Ot, 6e Mu/crjva? el;(0v, evK.rCfj.evop TrroAte^pov. II. ii. 569. 

Kv/cAcoTTcov pdOpa 
^OLVLKL KavovL Kol TUKot? rjpixocrfj.4va. EuRiP. Rerc. Fur. 946. 

KtxAet? TToAtcTjaa Ilepcrecos, 

Kv/cAwTTttoi' TTovov ^epcov" : Id. Ipli. in Aid, 1500. 

X 3 



466 



ARGOLIS. 



Book IV. 



polis still exist in a very perfect state^ presenting good specimens both 
of the polygonal and of the earlier style of that architecture : in some 





Plan of the Ruins of ;\Ivcen; 




A. Acropolis. 
B Gate of Lions. 

C. SubteiTaneous building usuallj- called 



Treasury of Atreus. 

D. Subterraneous Building 

E. Village of Kliarvati. 



places they are from 15 to 20 feet high. One of the two gateways, by 
which the Acropolis was entered, is also in existence, and is named 
from the figures which crown the portal ^'the Gate of Lions." ^ The 
lower town contained four subterraneous buildings, used either as 
treasuries or perhaps rather as sepulchres (for they probably lay out- 
side the walls) : one of these 
^^the Treasury of Atreus" 
still survives in a very perfect 
state. Mycenae sunk after the 
occupation of Argos by the 
Dorians, but it was not taken 
by them until B.C. 468, when 
it was destroyed. Thenceforth 
it remained utterly desolate. 
Tiryns was situated on an iso- 
lated hill, S.E. of Argos, and 
about miles from Nanplia. 
Its origin was traced back to 
Proetus, whose house stood on 
the highest part of the hill. 




Gallery at Tiryns. 



2 The heads are now wanting : Pausanias is our authority for pronouncing- the 
animals to be lions. The column between the figures is conjectured to be the 
symbol of Apollo Agyieus, whose aid is invoked in the Agammenon of .Eschvlus 
(1080, 108.5), and in the Electra of Sophocles (1379). 



Chap. XXIII. 



TOWXS. 



467 



Hercules resided there for some time.^ Massive walls of Cyclopean 
structure surrounded it, and it vras further defended by a citadel, 
named Licymua, the y\^ails of which still exist, and are remarkable for 
their extreme strength, being in some places no less tlian 24 feet thick. 
The approaches of the citadel were defended by galleries of singular 
construction. Tiryns was conquered and destroyed by the Dorians 
of Argos in B.C. -1-<>S, and thenceforth remained desolate.*^ Epidaums 
was the capital of a small district on the coast of the Saronic Gulf, 
con.sisting of a peninsula, on which the town itself stood, and a 
narrov,', well-sheltere.d plain, on which the vine particularly ilourished.^ 
It derived its chief importance from the temple of Asclepius, 5 miles 
W. of the town, which was visited by patients from all parts of the 
Hellenic world, and which was, like the other celebrated fanes of 
Greece, surrounded by a grove and by numerous otlier buildings: 
extensive ruins cover the site, among which the theatre is the most 
important. The temple was plundered by Sulla. Epidaurus was 
reputed to have been founded by Carians, and afterwards colonized 
by Ionian.s, and conquered by the Dorians under Deiphuntes : it was 
in early times a place of commercial importance, and sent colonies to 
^gina, Cos, and other islands. It remained independent of the 
Argives, and was vainly attacked by them in 419. The name is pre- 
served in that of the neighbouring village Pidharro, but the remains 
are verj^ scanty. Troezen was the capital of a small district in the 
S.E. angle of Argolis: it stood on a fertile maritime plain, about 2 
miles from the sea, with Celenderis as its port-t jwn on the Bay of 
Pogon, which offered a sheltered harbour. It Avas a very ancient city, 
and derived its name from a son of Pelops ; it was the residence of Pit- 
theus the grandfather of Theseus.^ The Dorians settled there on their 
conquest of Peloponnesus, but the place retained its Ionic character. 
It became a powerful maritime state, and founded Halicarnassus and 
MyUvius. It was allied with Athens until the time of the Peloponnesian 
War and afterwards with Sparta. The town was adorned with numerous 
fine buildings — consisting of the agora surrounded with colonnades ; 
the temple of xlrtemis Lycia, with the stone upon which Orestes was 



3 Hercules is hence frequently termed " Tirynthian," e. g. : — 
Postquam Laurentia victor, 
Geryone extincto, Tirynthius attigit arva. — JEn. 661. 
The epithet is further applied to Herculaneum 'Stat. Sili\ ii. 2, 109 , and 
Saguntum (Sil. Ital. ii. 300;, as being founded by Hercules ; and to the Fabian 
gens, as being descended from that god Sil. Ital. viii. 35, vii. 218 . 
^ Suus excit in arma 

Antiquam Tiryntha Deus. Non fortibus ilia 
Infecunda viris, famaque immanis alumni 
Degenerat ; sed lapsa situ fortuna, neque addunt 
E-obur opes. Barns vacuis lio.Vitator in arris 

Monstrat Cyclopum ductas sudoribus acres. — Stat. TTiel. iv. 14 6. 
5 Tpot^-^i/', 'Htoi^a? re Kal aarreAdeyr' "E-cOaupov. — II. ii. 561. 

It was also famous for its breed of horses : — 

Taygetique canes, domitrixque Epidaurus equorum. — Georg. iii. 44. 

6 The hero spent his youth at Trcezen : — 

(xAAa xa-Lpir , (b — oAtg 
Kal yaZ 'Epei^Seaj?* cb rri^ov TpoLC,r}VLOV, 
'Q? h/Ka.Or]^av — oAA' exet? ei'SaCfjiOva, 

Xatp'" vcTTarov yap a' eccropcov 77po(T(b6eyyop.ai.. — Eun. Hipp. 1C97. 



468 



ARGOLIS. 



Book IV. 



purified in front of it ; the temple of Apollo Thearius, with the so- 
called tent of Orestes before it ; the temple of Hippolytus ; and the 
Acropolis, posted on a rugged and lofty hill : the ruins of Troezen lie 
near Dhamala, and are insignificant. Methana stood on the W. coast 
of the peninsula of the same name N. of Troezen, to which it belonged : 
the Athenians occupied the peninsula in 425, and fortified the isthmus. 
Hennione originally stood upon a promontory on the S. coast, but was 
afterwards removed about J a mile inland to the slopes of a hill named 
Pron. It w^as founded by the Dryopes, and is noticed by Homer. 
It came under the power of Argos probably about B.C. 464, and was 
thenceforth a Doric city, but it regained its independence, and was 
?.llied to Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. The territory of Hermione 
extended over the S. angle of Argolis. Of the buildings in the town 
the most famous was the sanctuary of Demeter Chthonia on a height of 
Mt. Pron, which was an inviolable sanctuary.'' The ruins of Hermione 
lie about Kastri. 

Of the less important to^^^ls of Argolis we may notice — Orneae, on 
the borders of Phliasia, about 14 miles from Argos, a town which 



Cenckreae, S. of Argos, near which were the sepulchral monuments of 
the Argives who fell at the battle of Hysiae ; a pyramid still existing, 
near the Erasinus, is probably one of these; Hysiae, on an isolated 
hill below Mt. Parthenium, the scene of a battle between the Argives 
and Lacedaemonians in B.C. 669, destroyed by the Argives after the 
Persian War, and by the Laceda?monians in 417; and Asme, on the 
coast near iSTauplia, probably in the plain of Irl, founded by the 
Dryopes, and destroyed by the Argives in consequence of its having 
joined the Spartans against them ; its inhabitants removed to Asine 
in Messenia. 

Islands. — The coast of Argolis is fringed with islands, of which the 
most important are — Tiparenus, more probably Tricarenus, another 
form of Tricrana, Trikliiri, though frequently identified with Spetzia ; 
Hydrea, Hydra, off the coast of Hermionis and Troezenia : and 
Calauria, Poro, opposite Troezenia, possessing an ancient temple of 
Poseidon, in which Demosthenes terminated his life. 

History. — The authentic history of Argolis commences at the time 
of the Dorian invasion, when that country fell to the lot of Temenus, 
and Argos was constituted the Dorian capital. The conquest of the 
towns was gradual, and most of them retained their Achaean popula- 
tion. The sovereignty of Argos extended over the whole E. coast of 
Peloponnesus and even over Cythera, and she was the head of a league 
similar to the Amphictyonic, of which Phlius, Cleonse, Sicyon, Epi- 
daurus, Trcezen, Hermione, and ^Egina, were members. Under Pheidon, 




retained its independence 
until B.C. 416, when it 
was destroyed by the 
Argives; (Enoe, on the 
Charadrus, VV. of Argos, 



Ruins of a Pyramid in tlie Argeia. 



;^ the scene of a victory 
gained by the Athen- 
ians and Argives over 
the Lacedaemonians ; 



Euripides refers to this : — 

- QovCas VLV a.ka-o<;, 'Ep/atcov r' e^et TroAts. Here. Fur. 614. 



Chap. XXIII. 



CYXUEIA. 



469 



B.C. 770-730, the power of Argos was at its highest, and an attempt 
was made to subject the whole of Peloponnesus. Subsequently, her 
power declined before that of S^Darta, and the loss of Cynuria in 547 
was followed by the decisive victory of Cleornenes near Tn^yns. Argos 
took no part in the Persian Wars, but Tiryns and Mycenc-e juined 
Sparta. These cities were destroyed by Argos about 4»jS, and their 
population added to the capital. Avhich thus regained its former supre- 
macy. In the Peloponnesian War the Argives remained neutral for 
the first I'J years: in 4-21 they formed a league with tlie Corinthians 
and others against Sparta, which was dissolved in 41.^ by the battle of 
Mantinea. For a short period after this Argos joined Sparta, but soon 
withdrew from the alliance, and took an active part in the various 
combinations formed against that power. The sub-equent history of 
Argos is unimportant : its to^ms fell under tyrants : it joined the 
Achaean League in 229, and yielded to the Pvomans in 14»3. 

§ 8. The district of Cynuria was situated between Argolis and 
Laconia, and was debateable gTound between the two states of Argos 
and Sparta, belonging alternately to each. The district consisted 
of a remarkably fertile plain, extending about six miles along the 
coast S. of Acigra^a, bounded inland by the spurs of Parnon, and 
watered by two streams, named the Tanus,^Z^./7j//, and the Charadrus,^ 
Kani^ which join the sea respectively X. and S. of the Tliyreatic 
Grulf : the former was the boundary between the two states in 
the time of Euripides. The inhabitants were of Pelas^ian ori-^in, 
but were regarded as lonians ; they were a semi-barloarMU- and 
predatory tribe. There were five towns in the dir^trict — Thyrea, 
which may be regarded as the capital, and which is described as 
being situated about 10 stadia from the cciast ; Prasia^, m^jre to the 
S., on the coast ; Anthena, Xeris, and Eva, in the interior. The 
exact position of these towns is undecided. 

History. — Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians^ 
Cynuria was subdued by Argos. As Sparta rose to power, there were 
numerous conflicts for it : Agis gained possession of it for Sparta about 
B c. I'jO'^'. but Argos recovered it; and retained it until 547, when the 
dispute was decided in favour of Sparta by a pitched battle of oO'j on 
each side. The ^Eginetans were settled there by the Spartans in 431; 
but were expelled by the Athenians in eight years. Philip, the father 
of Alexander the Great, restored Cynuria to Argos. which thenceforth 
retained it. 

YII. Arcadia. 

§ 9. Arcadia, the central province of Peloponnesus, ^.ras bounded 
on the E. by Argolis, on tiie X. by Achaia, on the AV. liy Elis, and 
<;)n the S. by Messenia and Laconia. Xext to Laconia it was the 



* ""O? d/j-dl — 07a,ubi/ Tavcijov 'Apyeias opof? 

Teavov-a yaia^. EuRIP. EUctr. 410. 

° This name occurs only in Statins : — 

Queeque pavet long-a spmnantem valle Charadrum 
• Xeris. Thel. ir. 46. 



470 



AECADIA. 



Book IV. 



largest province in Peloponnesus, its greatest length being about 50 
miles, and its breadth from 35 to 41. In its position it resembles a 
fortified camp, being surrounded on all sides by a natural wall 
of mountains which separate it from the other Peloponnesian 
states. The interior is broken up by irregular mountain- 
ranges, and the general appearance of the country justifies 
the name of "the Switzerland of G-reece," which has been applied 
to it. The mountains vary in character and altitude in the E. and 
W. : in the latter they are wild, high, and bleak, with valleys of 
small extent and of little fertility ; in the former they are of lower 
elevation, with small fertile plains embosomed in them, and so 
completely surrounded by hills that the streams can only escape by 
subterraneous outlets. These plains furnished the only attractive 
sites for towns, and we accordingly find all the chief places of 
Arcadia on this side of the country. Of the productions of the 
country, the best known were its asses, which were highly prized 
throughout Greece. 

§ 10. The following were the principal mountains: in the N.E., 
Cjllene,^ Zyria, 7788 feet high, reputed the loftiest in Peloponnesus, 
but in reality inferior to Taygetus — a massive, isolated peak, 
crowned with a temple of Hermes ; Crathis and Aroanius, more to the 
W., forming the connecting links between Cyllene and the lofty 
and long range of Erymantlius^ in the N.W. ; Lampea and Pholoe, 
continuations of Erymanthus, separating Arcadia from Elis ; Lycseus, 
Dioforti, in the S.W., in the district of Parrhasia, 4659 feet high, 
with a summit named Olympus, on which were situated the grove 
and altar of Zeus Lyca3us,^ together with a hippodrome and stadium 



1 It was celebrated as the birth-place of Hermes, or Mercury, in whose honour 
a temple was erected on the summit : — 

'Epjarjv Vjuvet, Moucra, Atb? koX MaiaSo? vlov, 

Kv/VArjvrj? jxeSiovTa /cat 'Ap/caStTj? 77oAvjai7A.ov. — HoJi. Hymn, in Merc. 1. 
Vobis Mercurius pater est, quem Candida Maia 
Cyllenge gelido conceptum vertice fudit. — ^n. viii. 138. 
He was hence termed Cyllenius by the poets : — 
Hie primum paribus nitens Cyllenius alls 
Constitit. ^n. iv. 252. 

Erymanthus was covered with forests abounding with wild beasts, and was 
hence one of Diana's haunts and the fabled scene of Hercules's victory over the 
wild boar : — 

Otr] 5' "Aprejaig elcrt Kar ovpeo? loxeaipa, 
■■^H Kara T-qvyerov Trepi^rjKeTOv, rj 'Epvixavdou, 
Tepxro/xeVrj /caTrpoicrt /cat (o/cetrys e\d(f)OL(TL. Od. vi. 102. 

Ut Tegessus aper cupressifero Erymantho 
Incubet, et vasto pondere Igedat humum. — Ov. Heroid. ix. 87. 
Monstriferumqiie Erjananthon. Stat. Theh. iv. 298. 

3 To, 5e Uappa(rLU) arparw 
&av[Jia<TTO<; ecov (fxxmr) 

Ztji/os ajx^l TTavdyvpiv Av/catov PiND. Olyinp, ix. 143, 



Chap. XXIII. 



MOUXTAIXS — EIVEES. 



471 



for the celebration of the Lycfean games,"* a temple of Paii,^ and in 
the E. part of Ihe mountain a sanctuary and grove of Apollo Parr- 
hasius ; Maenalus, in the interior, between the territories of Mantinea 
and Tegea, a well- wooded range rising to above 5000 feet in the sum- 
mit of Apano-Klirepa, regarded as especially sacred to Pan;^ and, 
lastly, Partlienium, Artemisium, andLyrceum, on the borders of Argolis. 

§ 11. The chief river of Arcadia is the Alpheus, in its upper 
course named Karitena, in its lower Bufia, which rises in the S.E., 
on the borders of Laconia, near Phylace, and thence probably flowed 
in ancient times to the X.W.,' and disappeared in the Katavothra 
of Taki : it then reai^peared near Asea, and mixed with the Eurotas 
in the copious spring called Frangovrysi : the combined streams 
again disappear, and the Alpheus emerges at Pegse, and flows 
towards the X.W., receiving the Hehsson, on which Megalopolis 
was situated, then penetrating through a defile near Brenthe which 
separates the upper from the lower plain, and receiving, below 
Hersea, the Ladon,^ P^ '-'fi'^U fi^^d the ErTmauthus,^ on the borders of 

"Ocra re 

'Ap/cacr' avdaaoiv, jJiapTvprj- — 

creL XvKaiov ^cofj-og ava^, PiND. Olynip. xiii. 152, 

^ These games resembled the Eoman Liipercalia : — 
Quid vetat Arcadio dictos a monte Lupercos ? 
Faimus in Arcadia templa Lycteiis habet. — Ov. Fast. ii. 423. 
^ See quotations in next note. 

6 Tlav TTav, etr ecrcrl /car' copea fxaicpa AvKacoj, 

Eire rvy afxcjuTrokeLg fjjya 'Maivakov. — Theock. Idyll, i. 123. 
Pan, ovium custos, tua si tibi Msenala curae, 
Adsis, o Tegsee, fayens. Tirg. Georg. i. 17. 

Pinifer ilium etiam sola sab rupe jacentem 
Masnalus, et gelidi fleverunt saxa Lycsei. — Eel. x. 14. 
Maenala transieram latebris horrenda ferarum, 
Et cum Cvlleno gelidi pineta Lycsei. — Ov. ILet. i. 216. 
Maenalius and Maenalis are frequently used by the Roman poets as equivalent 
to Arcadian : — 

Pinigerum Fauni Mgenalis ora caput — Ov. Fast. iii. 84. 
Sive fugag comites, ?»l8enali Xympha, tu£e. — Id. i. 634. 
' It now flows to the X.E., and disappears in the katavothra of Persora at 
the foot of ]Mt, Parthenium ; its course is said to have been thus diverted in 
modern times. 

^ The Ladon is famed in mythology as the river into which Syrinx plunged 
when pursued by Pan : — 

Donee arenosi placidum Ladonis ad amnem 
Yenerit ; hie illi cursum hnpedientibus undis, 
rt se mutarent, liquidas orasse sorores. — Ov. llet. i. 702. 
Its stream is described as being very rapid : — 

Testis erit Pholoe, 'testes Stymphalides undag ; 

Quique citis Ladon in mare currit aquis. — Ov. Fast. ii. 2 7 3. 
Arcades hunc, Ladonque rapax, et Meenalos ingens 

Rite colunt, Luna credita terra prior. Id. v. 89. 

9 AaScoi^ ccAA.' ov—to /xeyag eppeev. ov6'' ''EpvfxavOo? 
AeyKorarc? -rrorafj-oov, eti 6' a^poxos rjsv arracra 
'XpKadL-q. CALLnr. H. in Jov. 19. 

Et celer Ismenus cum Phocaico Erymantho. — Ov. ^^let. ii. 244. 



472 



AECADIA. 



Book IV 



Elis. Of tlie numerous streams wliicli rise in tlie E. district, the 
most important is the StympMlus, which feeds the lake of the same 
name, and disappears in a katavotlrra, emerging (as it was univer- 
sally believed) in the Argolic river Erasinus t the water of the 
Stymphalus Avas conveyed to Corinth by an aqueduct built by 
Hadrian. 

§ 12. The inhabitants of Arcadia regarded themselves as the most 
ancient inhabitants of Greece,^ and derived their name from Areas, 
a son of Zeus. The Greeks described them as autochfTLonous, by 
which they tniderstood that they were Pelasgians who had never 
changed their abode. They led a primitive and secluded life among 
their mountains, tending their hocks and herds, cultivating music 
with success,^ but otherwise rather famed for stupidity,^ — brave and 
hardy, and hence, like the Swiss, constantly employed as merce- 
naries. They lived for the most part in villages, in a state of political 
independence.^ The country was divided into numerous districts, 
which were for the most part named after Avell-known towns in 
each. The exceptions are Parrhasia,^ on the border of Messenia, 
which appears once to have possessed a town of the same name ; 
Cynuria," to the X. of it ; Eutresia, X. of Megalopolis ; and Azania, 
which included numerous lesser districts in the X. of Arcadia. The 
towns were unimportant, with the exception of a few in the eastern 
district, particularly Tegea and the neighbouring Mantinea, which 



^ They termed themselves -poc7-t'A7]i'ot, as having existed " even before the 
moon :" — 

'ApKaSe?. oc K.a\ rrpocrOe SeATjt'atT]? vSeovTat, 
Zojeu'. (^i]yoi' eSovTts ey ovpecnv ov8e UeXacrylg 

'KOlov Tore KvSaA.t/j.otcrt^' avdcraeTO AevicaXCSrjcrLv. — APOLL. Argon, iv. 264. 
Orta prior Luna ;de se si creditur ipsi) 

A magno tellus Arcade nomen habet. — Ov. Fast. i. 469. 
- Hence " Arcades " became synon^mious Avith pastoral poets : — 

Ambo fiorentes a?tatibus, Arcades ambo. — Vieg. FcI. ^ii. 4. 

Tamen cantabitis, Arcades, inqiut, 
Montibiis hcec vestris : soli cantare periti 
Arcades. 7^7. x. 31. 

3 Arcadicus juvenis was tantamount to a " blockhead — ■ 

Nil salit Arcadico jnveni. Jrv. Saf. vii, 160. 

It is vrorthy of remark how the habits, mythology, and political condition of 
the Arcadians were influenced by the physical characteristics of their counti-y. 
The poverty of the soil and severity of the climate necessitated a jjasforal rather 
than an agricultural life ; hence their love of music and their devotion to Pan, 
the inventor of the pipe, and Mercury, the god of the lyi'e. The great hydraulic 
works necessary to keep the eastern plains from inundation were ascribed to 
Hercules. The mountain-ranges which encircled and subdivided it precluded 
both external and internal union for political purposes. 

5 It is noticed by Homer (17. ii. 60S;. The terms ParrJiasius d.n6. Fcn^rhasis 
are used by the Latin poets as equivalent to Arcadicus : — 

Farrhasio dictum Panos de more Luperc:^. — Yirg. ^F?i. viii. 344. 

Cum Parrhasio Ancreo. — Ov. Jfef. viii. 315. 
So also .Fn. xi. 31 ; Fast. i. 618, iv. 5 7 7 ; Frist, ii. 190. 



Chap. XXIII. 



173 



were exposed to inroads from the adjoining states of Sparta, 
Corintli, and Argos, and were not unfrequently rivals for the su- 
premacy over each other. Megalopolis was founded at a compara- 
tively late period, B.C. 370, and became the capital of the coimtry. 
The towns fell into decay under the Eoman dominion, and in the 
time of Strabo Tegea alone was inhabited. 

Mantinea stood ia the central portion of the plain of TripoJitza, and 
was the capital of a territory lying between the mountains Mienalus on 
the W, and Arteniisium on the E,, and separated by a low ridge from 
Orchomenia in the X., and by projecting spm^s of the mountains already 
mentioned from Tegeatis on the S. The town itself was in nearly the 
lowest as well as the narrowest part of the plain. The small river 
Ophis^ flowed originally through it, and afterwards just outside its 
walls, and disappeared in a katavothra to the X.W. of the town. The 
fortifications were regular ; and the circuit of the walls, flanked with 
numerous towers, are still traceable on the site, now named Foleopoli. 
The position of Mantinea rendered it a place of great military im- 
portance : roads led from it to Orchomenus, Tegea, Pallantium, and 
Argos ; and the character of the plain was adapted to the operations of 
an army. It was the scene of no less than five battles, of which the 
two first are of most historical importance; the first fought B.C. 418, 
in which the Argeans, Mahtineans, and Athenians, were defeated by the 
Lacedaemonians under Agis, and the second in B.C. 362, in which the 
Lacedaemonians were defeated by Epaminondas, who perished in the 
battle. Both these battles were fought in the plain S. of the town, 
where it is contracted by the advancing ridge of Msenalus, named Scope." 
Mantinea is said to have been so named after a son of Lycaon : it is noticed 
in Homer Originally it consisted of four or five villages, which were 
incorporated into one town. Its constitution was democratical, and hence 
it was hostile both to its neighbour Tegea and to Sparta. With the former 
it fought an indecisive battle in B.C. 423 ; by the latter it was defeated 
in the first great battle of Mantinea in 418, and again in 380, when the 
town capitulated, and its inhabitants were dispersed. The town was 
rebuilt in 371, and shortly after made an alliance with Sparta against 
the other Arcadian towns : this brought on the second great battle in 
362, in which Epaminondas died. In 295 the Spartans were defeated 
near the fown by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and in 242 by Aratus and the 
Achaeans. In the Cleomenic War, Mantinea was taken in 226 by Aratus, 
and in 222 by Autigonus Doson, when it was plundered^ and its name 
changed to Antigonia. In 207 the plain was the scene of a fifth great 



'° This stream rose in the territory of Tegea, and more than once was used as 
a weapon of offence in the Mantinean vs-ars, the plain being so flat that the waters 
could be easily diverted from their u-ual channel, or wholly stopped by an em- 
bankment, in either of which cases the plain was inundated. Tais was done by 
Agesilaus in e.g. 385. 

" This defile was the " narrow pass " in which Areithous was slain : — 



The epithet of "lovely," here applied, is now inappropriate to the plain, 
which is bare and covered to a great extent with stagnant water. I;i former 
times, however, forests of oaks and cork trees grew on it. 



8 




n. vii. 142. 
II, ii. 6uY. 



474 



AECADIA. 



Book IV 



battle, in which the Achfeans, under Philoj^oenien, defeated the Lace- 
dtemouians. The okl name of Mantinea was restored by Hadrian. 
The only remains of it are traces of the walls and of the theatre. 
Tegea stood in the southern part of the plain of Tripolitza, about 10 
miles S, of Mantinea. Its territory extended over the smTOuuding 
district, which was di-\ided into the following portions : — The Tegeatic 
plain to the X.. extending to the hill Scope; the Manthyric to the 
S.^Y. ; and the Corythic to the E. The plain is watered by the upper 
course of the Alpheus and its tributaries, as well as by the Garates : 
these streams all disappeared in l:<:itnrotl\ras. The io\yn was situated in 
the lowest part of the plain, and hence the accumulation of soil has 
entirely overlaid its site, leaving but a few buildings visible^ — p.mong 
them the remains of a theatre, perhaps the one built by Antiochus 
Epiphanes in 175. and of a temple of Athena Alea.^ erected by Scopas 
after the destruction of the former edifice in 3?)4, and deemed the most 
magnificent temple in the Peloponnesus. Tegea is noticed by Homer, 



ence. War broke out again between them, and battles were fought in 
479 and 464. o]i each of which occasions Tegea was unsuccessful. 
Thenceforth there was a firm alliance between them imtil 371. when 
Teg3a joined the Arcadian confederacy, and fought against Sparta 
and Mantinea in 362. It joined Sparta against the Achaean League,, 
and was hence taken by Antigonus Doson in ■222. retaken in 21 S by 
Lycurgus the tyrant of Spart:i. and subsequently by Machanidas. and 
recovered by the Achaeaus after the death of the latter. The town 
existed until the 4th century a,d. Megalopolis, •'■'the Great City," 
was situated in the middle of a plain on the banks of Helisson, 
about -h miles above its junction with tlie Alpheus: its ruins are 
near Si/ianu. It was founded in b.c. 37t'i. as the capital of the Ar- 
cadian confederation : and it was peopled with the inhabitants of 
forty townships, which thencefrirth became desolate. The iTjTvn itself 
was 5'j stadia in circumfereuce= and its territory extended north- 
wards for 23 miles, being the most extensive of all the Arcadian 
states. Roads led in various directions to ^lessene, Sparta, Tegea, 
Hera}a, and other places. The most important buildings were the 
theatre, on the S. side of the river, the largest in Greece : and the 
agora on the side, which was on a magnificent scale, and Avas 
adorned with colonnades, temples, and statues : the remains of the 
theatre are extensive. ]\Iegalopoli5 was particularly exposed to the 
enmity of the Spartans, not only from the object for which it was 
founded, but also from its position. It hence allied itself first with 
Thebes, and afterwards with 3'Iacedonia. It joined Cassander against 
Polysperchon, and was besieged by the latter in 318. It was afterwards 




and was probably the most 
celebrated of the Arcadian 



T^^"^A\ towns in ancient times. Its 
^ ^ ^ ' j contiguity to Sparta brought 
[v' i^'S^^ .^^ / it into early cunfiict with that 



Coin of Tegea. 



state : and after numerous en- 
gagements it was obliged to 
yield in about B.C. 56i'», though 
it still retained its independ- 



^ Templumque Aleae neniorale MinervLi?. — Stat. TJieh. iv. 2SS. 

The site of this temple is sometimes erroneously transferred, to the town of 
Alea in the X,E. of Arcadia. 



Chap. XXIII. 



TOWNS. 



475 



governed by tyrants. In 222 Cleomenes III. reduced the greater part 
of it to ruins ; it was soon rebuilt on its former grand scale, which had 
at all times been beyond the requirements of the population,^ Mega- 
lopolis produced two eminent men — the general Philopoemen, and the 
historian Polybius. Hersea was the chief town in the lower plain of 
the Alpheus : it stood on the .right bank of that river, about 2 miles 
above the junction of the Ladon.' Its territory was fertile, and it lay 
on the high road between Olympia and Central .ircadia. It is said to 
have been founded by a son of Lycaon. About B.C. 580 it concluded a 
treaty with the Eleans, the original of which, on a bronze tablet, is in 
the British Museum. The town was enlarged by the Spartan king 
Cleombrotus, and was hence allied to Sparta. It became a member of 
the Achaean League, and was a place of some importance in the time of 
Pausanias : its ruins neav Aicirmi ^ve inconsiderable. PMgalia occupied 
the summit of a lofty hill in the S.AY. corner of the country, on the 
right bank of the Xecla. Its origin was traced back to Phigalus, a son 
of Lycaon. In B.C. 659 it was taken by the Spartans, and in 
375 the place became notorious for the fierce disputes between its 
factions. In the wars between the ^tolians and Achaeans it was occu- 
pied by the former. Phigalia possessed a beautiful temple of Apollo 
Epicurius, erected to commemorate the deliverance of the town from 
the plague in the Peloponnesian War : it stood at Bassse, in a glen near 
the summit of Mt. Cotilium, and was the work of Ictinus, the archi- 
tect of the Parthenon. It was a peripteral hexastyle building of the 
Doric order, 125 feet in length and 48 in breadth, with 15 columns on 
each side. It exists in a tolerably perfect state, and is altogether one 
of the most interesting ruins in Greece. Methydrium was situated on 
a lofty height " between the rivers " (whence its name) Maloetas and 
Myl^on, in the central district of Arcadia : its position is probably near 
Nimnitza. It was founded by Orchomenus, and destroyed at the 
foundation of Megalopolis. Orchomenus was situated X". of Mantinea, 
on a plain ^ which was bounded on the X. by the lofty chain of Oli- 
gyrtus, on the S, by the low ridge of Anchisia, and on the E. and W. 
by parallel chains, not distinguished by any special names, from which 
spurs project into the centre of the plain, dividing it into two parts. 
The acropolis stood on the western of these spurs, a lofty insulated hill, 
nearly 3000 feet high, commanding the two plains : this position was 
forsaken for a lower site at the foot of the hill. Orchomenus was 
one of the most powerful cities of Arcadia in ancient times : it was 
governed by kings, who, down to the time of the second Messenian War, 
exercised a supremacy over the whole country, and who continued to 
reign in their own territory until the Peloponnesian War. Orchomenus 
was generally on bad terms with Mantinea, but was unable to cope 
with it. It was taken by Cassander in 313, subsec^uently by Cleomenes 
in the ^Etolian War, and retaken by Antigonus Doson. Some remains 
of temples and tumuli mark the site of the town at KalpaM. Stym- 
phalus lay on the S. side of the lake of the same name, where its ruins 



1 Its size was so excessive as to lead to the following hon mot of a comic 
poet : — 

'^p-qixCa ixeyaXy] ecrrlv rj MeyaAoTToAt.?. 

2 Ot ^dveov r eveyiovTO, koI 'Op^ofxevov TToXvfJirjkov. — IJ. 11. 605. 
Dives et Orchomenos pecorum. Stat. Tlieb. iv. 295. 



476 



ARCADIA. 



Book IV. 



may still be seen. It is noticed by Homer and Pindar.^ Its chief his- 
torical importance is due to its position on the road that leads into 
Arcadia from Argolis and Corinth. It possessed a temple of Artemis 
Stvmphalia. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Pallantium, TT. of Tegea, 
near a very ancient town, and the reputed residence of Evander, 

who transferred the name, together with a portion of its inhabitants, 
to the Palatine Hill at Rome;^ Asea, about midway between Tegea 
and Megalopolis, near the joint source of the Eurotas and Alpheus ; 
Lycostira, in Parrhasia^ near Stala, reputed by Pausanias the most 
ancient city in Greece ; Acacesium, in the same district, with a cele- 
brated temple of Despoena in its neighbourhood ; Aliphera, upon a 
steep and lofty hill, now named Xerovitza, near the borders of Elis, 
with temples of Asclepius and Athena, and a celebrated bronze statue 
of the latter ; Thelptisa, on the Ladon,^ X. of Her^ea, taken by Anti- 
gonus Doson in 2"22 ; its ruins lie on the slope of a hill near Vanena : 
it possessed famous temples of Erynnys and Apollo, at a spot named 
Onceum; PsopMs, Tr/'potamo, a very ancient town, situated on elevated 
ground at the junction of the Erymanthus and Aroanius, captured by 
Philip of Macedon in 219; Cleitor, ruins at Paleopoli, more to the E,, 
situated on a brook of the same name, which falls into the Aroanius 
(not the river above mentioned;, a tributary of the Ladon : its inha- 
bitants were renowned for their love of liberty, and were frequently 
engaged in contests vdth. the other Arcadian towns ; a celebrated foun- 
tain was in its neighboiu'hood,^ and the river Aroanius is said to have 
produced singing fishes; Cynaetha, Kalavrrita, on the X. side of the 
Arcadian mountains, destroyed in the Social War by the .Etolians ; 
Nonacris, more to the E., famed for its yicinity to the river Styx,' which 
rises a short distance from the town, and descends perpendicularly^ over 
a precipice,^ forming by far the highest waterfall in Greece; it falls into 

3 'XTVfX(f>r}\6v T elxoi', koI UappacrL-qv evenovTO. H. ii. 608. 

OiKodev OLKaS' a-o Srv/J-cpaAtcoi/ 
TeLx^oov TTOTLVLcrcrofJiei'ov, 

'^larep' ev/adAoto XeC-ovt 'ApKaSias. PiXD. Olymp. vi. 1(37. 
^ Arcades -Ms oris, g-enus a Pallante profectum, 
Qui regeni Evaiidrnm comites, qui signa secuti, 
Delegere locum, et posuere in montibas urbem, 
Pallautis proavi de nomiue, Pallanteum. — Yirg. ^^In. viii. 51. 
5 AiKTig eacret rdpooOo? TeA.(/)oucrta 

AaScoro? d/j.61 pelSpa vaiovcra, (jKvka^. LycOPHR. 1040. 

^ This spring was supposed to be a specific against the love of wine : — 
Clitorio quicunque sitini de fonte levarit, 

Vina fugit ; gaudetque maris abstemius undis, — Ov. ILet. xv. 322. 
■ Xonacrius is used by Ovid as a synonym for Arcadius : — 

Et matri et vati paret Xonacrius heros :sc. Evander'. — Fast. v. 97. 
Diini redit itque frequens, in virgine Xonacrina. — Met. ii. 409. 
It is correctly described by Homer and Ilesiod : — 

ST-vyb? uSaro? alrra peeOpa. II. viii, 369. 

Kal TO K.aTeL^6iJ.evov '2,Tvyo<; v5cop. Id. xv. 37. 

vScop 

"^vxpov 6 r e/c —erpris KaraA-et'/SeraL T^Ac^Sdroto 
'Yi//r)A>)9. The'-^g. TS5. 

'QyvyLOv, TO 8' n-jcn KaracrrudeAov Sect x^P^'^'- — 
The description in Herodotus ,vi. 74} is less correct. The old belief still holds 
good among the inhabitants of the neighbourhood ; whence the modern names 
2favro-Xero, "black waters," and Drako-Xero, " terrible waters." 



ciiAP. xxni. 



HISTORY- SPOEADES. 



477 



the Cratliis below Xonacris; its waters were believed to be poisonous, 
and hence the stream was transferred to the iraagery of the nether 
world ; Pheneus, Fonia, AY. of Stymphalus, in a plain enclosed on eTery 
side by mountains, and 
watered by two streams, 
which disappear in a 
hatavotlrrct, and emerge 
as the sources of the 
Ladon : this outlet 
has occasionally become 
choked, and an inunda- 
tion has ensued: a canal 
which was formed for 
the purpose of guiding 
the streams to the Icato.votlira was ascribed to Hercules; the town is 
noticed by Homer, and is represented by Yii^gil as the residence of 
Evander : ^ lastly. Caphyse, X.\Y. of the lake of Orchomenus at Klto- 
tussa, the scene of a battle between the ^Etolians and Acheeans in 'J.20; 
its territory was protected from inundation by embankments and 
trenches. 

History. — The early history of Arcadia is unimportant. The people 
were divided into three separate bodies, named Azanes, Parrhasii, and 
Trapezuntii, governed by their separate kings. Homer notices only one 
Arcadian king, Agapenor. The Dorians did not conquer Arcadia on 
their first entrance into Peloponnesus, but the Spartans succeeded in 
gaining various districts adjacent to their frontier. The Arcadians were 
thtis opposed to Sparta, and it was not until the defeat of the Tegeans 
in B.C. 560 that they changed their views, and became allies of that 
power. Between 479 and 4i34 they vainly endeavoured to shake off the 
supremacy. In the Peloponnesian AYar all the towns, except Mantinea, 
remained faithful to Sparta, and even iMantinea was obliged to succumb 
in 417. After the battle of Leuctra in 371, the Aix-adians became inde- 
pendent, restored Mantinea, which had been destroyed in oS5, and 
founded ^legalopolis as the seat of a federal government. A battle, in 
which the Spartans were victorious in 367, and a war with the Eleans for 
the Olympian suj^remacy in 36.5, were the next events of importance: the 
latter lei to disputes between Tegea and IMantinea, which were not 
settled until the battle of Mantinea in 362. The country subseqitently 
joined the Achaean Leagtie, to which it belonged, until the dissolution of 
the league by the Romans, when it 'became part of the province of 
Achaia. 

§ 13. The islands of the ^Ega^an Sea, which were not included in 
the Cyclades, were grouped together under the general name of the 
Sporades, " scattered." Some of these lie in close contiguity to the 
eastern and northern coasts of the ^grean, and have been already 
described in connexion with Asia Minor and Thrace. Another 
group is found between the coasts of Peloponnesus and Crete, con- 
sisting of Melos, Cimolos, Oliaros, Pholegandros, Sicinos, los, 
Thera, and Anaphe ; Avhile a third,, lying E. of the Cyclades, in- 
cluded Amorgus, Astypala?a, and some lesser islands. 




^ Acccssi et cupidns Phenei sub mc£nia duxi. — ^En. viii. 165. 



478 



SPORADES. 



Book IV. 



Melos, 3IiIo, stands midway between Crete and Peloponnesus, 70 
miles from the former, and 65 from the latter; it is about 15 miles 
long and eight broad, and resembles a bow in shape : it is mountainous, 
and of volcanic origin, and has warm springs : its chief productions 
w^ere kids, sulphur, alum, pumice-stone, and a red pigment. A deep 
bay occurs on the N. coast, and served as the harbour of the chief 
towm, which stood on its shore : remains of polygonal walls, of two 
theatres, and of the necropolis, still exist. Melos w^as originally occu- 
pied by Phoenicians, and afterwards by Lacedoemonians. It was cruelly 
ravaged by the Athenians in B.C. 416, w-hen the population was exter- 
minated, and Athenian settlers introduced. Cimolos, Cimoli, lies 
between Melos and Siphnus, in size 5 miles long by 3J broad : it 
was particularly celebrated for its chalk ^ (Cimolia creta), used by 
fullers, and in medicine. The chief town stood opposite Melos on a 
rock, named DasTcalio, which w^as formerly united to the island by an 
isthmus, but is now disjoined from it. Oliaros,^ Antiparo, near Paros, 
is now^ famed for a stalactitic cavern, which appears to have been 
unknown to the ancients. Pholegandros, Sicinos, and los, lie in a line 
from AY. to E., to the S. of Paros, and retain their names with but 
slight variation: los is celebrated as the burial-place of Homer; the 
alleged discovery of his tomb in 1771 is, how^ever, problematical. 
Thera, Santorin, is the chief of the group, and lies nearest to Crete : it 
has the form of a crescent, with its horns elongated tow-arcls the W., 
and has a circumference of 30 miles, with a breadth nowhere exceeding 
three miles. It is said to have been first occupied by Phoenicians, but 
it was afterwards colonized by Spartans,^ and itself colonized Cyrene, in 
Africa. Opposite the ^sT. point of Thera is Therasia; and between this 
and the S. point is the islet of Aspronisi : these three were vjriginally 
united, and they form the walls of a vast crater, now a gulf of the sea, 
from the centre of which have arisen three peaks, named the Xrt????)2e?z/s, 
the first of which made its appearance in B.C. 197, the second in a.d. 
46, and the third in a.d. 1707. The volcanic eruptions in these islands 
have been very numerous and violent. There are remains of several 
ancient towns on Thera, particularly of one of considerable size on the 
summit of 3Iessa Vouno. Anaphe lies E. of Thera, and contained a 
famous temple of Apollo ^gletes, said to have been founded by the 
Argonauts, of which considerable remains still exist : it has at all times 
abounded in partridges. Astypalaea, Stanipalia, lies E. of Anaphe, and 
consists of two large rocky masses, united in the centre by an isthmus : 
two deep bays penetrate on the N. and S. coasts, and off the latter lie 
several desert islands.'^ It was colonized by Megarians, and is said to 
have been subdued by Minos: in B.C. 105 the Romans concluded a 



1 Cretosaqiie rura Cimoli.— Ov. Met, vii. 463. 

- It is noticed by Alrgil : — 

Olearon, niveamque Paron, sparsasque per sequor. — ^^n. iii. 126. 
3 Its earliest name is said to have been Calliste :■ — 

Kat, Aa/ceSat- 
IxovCoov jatx^eVre? avSpiov 
ll9e<TLv, ev TTore KaA.- 

\C(TTav antoKrja-av XP^^V 
Nao-ov. Pi>T>. Pyth. iv, 457. 

•* Ovid alludes to these in the line : — 

Cinctaque piscosis Astypalaea vadis. — Ov. Ar. Am. ii. 82. 



Chap. XXIII. 



CEETA. 



479 



treaty with it, and made it subsequently a ^'libera civitas." The town 
stood on the S. bay, and appears to have possessed handsome buildings. 
Amorgos, Amorgo, IST.W. of Astypalaea, is chiefly celebrated as the 
birth-place of the poet Simonides^ and for its linen fabrics. It was 
fertile, and was considered by the Eomans as one of the most favour- 
able places for banishment : it contained three towns. Cinarus, named 
after the artichoke {KLuapa) it produced, and Lebinthus, lie E. of 
Amorgos; Lelandrus and Nicasia N. of it; Phacusa and Schoenusa W. 
of it. 

§ 14. The large island of Creta, known to us under the name of 
Candia^ but to its own inhabitants as Krifi, lies at the entrance of 
the ^ga^an Sea, about 60 miles distant from the Peloponnesus, and 
double that distance from Asia Minor. Its length is about 160 miles, 
and its greatest breadth about 30. It is very mountainous and w^oody, 
and was celebrated in ancient times for its medicinal herbs (parti- 
cularly the " dictamnon for its raisin-wine and honey, and its 
dogs. A chain of mountains traverses the whole length of the 
island : the central height, named Ida,^Ps^7or^Y^, terminates in three 
lofty peaks at an elevation of 7674 feet: the eastern prolongation 
was named Dicte, JuJctas, and the western Leuce,^ Leuki. The coast 
is irregular, and contains numerous promontories, of which we may 
notice, as most important — Corycus, C. Grabusa, in the oST.W. ; 
Dictynnaeum, or Psacum, C. Spadlia, a little to the E., the termina- 
tion of a ridge of the same name, which was crowned with a temple 
of Dictynna ; Criumetopon, C. Crio, in the S.W. ; Matala, Matala, 
on the S. coast ; Ampelus, C. Xacro, in the S.E. ; and Samonium, the 
Salmone of Acts xxvii. 7, C. St, Sidero, in the IST.E. The chief 
river, named Lethaeus, Malogniti, runs from E. to W. through the 
plain of Gortyna, joining the sea on the S. coast. The other streams 
derive their whole importance from poetical associations : they are 
the lardanus,^ Flatania, on the N. coast, near which was the rock 
Lissa ; and the Oaxes,^ or Axus, flowing down from Ida to the N. 
coast, and still retaining its name. 

§ 15. The earliest inhabitants of Crete were probably a mixed 



^ Ida, and particularly its summit, named Panaci'a, was regarded as especially 
sacred to Jupiter, where the hees nurtured him with their honey : — 
KpTjTTj TLjjL-qeacra, Atbs jxeydkoLO tlOt^vy], 
noAA.77 re kcTTap-q re Kal eujSoro?* ri<; v—ep ''ISrj, 
1617, KakXiKoiJ-OLCTiv VTTO SovcTt Tr]ke66ojaa. 

Kat tt}? rot iJ.eyeOo? Tvepnocnov. DiOX. Pekieg. 501. 

TevTO yap e^amvala HavaKpiSG'; epya. /xeA-tVcnj? 
'ISatot? ev opeacn, rd re Kkeiovcn IldvaKpa. 

Calliji. Rymn. in Jov. 50, 

*^ Leuca was well clothed with wood : — 

/Satire 5e Kovpr} 

AevKov e'—t, 'KprjTalov opo?, KeKOfxiqjj.ei'ov vkrj- — CALLi:\r, IT. in Dian. 40. 
7 rjxi^ KuScoves evaiov, 'lapBdvov a,a(^)l peeOpa. Oil. iii. 292. 

^ At nos hinc aiii sitientes ibimus Afros, 

Pars Scythiam, et rapidum Cretae veniemus Oaxen. — Yiro.. EcI. i. 65. 



480 



CEETA. 



Book IV. 



race of Carians, Pelasgians, and Phoenicians. In the heroic age, 
Dorians were the dominant race, sharing the country with the Eteo- 
cretans, Cydonians, and other races.^ The Cretans had a high 
reputation as light troops,^ and served as mercenaries in Greek and 
barbarian armies. They Hved in separate communities, each town 
having its own senate, coins, &c., and only coalescing, or " syn- 
cretizing," when their common mother-country was threatened by 
a foreign foe. The towns are said to have been as many as 100.'" 
Many of them were very ancient, and they existed until the invasion 
of the Eomans under Q. Metellus. The most important were 
Cnossus, Gortyna, Cydonia, and, after the decay of the latter, 
Lyctus. The lii'st two had a " hegemony,*' and were generally 
hostile to each other. 

(I.) On the Sea-Coast. — Commencing in the X.W., the first important 
town we meet with is Cydonia, Kh an i a, vrhich existed in Homer's time, 

but was enlarged and 
adorned by the Samians 
under Polycrates. In the 
Peloponnesian ^Yar it 
was at war with the Gor- 
tynians and Athenians. 
It was besieged by Pha- 
laecus the Phocian after 
the Sacred War, and 
again by the Roman 
general Metelliis. The 
quiDce-tree derived its 
name from this place. Itanus, on the E. coast, near a promontory 
of the same name, was probably a Phoenician town. Leben, Lecla, on 
the S, coast, served as the port of Gortyna, and possessed a celebrated 
temple of Asclepius, Phalasarna, on the ^y. coast, a little S. of 




Coin of Crdonia. 



9 Kp>]T7] Tc? ya.1 earl, /j-ecrco evl olvom —ovrco. 
Ka/\7] Kal —Letpa. —epLppvTO?' 8' a.v9pa}~0L 
XIoA-Aol. arretpecrtot. Kal hn'-qKOi'ra Tr6\7je<;. 
Ak\ii 6' akyXtoi' ykdxTcra ixeixiyixivr]' ev fxev "A;)(atol, 
'Ei' 5' "EreoKpri-e? jj.eyci\-f]70pe<;. ei' 8e KvScoi'e?, 
Atoptc'e? re rptxat/^eg. Sloi re UekacryoL. Od. xix. 172. 

' Their skill with the hovr and arrow is frequently noticed :^ — ■ 
Primusve Teiicer tela Crdonio 

Direxit arcu. Hor. Carm. ir. 9, 17. 

Hastas et calami spiciila Gnosii 

Titabis. Id. i. 15, IT. 

Libet Partho torquere Cydonia cornii 
Spicula. ViRG. Fcl. x. 59. 

2 AAAot 6\ oi Kp7jr7]v eKaro/x— oAcr d/x6e7'e,aoi'70. — U. ii. 649. 
Creta Jovis magni medio jacet insula ponto ; 
Mons IdGBUs ubi, et gentis cunabula nostrce. 
Centum urbes habitant magnas, uberrima regna. — .^T;?. iii. 104. 
Aut ille centum nobilem Cretam urbibus, 

Ventis iturus non suis ; 
Exercitatas aut petit Syrtes Xoto : 

Aut fertur inccrto mari. Hor. Fjjod. ix. 29. 



Chap. XXIII. 



TOWXS. 



481 



Prom. Corycus, was the nearest port to Greece, and possessed a temple 



of Ai'temis. Eemains of the walls, tombs, and of 
out of the solid rock and dcst:ne<l f.j 
; 2. In tlie Interior. — PolyiThenia 
and had Phalasarna as its pert, fr 
miles: its war with Cnossit- in i; c 



recorded: some vrails near KUoino-Kostdi 
Lampa, possessed an extensive district, extei 
made rise of Phoenix as its port. Aft-r its 



■ some deity, still 
was the chief to' 
ni whicli it was 
-19 :> the onlv 



rk it; 



ngiilar chan' cut 
exist. 

vn in the X.Vn'.. 
distant ab 'Ur 7 
historical event 
site. Lappa, or 



citv br Au^T 



?tus. and at a hx\ 



represent 



made a free 

episcopal see. Some ruins at FoJ 
stood S. of Ida. on a jjlain 
watered by the river Leth- 
Eeus, and possessed two har- 
- hours. Leben and iMetallum. 
It ranked next to Cnossus 
in imjjortance, and in early 
times had leagued with that 
town for the piu'pose of sub- 
duing the whole of Crete, 
but afterwards was enga^red 
in constant hostilities vdth 

it. In the Pelop'ramesian War it sided with Athen; 
elected commander-in-chief of its army in b,c. l''. 
Goitjmians joined Quinctius Flamininus in Thessa 



- " r Alctclh-. it .va> 
^i:-! it I'ccame an 
Gortyn, or Gortyna, 





Coin of Gortyna. 



Philopo^men Avas 
and, in 197, o'j''' 
Its site is iincer- 



Cnossus. or Gnossus. the 



tain: it has been placed at Ragliios Dheha 
royal city^ of Crete, was 
centrally situated near the 
X. coast, on the banks of 
a small stream named 
Cceratus,^ after which it 
was originally named. It 
possessed two ports, Ilera- 
cleum and Amnisus. Its 
foimdation was attributed 
to Minos, who residedthere. 
The locality abounded with 
mythological associations ; Jupiter was believed to have been born and 
to have died there :^ there Daedalus ctiltivated his art, and near it was the 




Com of Cnossii.-. 



3 TfiCTL 6' evt Kt^coj-crb?. ixeyak-q rroAt?- ev9a re McVco? 

'Ej/vecopo? ^acrtAeve Atb? ixey6.\ov hapiu'T-qq. Cd. xix. 178. 

The whole island was occasionally named after it ; — 

Jupiter omnipotens I iitinam ne tempore primo 
Gnossia Cecropise tetigissent iittora puppes ; 
Indomito nec dira ferens stipendia tauro 

Perfidiis in Cietam religa.-set navita funem. — Catvll. Ixiv. 171. 
* Xaipe ik Katparo? rrorafxoq iJ-iya, x^-'-P^ T-z/^'v?. 

Callix. Eyran. in Dian. 44. 
The Cretans pretended that they had his tomb, and hence obtained the cha- 
racter for lying- attributed to them by Callimachus and Aratus, the latter of whi.m 
is quoted by St. Paul [Tit. i. 11] :— 

Kpy^re? del \bev<jraf Kal yap rdoov. u dva. aeio 
Kpr/Tes tTtKr-qvavTO. cru 8' ov ^dte?, ecrcl yap aleC. 

Callim. Eyran. in Jov. 8. 
Kprjre? del vL-evcrrat. Ka.Acd Qrjpia. vacrre'pe? dpyai. 

Y 



482 



CEETA. 



Book IV. 



Labyrinth,'^ erected by liim and inhabited by the Minotam^ a building 
which had no existence except in the imaginations of poets. Cnossus 
vras colonized by Dorians, and became the leading town in Crete. The 
Eomans made it a colony. Some rude masses of Eoman brickwork 
and parts of a long wall, from which the site is now named 2Miro- 
Teicho, are the sole relics of it. Lyctus was situated in the interior, 



merous remains of buildings, tombs, marbles, and particularly an im- 
mense arch of an aqueduct, exist at Lijtto. Praesus stood under the X. 
slo]De of Mount Dicte and possessed a considerable territory, together 
with a famous temple of Diet aean Jupiter : its ruins still retain the name 
of Frsesus. 

History. — The history of Crete is somewhat bare of events. At the 
time of the Trojan War, Idomeneus, son of Deucalion and gi^andson of 
Minos, was king, and took part with the Greeks. After his return he 
was banished, and retired to Italy. The violent quarrels between the 
chief towns led to a reference to Philip TV. of Macedon as a mediator; 
but his intervention does not appear to have effected permanent good. 
In B.C. 67 Crete was reduced by Q. Metellus Creticus, and was annexed 
to Cyrene as a Roman province. This union remained in force until 
the time of Constantino, when they were constituted distinct provinces. 

St. Paid' 8 Travels.' — In his disastrous voyage to Rome St. Paul 
visited the coasts of Crete. Sailing from Myra in Lycia with a X.AV. 
wind, his vessel ^^ran under Crete over against Salmone," i. e. got 
under the lee of the island, easily rounding the cape, but afterwards 
with difficulty getting along the S. coast. Reaching the neighbourhood 
of Prom. Matala, whence it would have been necessary to cross the 
open sea, it was deemed prudent to put into a roadstead a few miles 
E. of the cape, named '^Fair Havens," near which was a town named 
Las£ea, the ruins of which have been found five miles E. of the cape. 
Here the vessel remained some time; but, as the place was incon- 
venient for wintering, it was decided to go to Phoenice (the classical 
Phoenix which lay more to the W., probably at Lutro. which is 
described as looking toward the S.W. wind and X.W. wind," mean- 
ing probably the aspect which the place bore to one approaching it 
from the sea, in wliich case it would be sheltered from those -^inds. 
They set sail ; but, after passing Cape Matala, they were blown off the 
shore of Crete by a N.E. wind, and carried by Clauda, the modern 
Gozza, a small island lying S.W. of Crete (Acts xxvii. 7-16). 




Coin of Lyctus. 



S.E. of Cnossus: it was re- 
garded as a colony from 
Sparta, and the worship of 
Apollo prevailed there. It 
was a constant rival of Cnos- 
sus. In 344 B.C. it was 
taken by Phaleecus, the Pho- 
olan, and an ally of Cnossus, 
and at a later period was 
utterly destroyed by the 
Cnossians : it was finally 
sacked by Metellus. Xu- 



6 Et' 6e xop'oi'' ttolklWs TreptKAvro? 'AiJi(})LyvrieL<;, 
To) tKeAoj", oiov TTor' hA Ki^cocrcrw evpeLifi 



II. xviii. 590. 



Personification of the Eiver Tiber, 



CHAPTER XXIY. 

ITALY. — YEXETIA, ISTKIA . GALLIA CISALPIXA, LIGURIA, 

§ 1. Boundaries; Xames. §2. General Character; Climate; Produc- 
tions. § 3. ^lountains. § 4. Bays and Promontorie.s. § 5. Pdver.-. 
§ 6. Lakes. § 7. Inhabitants. § 8. Diyisions. 1. Vevetia andlsTEiA. 
§ 9. Istria. § 1<J. Boundaries of Venetia. § 11. Pavers. § 12. In- 
habitants; Towns; Poads; History. II. Gallia Ci-alpixa. § lo. 
Boundaries; Xame. § 14. Rivers. § 15. Inhabitants; Towns; 
Roads; History. III. Ligeeia. § 16. Boundaries; Physical Fea- 
tures. § 17. Inhabitants: Towns; Roads; History. 

§ 1. The peninsula of Italia was bounded on the X. by the Alps 
on the E. by the Adriatic or Upper Sea, on the TV. by the Tyr- 
rhenian or Lower Sea, and on the S, by the open Mediterranean. 
The XDrecise boundary on the X.E. and X.W. Yaried : in the latter 
direction it was originally fixed at Tropasa Atigiisti. Y-liere an ad- 
Yancing spur of the Maritime Alps formed a natural division, but 
by Augustus it was adYanced westward to the riYer Varus, and thus 
included Xica^a ; in the former direction the boimdary originally 
stood at the river Formio, but was afterwards carried on to the 
Julian Alps and the riYer Arsia. The general direction of the pe- 
ninsula is toY'ards the S.E. ; its extreme length, from the foot of 
the Alps to Prom. Leucopetra is about TOO miles ; its width Yaries 
considerably, the northern portion spreading out into a broad ex- 
panse about 350 miles across, while the southern portinn has an 
aYcrage width of about 100 miles; its area is estimated at 9<'V>''0 
square miles. 

Y 2 



484 



ITALIA. 



Book IV. 



Xame. — The etymology of the name Italia is quite uncertain: the 
Greeks and Romans derived it from an eponymus hero, Italus:^ others 
have connected it with an old Tyrrhenian word allied to vitulus. 
meaning ox. *' in wliich case Italia would signify ^^the land of oxen." 
The name was originally applied only to the S. point of the peninsula, 
as far X. as the Scylletian Gulf. Thence it was extended, even in 
early times, to the whole tract along the shores of the Tarentine Gulf 
as high as Metapontum. and on the W. shore as high as the Gulf of P?es- 
tum. and in this sense it was co-extensive with (Enotria. At that time 
■about the 5th century. B.C.") the remainiDg portions of Italy were 
knovrn hj the names of Opiea and Tyn'tLenia. In the time of Pyrrhus 
it was extended northwards to the S. frontiers of Cisalpine Gaul and 
Liguria. In the later days of the Republic, when those countries were 
subjected to the arms of Rome^ the name was extended in ordinary 
language to the foot of the Alps, though in official language the dis- 
tinction between Italia and Cisalpine Gaul was still observed. Under 
the Emperors this distinction ceased, and Italy was carried to the 
natural limits of the peninstila. viz. the Alps. In the last ages of the 
"Western Em])ire the name was applied exclusively to the northern 
provinces. We have fttrther to notice the poetical names of Hesperia,- 
Ausonia,-^ and Satumia."^ 

§ 2, The general features of the peninsula are the results of it^; 
}'riv>ical structure. It consists of two great divisions : (i.) the 
alluvial plains uf the Po in the X., lying between the Alps and the 
Apennines : and (ii.) the southern extension formed by the central 
ridge of the Apennines, which penetrates through the whole length 
of the peninsula, and reappears in the island of Sicily. Do^ii to the 
head of the Bay of Tarentiim this ridge is a single one : there it 
bifurcates, rme of the branches continuing to the E. and forming 
the Y'i'*-^m'''iito^'y of lapygia, while the other descends tirst toAvards 
the S. and afterwards towards the S.W : hence arises the striking 
resemblance which the southern portion of the peninsula bears to a 
boot. The lateral ridges of the Apennines are generally of low 
elevation, and seldom reach the sea : hence the line of coast is gene- 
rally regular. The rivers, v^uth the exception of the Fo, are neces- 
sarily of short course, the central chain forming an unbroken barrier 
throughout its whole length. The climate of Italy has in all ages 
been regard.ed as remarkably fine.^ The peninsula lies between the 



1 Qliiotri cohiere viri ; nuiic fama, minores 

ItaUam dixisse ducis de nonilne gentem. — ^En. i. 532. 
- Est locus, Ilesperiam Graii cognomine dicmit, 

Terra antiqua, potens armis, atque iibere glebae. — ^Iln. i. 530. 
3 Miilti illani magno e Ltitio totaqiie petebant 

Ausonia. .En. vii. 54. 

Pertiiht Aiisoiiias ad iirbes. — Hoe, Carm. iv, 4, 56. 
^ Salve, magna parens frugiun, Saturnia tellus 

Magna virum. Georg. ii. 17 3. 

5 Tlie fine passage from Yhgil [Georg. ii. 136, seq.) on this theme has been 
already quoted ^above, p. 322). 



Chap. XXIV. CLIMATE — PEODUCTIOXS — MOUXTAIXS. 485 



parallels of 38^ and 46^ X. lat., in tlie most favoured region of the 
temperate zone, tlie natural lieat due to its position being tempered 
by the seas that bathe its coasts, and l>y tlie high ground of the 
Apennines in the interior. It was probably somewhat colder in 
early times than at present.^ . ^Ye have also reason to believe that 
it was more healthy, the modern malaria being attributable in great 
measure to want of population and cultivation.' The soil Avas in 
many parts very productive : Campania yielded corn in abundance, 
while the olives of Messapia, Daunia, and the Sabines, and the vine- 
yards of Etruria, the Falernian, and the Alban hills, were famed 
throughout the ancient world. The highlands of the Apennines 
and the plains of Apulia afforded excellent pasturage for sheep, 
horses, and cattle. The plains of Lonibardy, then covered with 
forests, supported vast herds of SAvine. The slopes of the Apennines 
were clothed with magnificent forests. Mineral productions were 
not numerous :^ gold was at one time found in the Alpine streams : 
copper was tolerably abundant ; the island of llva yielded iron ; 
fine marble was found at Lima ; and among the special productions 
cinnabar and calamine are noticed. 

' § 3. The mountains of Italy belong either to the chain of the Alps 
or to that of the Apennines. The general course of the former of 
these chains has been already traced (p. 319). It remains for us to 
describe the divisions and principal heights knoAvn to the ancients, 
which are as folloAvs from \V. to E. : — Alpes Maritime, from the 



^ Horace speaks of Soracte as Tvhite with snovr, the Alban hills as covered 
with it on the first approach of winter, and the rivers frozen : — 
Vides ut alta stet nive candiduni 
Soracte, nec jam sustineant onus 
Silvge laborantes, geluque 

Flnmina constiterint acuto. Carm. i. 9, 1. 

Quod si bruma nives Albanis illinet agris. — Ej). i. 7, 10. 
Juvenal alludes to the Tiber being frozen, as if it were an ordinary occur- 
rence : — 

Hibernum fracta glacie descendet in amnem, 
Ter matutino Tiberi mergetur. Sat, vi. 522. 

" Certain portions of the peninsula appear to have beeii unhealthy in early 
times — the Maremma of Tuscany, for instance, and the neighbourhood of Ardea. 
Even Eome itself was unhealthy in the summer and autumn, as the subjoined 
lines from Horace show : — 

Frustra per autumnos nocentem 

Corporibus metuemus Austrum. Carm. ii. 14, 15. 

Auctumnusque gravis, Libitinse quEestus acerbee. — Sat. ii. 6, 19. 
^ The assertion of Virgil in the following lines partakes of poetical license ; — 
Hsec eadem argenti rivos eerisque metalla 
Ostendit venis, atque auro plurima fluxit. — Georg. ii. 1G5. 
The gold mines were Avorked out in his day, and we have no specific statement 
of the production of silver : the fact that the old coinage was of copper proves 
that it was not abundant. 



486 



ITALIA. 



Book IV. 



coast of Lignria to M. Vesulus,® Jioyz^e Viso, containing the sonrces 
of the Fo, A. Cottiae, northwards to Jlont Cenis, including M. Ma- 
trona, ^lont Genevre ; they were named after a chieftain of emi- 
nence in tliese parts in the time of Augustus. A. Graiae, from Mont 
Cenis to Jlont Blanc, including Cremonis Jugiim, C'ramont, and the 
A. Centronicae, about the Little St. BernarcJ. A. Penninae, from 
Jloji-f- BJ'.iiic to Monte Bosa, including the Great St. Bernard : the 
name is derived from the Celtic Be n^ qt Ben, "summit." A. Rhas- 
ticse, in the Grisons and Tyrol, including M. Adula, St. Gotliard. 
A. Carnicae or Venetae, from the Atagis eastward, so named from the 
tribes of the Carni and Yeneti. And, lastly, A. Juliae, extending 
down to the coast of the Adriatic, and named after Julius CcTsar, 
who reduced the mountain tribes to submission. The Apenninus 
Mons ^ emanates from the Maritime Alps in the X.AY. of Italy. At 
first it runs parallel to the sea, and in close proximity to it, sweeping 
ruund the head of ihe Ligurian Bay ; it then almost crosses the pen- 
insula to the Adriatic, in the neighbourhood of Ariminitm ; from 
thi^ point it turns to the S.S.E., and assumes a direction parallel to 
the Adriatic down to the borders of Lucania. Id the central por- 
tion oi the peninsula the main range approaches nearer to the Adri- 
atic than to the Tyrrhenian Sea, and leaves on the W. the plains of 
Eti uria and Latium ; as it descends to the S., however, it approaches 
the Avestern coast, and leaves the j^lains of Apulia on the E. In the 
S. of Samnium the chain presents the appearance of a confused knot 
of mountains. More to the S. it resolves itself into a central range, 
with numerous offshoots ramifying throughout the whole of Lucania. 
In the X. of Bruttium there is a remarkable subsidence of the chain 
between the Scylletian and Terina?an bays ; in the S. it rises again 
into a lofty and rugged mass to the height of about 7000 feet. The 
hishest summits of the Apennines are covered with snow during the 
winter.- The sides were far more extensively covered with forests 
formerly than they now are.^ 

§ 4. The line of coast contains the following bays and promon- 
tories from Y'. to E. : — Ligusticus Sinus, G. of Genoa, extending 
alons: the coast of Liguria. Lunae Prom., on the borders of Liguria 



^ Ac velut ille caniim morsu de montibus altis 
Actus aper, inultos Vesiilus quern pinifer annos 
Defendit. . ^En. x. 707. 

Lucan ii. 396, 5^*2.) gives a correct description of the position which the 
Apennines hokl in the Italian peninsnla. 
- Hence the expression is strictly true : — 

Gaiidetque niraJi 
Yertice se attollens pater Apenninus ad auras. — ^En. xii. 702. 
3 The pine grows only on the loftier summits, as implied in the following 
lines : — 

Tlorrehat glacie saxa inter Inbrica, summo 

rinifci'um coelo miscens caput, Apenninus. — Sil. Ital. iv. 743. 



Chap. XXIV 



BAYS — PEOMOXTOEIES, 



487 



and Etmria. Populonium Prom., opposite the isle of llva. Circaeum,"^ 

Monte Circeo, in Latiron, a hold, and abrnpt mass rising precipitonsly 
from the sea. MiserLum,^ C. di Miseno, in Campania, forming tlie 
northern Emit of the Sinus Cumanus, Bay of Xajjies. Prom. Mi- 
nervae, Funta della Crrrajjcinella, a bold rocky headland, forming the 
southern boundary of the Bay of Xo.jAes, and deriving its name from 
a temj^le of Minerva on its summit. Paestanus Sin,, <f Scdemo, 
commencing at Prom. Minerva^ in the X., and extending to the 
headland of Posidium, Punt a di Licosa, in the S. Palinuri Prom.,^ 
C. Palin aro, in Eucania, named after Palinnrns, the pilot of ^Eneas, 
who is said to have been bnried there; more to the S. a bay in 
Brnttinm, known by the various names of Sinus Hipponiates, Lame- 
tinus,' Terinaeus, Vibonensis, and Napetinus, after towns of similar 
names on its shore, and now the Gofo di So.'iita Eifemio.. Prom. 
Scyllaeum, SciUa, a projecting rocky headland jutting out boldly 
into the sea, at the entrance of the Sicilian Straits. Leucopetra, 
0, deir Armi, the extreme S.TT. point of Italy, and the termination 
of the Apermine range ; its name refers to the white colour of the 
cliffs. Prom. Herculis, C. Spaytivento, at tlie S.E. point of the pen- 
insula. Prom. Zephyrium, C, di Bruzzano, a low headJand on the 
coast of Bruttium, whence the Eocrians were named Epizephyrii. 
Sin. Scylleticus, Cr. cf'SquiUace, named after the town of Scylletium. 
Prom. Lacinium, ddJe Cdonne^ a bold and rocky headland about 
6 miles S. C'l Cro^jua, crowned in ancient times by a celebrated 
temple of Eacinian Jimo.' Sin. Tarentinus, Golfo di Tarrj.nto, an 
extensive gulf bttween the two great }:eninsulas of Suuthern Italy, 
commencing at the Eacinian promontury in the AV., andi extendLing 
to the lapygian in the E., named after the city of Tarentum. Prom, 
lapygium or Salentinum, C. di Leucn. the extreme S.E. ruint of the 
heel of Italy, forming the E. boundary of the Tarentine Gid.f. Prom. 
Crargani, the X. point of the large projection occupied by Yix, 



■* The name was connected ^th. the legend of Circe, though it does not appear 
whv this promontory should be identified with the island of the Homeric myth 
[Od. si. 135 . Either the legend itself was of Italian origin, or perhaps the 
Cimisean Greeks identified some local deity with their own Circe. The popular 
belief is expressed by Virgil in the Jlneid, rii. 10, seq^. 

5 So named after Misenus, the trumpeter of ^neas, who was buried there : — 

Monte sub aerio : qui nunc INfisenus ab illo 

Dicitnr, ceternumque tenet per stecula nonien.' — JLn. vi. 234. 

Qua jacet et Trojae tubicen Misenus arena. — Peopeet. iii. IS, 3. 

6 So named after the pilot of .Eneas, who was buried at this spot : — - 

Et statuent tumulum. et tum.ulo sollemnia mittent ; 
.Eternunique locus Palinuri nomen habebit. — Ji.n. vi. 3 SO. 
" Hinc sinus Herculei, si vera est fama, Tarenti 
Cernitur. Attollit se Diva Lacinia contra. ^ — JEn. iii. 551. 
Ext€nditque suas in templa Lacinia rupes.- — Lrc. ii. 434. 



488 



ITALIA. 



Book IV, 



ganiis, and, lastly, Sin. Tergestimis, G. of Trieste, at the X. end of 

the Adriatic Sea. 

§ 5. The rivers of Italy derive their importance rather from his- 
torical and geographical associations than from their size. From 
this description we must liOAvever except the Padus,^ Po, which de- 
serves to be ranked among the chief rivers of Europe.^ Eising in 
the AVestern Alps, it drains the wide basin of Xorthern Italy, re- 
ceiving numerous tributaries from the Alps ^ on the X. and the 
Apennines on the S., and discharging itself into the Adriatic through 
several channels, tlie position and number of which has altered from 
time to time. Of these there were two principal ones, named 
Padoa and Olana, and five lesser ones : some of them were artificial ; 
in otliers extensive embankments were raised to restrain the stream. 
The next important river in Xorthern Italy is the Athesis,- Ad 'fie, 
which in the lower part of its course flows parallel to the Po, and 
discharges itself into the Adriatic somewhat X. of it. In Central 
Italy we may notice the Arnus, Arno, which, rising on the western 
slopes of the Apennines, drains the northern portion of Etruria : 
and the Tiberis,^ Tiler, which has its sources not far from the Arnus, 
and floArs with a general southerly direction until it approaches the 
sea, when it turns towards the AV. ; its importance in the political 
geography of Italy is great, not only as being the river on which 
Pxome itself stood, but as forming the boundar\' lietween Etruria on 
the AV.,-^ and Urnbria, the Sabini, and Samninm on the E. S. of 



^ The orig-in of the name Padu? is uncertain ; it comes probably from a Celtic 
root. The native Ligurian name was Bodencns. The Greeks identified it with 
the mythical Eridanns, and the Latin poets adopted the title from them. 

^ Virgil designates it very properly the "king " of the Italian rivers : — 
Proluit insane contorquens vortice silvas 
Flur'wrum rex Eridanus, camposqiie per omnes 
Cmn stabulis armenta tulit. Georg. i. 481. 

^ As these streams were fed with the melted snow, the river has been at all 
times liable to heavy floods ; hence we read in Virgil : — 
Eridanus, quo non alius per pinguia culta 
In mare pui-pureum violentior effluit amnis. — Georg. iv. 372. 

- Virgil couples it with the Po, and gives it the epithet of "pleasant — 
Quales aerife liquentia fiumina circum 
Sive Padi ripis, Athesim sen propter amcenum, 
Consurgunt gemina? quercus. ^Fn. ix. 6 7 9. 

3 The name was connected with that of a Tuscan prince, Tiberis or Thybris, 
who was said to have been drowned in it ; its earlier name was Albula : — 
Turn reges, asperque immani corpore Tibris ; 
A quo post Itali fluvium cognomine Tibrim 
Diximus : amisit verum vetu^ Albula nomen. — viii. 330. 
Albula, quem Tiberun niersus Tiberinus in undis 
Reddidit. Ov. Fast. ii. 389. 

^ Hence it is termed " Tuscan " by Virgil : — 

Di patrii Indigetes, et Romule, Vestaque mater, 

Quse Tuscum Tiberim, et Eomana palatia servas. — Georg. i. 498. 



Chap. XXIV. 



RIVERS — LAKES. 



489 



the Tiber are tlie Liris, CrariijUano, A\iiicli has its sources in the 
Central Apennines near the lake Fuciniis,^ and flows through the S.E. 
of Latinm,^ joining the sea at ^[niturna? : and tlic Vulturnus, Tolturno, 
which brings with it the collected Avaters of almost tht^ vrhole of 
Samniiim/ and in its lower course traverses the plain of Campania 
to the sea. Between Campania and Lucania is the Silarus,^ ^ele^ 
which rises in the X.E. of Lucania, and fujws into the Gulf of 
Pfestum. On the E. of the Apennines the only noriceable river is 
the Auf idus, O/o/^fo, which rises in the >. of Samninm. and descends 
to the plains of Apulia, across which it flows with a gentle stream ^ 
to the Adriatic. 

§ 6. The lakes of Italy form a conspicuous feature in tliat country. 
They may be arranged into three groups : (i.) tiiL'Se of Xorthern 
Italy, which are fed by the Alpine streams, and lie as it were in 
long, deep valleys ; (ii.) those of Central Italy, which, with few ex- 
ceptions, occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes, and are thu> gene- 
rally of circular or oval form, and of small size : (iii.) those few 
which do not fall under this description, but are -imply l-asins sur- 
rounded by hills, whence the water has no natural outlet. 1. In the 
first of these classes we may enumerate — the Lacus Verbanus, Lago 
Maggiore, formed by the Ticinus: L. Larius,' L. di C'6//io, by the 

5 Lucan is mistaken in placing its sources in the country of the Vestini : — 

Umbrosae Liiis per regna Marie ee 
Yestinis impulsus aquis. ii. 424. 

6 Its loTver course crosses the plain of Campania with a slow gentle stream : — 

Non rura, quge Liris quiet a 

Mordet aqua faciturnus amnis. Hoe. Carm. i. 31, 7. 

' Hence the Vulturnus is a rapid and turbid stream : — 

Delabitur inde 

Yulturnusque ceJer. Luc. ii. 422. 

Multamque trahens sub gurgite arenam 
Yulturnus. Ov. jfet. xa-. 714. 

Yirgil characterises it as vadosus, referring apparently to the inequality of its 
stream : — 

Amnis que vadosi 
Accola Yulturni. ^En. xil. 728. 

^ The Silarus is said to have possessed the quality of fossilizing :• — 
Nunc Silarus quo- nutrit aquis, quo gui'gite tradunt 
Duritiem lapidmn mersis inolescere ramis.- — Sil. Ital. viii. 582, 
^ The passages describing the rapidity of its stream apply only to its upper 
course, near which Horace lived at Yenusia , and to the period of the year when 
it was swollen by the mountain rains : — 
Sic tauriformis volvitur Aufidus 
Qui regna Dauni pr-aefluit Appuli, 
Ciun saevit, horrendamque cultis 

Diluviem meditatur agris. Carm, iv, 14, 25. 

1 Yirgil describes Larius as the greatest of the Italian lakes. Yerbanus really 
holds this position, as its modern name implies : but he singularly omits all 
notice of this : — 

Anne lacus tantos ? te, Lari maxime, teque 

Fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino. — Geora. ii. 159. 

' Y 3 



490 



ITALIA. 



Book IV. 



Adclua ; L. Sebinus, L, d' Iseo, by the OUius ; and L. Benacus, L. di 

Garda, by tne Mincius. The L. di Lugano, between the two first 
lakes, though of large size, is not noticed by any writer earlier than 
the 6th century of our era. 2. In the second class are — L. Vul- 
siniensis, X. di Bolsena, in Southern Etruria, a basin of about 30 
miles in circumference ; L. Sabatinus, L. di Bracciano, and L. Cimi- 
nus, L. di Vico, in the same district ; L. Albanus, L. d^Albano, and 
L. Nemorensis, X. di Nemi, in Latium ; and L. Avernus ^ in Cam- 
pania. 3. In^the third class are the two most important lakes of 
Central Italy — L. Trasimenus, L. di Perugia, in Etruria ; and L. 
Fucinus,^ L, Fucino, in the territory of the Marsi. 

§ 7. The ethnography of Italy is still involved in much obscurity. 
The inhabitants may be divided into two classes : (I.) the occupants 
of the southern portion of the peninsula, who may be grouped under 
the following five heads — (1.) Pelasgians, (2.) Oscans, (3.) Sabel- 
lians, (4.) Umbrians, (5.) Etruscaus ; and (II.) the inhabitants of 
Northern Italy, who were either Celts — as the Gauls and the Carni, 
or of uncertain origin — as the Ligurians, Yeneti, and Euganei. 
The former class alone call for detailed notice : (1.) The Pelasgi 
were in historical times confined to the S., where they existed imder 
the following names ; — the Messapians and Salentines in the lapy- 
gian peninsula, and the Peucetians and Daunians in Apulia. The 
Siculi, who afterwards crossed into Sicily, belonged to the same 
stock ; and at an early period a Tyrrhenian race prevailed in Cam- 
pania and in Latium. Probably the inhabitants of Southern Etru- 
ria may be referred to the same class. (2.) The Oscans — whom we 
may identify with the Opicans and Ausonians of Greek writers, and 
w^ith the Auruncans of Pioman writers — were reputed the earliest 
inhabitants of Campania, and held Samnium before its occupation 
by the Sabines. The Yolscians and ^quians belonged to this stock, 
and it also furnished an important element in the Latin nation. 



2 The mepliitic exhalations arising from the lake and its neig-hbourhood sug- 
gested the idea that there was an entrance to the infernal regions here. To this 
circumstance its name was also referred, the Greek form ''A.opvo<; being derived 
from a and opvis, " the birdless lake :" the line in Yirgil, however, in which this 
is expressed, is probably interpolated — 

Spelunca alta fuit, vastoque immanis hiatu, 

Scrupea, tuta lacu nigro nemorumque tenebris ; 

Quam super baud ullse poterant impune volantes 

Tendere iter pennis : talis sese halitus atris 

Faucibus effundens supera ad convexa ferebat. 

[Unde locum Graii dixerunt nomine Aornon]. — JEn. vi. 237. 
2 The " glassy " w^aters of this lake are noticed by the poets : — • 

Te nemus Anguitiae, vitrea te Fucinus unda, 

Te liquidi flevere lacus. JEn. vii. 759. 

Vitreo quem Fucinus antro 

Nutrierat, dederatque lacum transmittere nando. — Sil. Ital. iv. 346. 



Chap. XXIV. 



IXHABITAXTS — DIYISIOXS. 



491 



(3.) The Sabellians are said to have originally lived in the central 
Apennines and the upland valleys about Amiternum. Thence they 
spread southwards in a series of emigrations, defeating the Oscans, 
and occupying their territories as conquerors. To this class 
belonged the T\'ell-known nations of the Sabines and the Samnites ; 
the Piceni, Peligni, Testini, and Marrucini ; probably the ]\Iarsi ; 
the Frentani and Hirpini ; the Lucanians and a portion of the 
Bruttians ; and, lastly, the later masters of Campania, which 
country they seized between B.C. 440 and 420. The Sabellians in 
each case probably coalesced with the earlier Oscans, with whom 
they may have been allied in race and language. (4.) The Um- 
brians were regarded as the most ancient of the Italian races. At 
an early period they occupied not only the district which after- 
wards bore their name, but also Etruria and the plains on the 
Adriatic from Eavenna to Ancona : they were also allied to the 
Oscans and Sabellians. (5.) Of the Etruscans, or Tuscans proper, 
we can say nothing more than that they were entirely distinct troni 
the surrounding nations, and that they were probably of Indo- 
European origin. 

§ 8. The geographical divisions of Italy usually recognized had 
their origin in the names which the Eomans found attached to the 
countries or their inhabitants at the period when they C'jnquered 
them. Xo formal division of the country took place until the time 
of Augustus, who divided it into 11 regions, the limits of which 
were not in all instances coincident with that of the old provinces. 
The regions included the following countries : 1. Latium and Cam- 
pania. 2. The Hirpini, Apulia and Calabria. 3. Lucania and 
Bruttium. 4. The Frentani, Marrucini, Peligni, Marsi, Yestini, 
Sabini and Samnium. 5. Picenum. 6. Umbria. 7. Etruria. 
8. Galha Cispadana. 9. Liguria. 10. The E. part of Cxallia 
Transpadana, Yenetia, and Istria. 11. The AY. part of Gallia Trans- 
padana. This division continued with but slight alteration to the 
time of Constantine, who added to Italy the provinces of Eha^tia 
and Yindelicia, and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and 
arranged the whole into 17 provinces, — the northern being placed 
under the Y^icarius Italian, and the southern under the Yicarius 
Urbis Eoma3. This division survived into the Middle Ages. 

I. ISTEIA AND YeXETIA. 

§ 9. The small district named Istria,^ or Histria, lay in the ex- 
treme X.E. of Italy, on the borders of Illyricum, and consisted of the 



4 The name is derived both by Greek and Latin authors from the notion that a 
branch of the Ister or Danube flowed into the Adriatic. That notion, however, 
probably originated in the resemblance of the names Ister and Istri. 



492 



ISTEIA A^TD YEXETIA. 



Book IV, 



greater portion of_ tlie triangular peninsula wbicli projects into the 
Adriatic between the Sinus Tergestinus and the Sinus Flanaticus. 
The river Arsia bounded it on the E., and the Formio on the X., 
where it adjoined Yenetia. It was not a naturally fertile country, 
but in the later ages it exported considerable quantities of corn, 
wine, and oil to Eavenna. The Istrians were probably an lllyrian 
race, but we know little of them. The towns are few, and, with 
the exception of Pola, unimportant. 

Pola/ Po?(X^ was situated near the S. extremity of the peninsula, on a 
land-locked bay which formed an excellent port. Tradition assigned 
to it a Colchian origin. We hear little of it until Augustus established 
a colony there, with the name of Pietas Julia. There are considerable 
remains, among which the amphitheatre, two temples, dedicated, the 
one to Rome and Augustus, the other to Diana, and a triumphal arch, 
named the Porta Aurea. are most famous. We may also notice — 
Parentium, Parenzo, on the W. coast, about 30 miles N. of Xola, occu- 
pied by Romans, and raised to the rank of a colony by Trajan; and 
-ffigida, more to the 'N., also a Roman settlement, and restored by 
Justin II. under the name of Justinopolis. 

History. — The Istrians first appear in history as confederates of the 
Illyrians in their piratical undertakings. Shortly before the second 
Punic War they were reduced to submission by M. Minucius Rufus and 
P. Cornelius. In B.C. 183 they were again attacked by M. Claudius 
Marcellus ; and in the years 178 and 177 they were finally subdued by 
A. Manlius and C. Claudius. 

§ 10. The boundaries of Venetia varied considerably at dilferent 
periods. In the later period of the Roman empire they were fixed 
at the Athesis on the W., and the Formio in the E. ; but in the 
former direction, Verona, Brixia, and Cremona, and sometimes even 
Bergomum, were included wuthin its limits, while in the latter the 
town of Tergeste was frequently regarded as belonging to Tstria, in 
w^hich case the boundary would be placed at the Timavus. Some- 
times Carnia was regarded as a distinct country from Yenetia, and 
again, previous to the time of the empire, both of these districts were 
included in Cisalpine Graul. The maritime district of Yenetia con- 
sists of a broad and level plain, through which the Alpine streams 
find their way in very broad beds, formed in the periods when they 
are swollen by the melting of the snows. The coast itself in the 
S.^Y. is fringed with lagunes, through which the rivers escape to 
the sea by narrow outlets. The rivers are confined in their lower 
courses by artificial barriers. The northern portion of Yenetia is of 
a mountainous character, being intersected with the spurs of the 
Alps. 

§ 11. The rivers of Yenetia are numerous, and are the most 
striking feature in the country. The Athesis, Adige (p. 488), is the 
most important. The next in point of magnitude is the Meduacus, 
or Medoacus, Brenta, which flows by Patavium, and receives as a 



Chap. XXIV. EIYEES - INHABITANTS ~ TOWNS. 



493 



tributary tlie Mecluacus Minor, Bacchiglione. Then follow, in order 
from W. to E. — the Silis, Sele, ^ small stream flowing by Altinum ; the 
Plavis, Piave, which enters the sea a few miles E. of Altinum ; the 
Liquentia, Livenza ; the Tilavemptus, Tagliamento, the most impor- 
tant in the E, part of the province, having its sources in the high 
ranges of the Alps above Julium Carnicum ; the Turrus, Torre, 
Natiso, Katisone, and Sontius, Isonzo, which now unite their 
streams, but which formerly flowed in other courses, — the Turrus 
and Xatiso under the walls of Aquileia, four miles W. of the present 
channel, and the Sontius by an independent channel ; the Frigidus, 
a tributary of the Sontius ; the Timavus, Timao, a river little more 
than a mile long, but of great size and depth, being 50 yards broad 
close to its source,^ and deep enough to be navigable for vessels 
of considerable size ; and the Formio, on the borders of Istria. 

§ 12. The earliest inhabitants of Venetia were named Euganei, a 
people of whom some traces remained in the valleys of the Alps 
within the historical period, but of whose origin we know nothing. 
The two chief races in later times were the Veneti, probabl}^ a 
Slavonian tribe, who occupied the W. district from the Athesis to 
the Plavis, and the Carni, probably a Celtic race, who occupied the 
E. district. The towns of Yenetia rose to high prosperity under the 
Pioman empire, not only from the fertility of the country, but 
because they stood on the great high-road that communicated with 
the E. To the latter circumstance they also owed their adversity : 
for it was through Yenetia that the barbarian hordes descended 
into Italy. Aquileia ranked as the capital of the province, and from 
its position near the hea(^ of the Adriatic, was the key of Italy, and 
hence the scene of repeated contests for the possession of the Impe- 
rial power. 

Tergeste, Trieste, was situated on the innermost bay of the Adriatic, 
and on the confines of Istria. It appears to have been a Roman settle- 
ment as early as B.C. 51, when it was plundered by some barbarians: 
in 32 it was fortified by Octavian, and it was made a colony by Augus- 
tus. It is seldom noticed, and never attained the importance which 
its modern representative, Trieste, now enjoys. Aquileia, Aquileia, ^^as 
situated near the head of the Adriatic, between the rivers Alsa and 
Natiso. It was founded by the Romans in B.C. 181, and named after 



^ The number of its sources is variously stated : Virgil makes them nine ; 
modern travellers reduce them to four. There appears to have been formerly 
some communication with the sea, by which some of the springs were rendered at 
times brackish, and hence perhaps the term pelagus applied by Virgil ; this 
phenomenon no longer exists : — 

Antenor potuit, mediis elapsus Achivis, 

lUyricos penetrare sinus atque intima tutus 

Regna Liburnorum, et fontem superare Timavi ; 

Unde per ora novem vasto cum murmure montis 

It mare proruptum, et pelago premit arva sonanti. — .En. i. 242. 



494 



YEXETIA. 



Book IV. 



the accidental omen of an eagle appearing at the time of its foundation. 
It soon rose to importance^ both as a place of trade and as a military 
station for the defence of the N.E. border.^ In a.d, 238 it was besieged 
without effect by the tyrant Maximin; in 340, the younger Constantine 
was defeated and slain beneath its walls; in 388, it witnessed the defeat 
and death of the usurper Maximus by Theodosius the Great; and in 
425, that of Joannes b}^ the generals of Theodosius II. In 452 it was 
utterly destroyed by Attila. Forum Julii, Clvidale dl Frhdi, lay about 
25 miles N. of Aquileia, and nearly at the foot of the Julian Alps. It 
was probably founded by Julius Caesar as a place of meeting for the 
Garni: but it did not rise to importance until the later ages of the 
Roman empire, and particularly after the fall of Aquileia, when it 
became the capital of Venetia. Julium Carnicum, Zuglio, was situated 
at the foot of the Julian Alps, and was probably founded at the same 
time as Forum Julii. Altinum, Altlno, stood on the right bank of the 
Silis, and on the edge of a lagune, from which it is now two miles 
distant. It became a favourite residence of the wealthy Romans/ and 
was further known for its excellent wooP and its fish: it became a 
colony probably under Trajan. Patavium, Padova, was situated on 
the river Medoacus, about 30 miles from its mouth. Its mythical 
founder was Antenor.^ The earliest historical notice of it is in B.C. 3ul, 
when it was attacked by the Lacedaemonian Cleonymus. In 174 it is 
again noticed, as seeking the interference of the Romans. Generally 
speaking, however, its history was uneventful, and it enjoyed a high 
degree of prosperity from its woollen manufactures,^ which so enriched 
its citizens, that it was the only city of Italy, except Rome, able to 
produce 500 persons entitled to equestrian rank. It was the birthplace 
of the historian Livy. In a.d. 452 it was utterly destroyed by Attila. 
Near it were some celebrated mineral waters, at a place named Aponi 
Pons, Bagni d- Ahano, situated at the foot of a singular volcanic group 
of hills named Euganeus Collis : ^ these waters were resorted to by 
patients from all parts of Italy. Lastly, Ver5na, Verona, though 
situated chiefly on the W. bank of the Athesis,^ may be regarded as a 
Venetian town, as it probably belonged to the Euganei. Of its early 
history we know nothing : it became under the Romans a colony, with 
the surname of Augusta, and was one of the finest cities in this part of 
Italy. The Campi Raudii, the scene of Marius's victory over the Cimbri, 



^ Ausoniiis places it ninth in his Ordo Xohilium Vrhlum : — ■ 

Nona inter claras Aquileia cieberis urbes 

Ttala ad Illyrieos objecta colonia montes 

Moenibus et partu celeberrima. 
' ^mnla Baianis Altini littora villis. Mart. iv. 2o. 

^ Telleribus primis Appulia, Parma secnndis 

Nobilis ; Altinimi tertia laudat ovis. Mart. xiv. 155. - 

9 Hie tanien ille (sc. Antenor) urbem Patavi, sedesque locavit 

Teuerorum, et genti nomen dedit ; armaque fxxit 

Troia. ^^n. i. 247. 

1 Vellera cum sumant Patavinae mnlta trilices 

Et pingues tunicas serra secare potest. Mart. xiv. 143. 

2 Euganeo, si vera fides memorantibus, augur, 

Colle sedens, Aponus terris ubi fumifer exit. Luc. vii. 193. 
2 Turn Verona Athesi circumflua. Sil. Ital. viii. 597. 



Chap. XXIV. 



GALLIA CISALPIXA. 



495 



were near it. It was the birrliplace of Catiillus.-^ and the scene of some 
interestmg occnrrences ui the tinie- ::' tL- la":-r h jman empir-^. The 
amphitheatre of Terona is in a _ j i d -z:^.^-^ pr'---rvaTi':'n : i~ vr^.s hnilt 
of marble_, and was capable of holdin.: -J. 0'; per- _n-, Th-re are niso 
remains of a theatre, of a gateway naiiied Porta do JJ -riO.-i. -nd cd the 
walls erected 'r' G ddem:- in a,:-, 2':-'. 

Of the 1-:^ "^"c ni^p notice — Tarvisimn. TrtV'So. on 

the Silis. a c m^ideraV'le c::t alter the lall of the we-tcrn cnittre: Opi- 
tergium. Od^z-to, between the rivers Flavin and Liju-ntia. a coL-ider- 
able town iindier the Romans, destroyed bv th- Qnadi and Mar:omanni 
in A.I). o7-2. but afterwards restored; Ateste. Ed":, about IS miles S.AT, 
of Patavi'am. a mnnicir al town of some imp^rtanje as early as B.C. 136. 
and adri—f. G L.n.tn colony; and Vicentia. or Vicetia. V^c>:n:a, 
about mil-- XG^d :: Patavium, frequently U'jticed by Pianan writers, 
but evidently not a place of importance. 

Boads. — Tenetia was traversed by an important high-road, which 
formed the chief line of commtmication between Alediolanum and the 
Danube, and the provinces of the Eastern empire. It passed through 
Aquileia. Altinum,. Patavhmi. and Vicentia. From Patavium a branch 
road joined the ^Emilian "Way at iMutina. The range uf the Alps was 
crossed at three points: il.] bv : r ' - d which led from Aquileia up the 
valley of the Frigdd'as. and cr': - :r: Ocra to ^Emona in Pannonia: 

■^2.^ by a road from Aquileia r... .j udiuiii Carnicum. and thence across 
the Alps to the valley of the Gail and the Faster TJ>ol : and ■ by a 
route which left Opitergium and pa-sed thm^agh the Val Suoiina to 
Tridentum. and ther- :bil ii:'^^ ~i_r "a.,-v cd tiie Athe^^is. 

History. — The hist ry o: ^'rir-:ra unimportant : the Veneti con- 
cluded an alliance with P-jme m B.C. 3'j2 against the Gauls, and they 
adhered to that alliance wi:h iT^at fidelity. The Carni were reduced 
about B.C. ISl. Before the d — o: ~ho P-r'^-^G:, ~lo Vcnr-:i ha l r.^^^-d 
from the condition of allit- ti.at - ;.'_;-ct- P.i.-j. Ti_vv rro- 
bably acqihi^ed the franchise m B.C. 49. 

II . Gallia Cisalpixa. 

§ 13. Gallia Cisalpina was b'junded on the E. by the Athesis on 
the side of Venetia and farther S. bv the Ailriatic Sea; on the S. 
Idv the river Piiibicon and the Apennines, separating it fre^m rmbria 
and Etrnria respectivelv : on the W. by the Trebia on the side of 
Liguria, and further X. Ijy the A1};'S ; and on the X. bv the Alps 
and Piha?tia. This province may be described generally as con- 
sisting of the basin o: the Po ; for. with the exception of the portion 
near the rise of that river which belonged to Ligm^ia, the whole 
coui'se of the river falls within the limits of Gallia, which was iin- 
equallydh^"' " " ' " it into two portions, named Transpadana andGis- 
padana. d . ,:o, is of a triangular G-rm, the Adriatic Sea sup- 
plying the base line, whence the sides of the valley gradually con- 
tract towards the AV. The greater portion of this district is an 
alluvial plain, the length of which, from Augusta Taiirinoruin to 



4 Mantua Yirsillo saudet, Verona Catiillo. 



Ov. Am. iii. 15 



496 



aALLIA CISALPIXA. 



Book IV. 



the delta of tlie Po, is above 200 miles, ^iiile its width between 
Bononia and Yerona is about 70. Its soil was wonderfully fertile, 
and tlie productions varied : we may particularly notice wool, swine, 
flax, and every kind of grain. 

Xames. — Various designations were employed to distinguish the Gaul 
of Italy from the uortheni country of that name. The most usual was 
Cisalpina, /. e. ^"'on this side of the Alps," as opposed to Transalpina : 
or Citerior, ^ nearer ." as opposed to Ulterior, further."' The Greek 
writers used the expressions Gaul within the Alps," or Gaul about 
the Po ;" or. again, -''the land of the Italian Gauls." Afte.r it had 
become thoroughly Romanized, it was termed Gallia Togata, in oppo- 
sition to G. Braccata or Comata. Frequently it is termed simply 
Gallia. 

§ 14. The mountains that boiQid the basin of the Po are connected 
either with the Alps or the Apennines : only a few of them received 
special designations. The rivers are for the most part tributaries of 
the Po. Those on the left or X. bank are of considerable size and 
length ; those on the S. l\ink are of less importance. This differ- 
ence is due partly to the circumstance that the Po approaches the 
Apennines more nearly than the Alps, and partly to the large 
amoimt of snow that covers the latter range. The most important 
of these tributaries, from VV. to E., on its left bank were — the Duria 
Minor, Dora Iiiparia, which joins it near Augusta Taurinortim: 
the Stura, Stiira ; the Orgus, Oreo ; the Duria Major, Dora Baltea, 
which has its sources in the Pennine and Graian Alps, and flows 
through the valley of the Salassi by Augusta, Aosta : the Sesites, 
Sesia ; the Ticinus,^ Ticino, flowing from the Lacus Yerbanus, his- 
torically famous for the battle between Hannibal and Scipio, in 
B.C. 218, as well as for engagements between the Alemanni and 
Aurelian in a.d. 270, and between Magnentius and Constantius in 
352 : the Addua, Adda, from the Lacus Larius ; the Ollius, OgJio, 
from the Lacus Sebinus ; and the Mincius,^ Mincio, from the Lacus 
Benacus, on whose banks Cornelitis defeated the Insubres and Ceno- 
mani in B.C. 197. On the southern bank we have to notice in 
Gallia, the Trebia, Trehhia, flowing by Placentia, and famed for the 
victor}' gained by Hannibal over the Eoman consul Sempronius, in 



5 Silius Italicus notices the remarkable clearness of its water : — 

Ceeruleas Ticinus aquas, et stagna radoso 

Perspicuus servat turbari nescia fundo, 

Ac nitidmn Tiridi lente trahit amne liquorem.— iv. 82. 

6 The Mincius, after it leaves lake Benacus, runs in a deep winding course, 
and near Mantua spreads out into shallow lakes ; hence Virgil : — 

Propter aquam, tardis ingens uhi flexibus errat 

Mincius, et tenera prsetexit arundine ripas. — Georg. iii. 14. 



Chap. XXIV. RIVERS — IXHABITAXTS — TOWXS. 



497 



B.C. 218 ; the Scultenna, Panaro. winch flo\vs not far from Mntina, 
and which was the scene of a hattle betAveen the Lignriaiis and the 
Romans nnder C. Clandius, in B.C. 177 : and the Elienus, Beno, 
which flows near Bononia, and is celebrated for the interview be- 
tween Antony, Octavian, and Lepidns, that took place on a small 
island formed by its waters. On the coast of the Adriatic were 
several nnimportant streams, one of which, the Rubicon, probably 
the Fi^'micino, has derived celebrity from its having formed the 
bonndary of Gallia Cisalpina the passage of it by Caesar was 
therefore tantamount to a declaration of war. 

§ 15. The original inhabitants of this district were Tuscans : 
these were driven southwards by the Gauls, who crossed the Alps 
at different periods in successive emigrations, commencing, according 
to Livy, in the reign of Tarquinins Priscus. The most important of 
the Gaulish tribes, from E. to W., (1.) in G^allia Transpadana,were — 
the Cenomani, between the Athesis and the Addua : the Insubres, 
between the Addua and Ticinus ; the Lgevi and Libicii, to the AV. of 
the Ticinus ; the Salassi, to the X., in the valley of the Duria 
Major ; and the Taurini, a Ligurian tribe, in the Alpine valleys X. 
of the Po. (2.) In Gallia Cispadana — the Senones, on the Adriatic, 
between Ravenna and Anc-jna ; the Lingones, more to the X., in 
the low flat land E. of Z\Iutina and Bonouia : the BoH, Ijetween the 
Po and the Apennines ; and the Ananes, in the AV., at the base of 
the A^jennines. The to^vns of this province Avere in some instances 
of Tuscan origin : this was certainly the case with ]\Iantua. Adria, 
and Bononia. A few others, as Mediolanum and Brixia, were of 
Gallic origin ; but, generally speaking, the C^uls lived in villages, 
and the towns were erected by the Romans, in opposition to their 
interests, as military posts to secure the conquest of the country. 
The first that were thus established were Placentia on the S., and 
Cremona on the X. side of the Po, in B.C. 219. Siibsecjuently to 
the formation of the roads, the towns Ijecame wealthy and nume- 
rous. The ^Emilian AVay, in particular, in Cispadana, was studded 
with large and prosperous towns, such as Bononia, IMutina, Regium 
Lepidi, and Parma. In Transpadana there were two lines : one 
running parallel to the Po, and marked by Mantua, Cremona, and 
Ticinum ; another at the foot of the Alps, by Brixia, Bergomum, 
and Comum. Between these, in the very centre of the country, 
stood Mediolanum, the capital not only of Cisalpine Gaul, but at one 
period of Italy itself. 

(1.) In TransjKidana, from E. to W. — Mantua, ^lantova, was situ- 
ated on the Miucius, about 12 miles above its confluence with the Po. 
ft 



' See Luean i. 213. 



498 



OALLIA CISALPIXA. 



Book IV. 



Its antiquity was very great: it was founded by the Etruscans,^ and 
retained much of its Etruscan character down to classical times. It 
is seldom noticed in history, and it derives its chief celebrity from 
Virgil 9 having been born either there or at Andes in its territory. 
BiisieL, Brescia, lay at the foot of the Alps, about 18 miles W. of lake 
Benacus. It was probably founded by the Cenomani; it became imder 
the Romans a thriving and opulent town, and was made a civic colony 
by Augustus with the title '^Colonia Civica Augusta." It was plun- 
dered by the Huns in a.d. 452, but recovered the blow. The remains 
of antiquity are numerous and interesting. AVe may particularly 
notice a building called the Temple of Hercules (more probably a 
basilica than a temple), portions of the theatre, a bronze statue of 
Victory, and a large collection of inscriptions. Creni5iia, Cremona. 
was situated on the N. bank of the Po, about six miles below the 
confluence of the Addua. It was colonised by the Romans in B.C. 219 
with 6000 men. It suffered severely from the Gauls for its fidelity in 
the Second Punic War. In the Civil Wars it espoused the cause of 
Brutus, and suffered the confiscation of its territory in consequence.^ 
In the Civil War of a.d. 69 it became the headquarters of the Vitellian 
forces; and, having been captured by Antonius, Vespasian's general, 
it was reduced to ashes. Though rebuilt, it never recovered its pros- 
perity in ancient times. Mediolanum, Milan, was situated about mid- 
way between the rivers Ticinus and Addua, in a broad and fertile 
plain, about 28 miles from the foot of the Alps. It was founded by 
the Insubres, and was captured by the Romans in B.C. 222. We hear 
little of its early history: it probably submitted to Rome in 190, 
received the Latin franchise in 89, and the full Roman franchise in 
49. Subsequently it became a place of literary distinction; but its 
ultimate greatness dates from the period when it became the imperial 
residence, for which its central position in reference to Gaul, Germany, 
and Pannonia, particularly adapted it. Maximian (about a.d. 30o) was 
the first to reside there permanently, and his successors followed his 
example down to Honorius in 404. It was taken and plundered by 
Attila in 452, but it retained its eminence, and became, in 476, the 
residence of the Gothic kings. It was adorned with many magnifi- 
cent buildings, of which the only remains are sixteen columns of a 
portico formerly attached to the public baths. Eergomum, Bergamo, 
lay 33 miles N.E. of Mediolanum, between Brixia and the Lacus 
Larius. It is seldom noticed, but was, nevertheless, a considerable 
town : it derived its wealth chiefly from copper-mines in its terri- 
tory. It was laid waste by Attila in 452. Comunij Como, was situated 
at the S. extremity of the Lacus Larius. The earliest notice of it 



8 Alrgil informs us of tliis, and further that it contained 12 peoples, wherein 
he probably refers to some internal divisions of the place : — 
Mantua, dives avis ; sed non genus omnibus unum : 
Gens illi triplex, populi sub gente qimterni ; 
Ipsa caput populis ; Tusco de sanguine vires. — .Ew. x. 201. 
^ The poet possessed an estate there, which was confiscated in the Civil Wars, 
but was restored to liim by Augustus : — 

Fortunate senex, ergo tua rura manebnnt ; 

Et tibi magna satis, quamvis lapis omnia nudus, 

Limosoque palus obducat pascua junco. FcL i. 47. ^ 

^ Mantua was involved in this disaster ; hence Virgil's exclamation : — 
Mantua vse niiserge nimiuni vicina Cremonae I — J^cL ix. 28. 



Chap. XXIV. 



TOWXS. 



499 



occurs in B.C. 196^ when it joined the Insubres against the Romans^ 
and was consequently taken by them. It was several times furnished 
with Roman settlers; aufl, on the last of these occasions^, when Julius 
Caesar sent 50C»0 there, its name was changed to Xovum Comum. The 
place is chiefly famous as the birthplace of the two Plinys, the yoimger 
of whom had several villas on the banks of the lake. Ticinum, Favia. 
was situated on the Ticinus, about five miles above its confluence with 
the Po. It is not noticed until the time of Augustus, but it probably 
had risen to be a considerable place under the Republic. Its position on 
the extension of the ^mihan Way made it an important post. It was 
here that the troops of Vitellius rebelled, that Claudius II. was saluted 
with the imperial title, and that Constantius took leave of his nephew 
Julius. It was destroyed by Attila, but restored by the Gothic king 
Theodoric, and made one of the strongest fortresses of jSTorthern 
Italy. From a.d. 570 to 774 it was the residence of the Lombard 
kings, who gave it the name of Papia, whence its modern name is 
derived. Vercellae, VerceUl, the chief town of the Libicii, stood on the 
W. bank of the Sessites : it did not rise to importance until after 
Strabo's time. It was chiefly famous for its temple and grove of Apollo. 
Augusta Taurinorum, Turin, the capital of the Taurini, was situated 
on the river Po at the junction of the Duria Minor. Its original name 
appears to have been Taurasia : its historical name dates from the 
time when Augustus planted a colony there. Its position was good, 
commanding the passage of the Cottian Alps, and at the head of the 
navigation of the Po. Augusta Prastoria, Aosta, in the valley of the 
Duria Major, was founded by xVugustus with 8000 veterans, as a means 
of keeping the Salassi in subjection. It commanded the passes over 
the Pennine and Graian Alps, and was a place of considerable im- 
portance, as attested b}^ its numerous remains, consisting of a tri- 
umphal arch, a gateway, a fine bridge, and some remains of an amphi- 
theatre. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Adria, or Hadria. Adria, 
between the Po and the Athesis, formerly on the sea-coast but now 
]-! miles distant from it, an Etruscan town of early commercial im- 
portance, but insignificant under the Romans ; Eedriacum, between 
Verona and Cremona, the scene of two important battles in a.d. 69 
between the generals of Vitellius and those of Otho in the first 
instance, and of Vespasian in the second ; Laus Pompeii, Lodi Vecchio, 
16 miles S.E. of Mediolanum, probably so named in compliment to 
Pompeius Strabo, who conferred the Lp.tin citizenship on the munici- 
palities of these parts; Eporedia, lurea, on the Duria Major at the 
entrance of the valley of the Salassi, founded for the purpose of 
checkiDg the Salassi, and, after the subjugation of this tribe, a place of 
wealth and importance; Novaria, Xocara, between Mediolanum and 
Vercellse, noticed as one of the cities which declared in favour of 
Vitellius in a.d. 69 ; and, lastly, Segusio, Susa, at the foot of the 
Cottian Alps in the valley of the Duria .Minor, the capital of the chief- 
tain Cottius, and of importance as commanding the passes over Mont 
Gentvre and Mont Cenis. 

(2,; In Gallia Cisixidana. — Eavenna, Earenna, was situated near 
the coast of the Adriatic at the S. extremity of the long range of 
lagunes which stretch northwards as far as Altinum. It was origiualh' 
an Umbrian town. Xo mention of it occurs until a late period of the 
Republic, nor is it knovN-n when it received a Roman colony. Its sub- 
sequent importance was due to Augustus, vrho constructed a port 



500 



GALLIA CISALPIXA. 



Book IV. 



named Portus Classis, or simply Classis, capable of holding 250 ships 
of war, and made it the chief naval station on the Adriatic. The 
town was very secm^e, being not only surrounded by lagunes, but 
built on piles in a lagune like Venice,^ and also being well fortified. 
The later emperors frequently made it their military quarters, and 
from the time of Honorius, in a.d. 4r04r, it was selected from its great 
security to be their permanent residence. The Gothic kings retained 
it as their capital imtil 539, when it passed into the hands of the 
Byzantines, and became the residence of the Byzantine exarchs. It 
was captured by the Lombards in about 750. The sea-coast has now 
receded more than four miles from the town. The only Roman 
remains are a few basilicas and a sepulchral chapel. Bononia, Bologna, 
lay at the foot of the Apennines on the river Rhenus. It was originally 
an Etruscan to^vn with the name of Felsina ; it afterwards passed into 
the hands of the Boian Gauls ; and finally it became a Roman colon}^ in 
B.C. 189. It wp.s centrally situated in reference to the lines of commu- 
nication opened by the Romans. In B.C. 43 it was garrisoned by M. 
Antonius, but was seized by Hu'tius. It was under the patronage of 
the Antonian family, and hence Avas not required to take up arms 
against Antony in B.C. 32. Subsequently to the battle of Actium, 
however, Octavian sent a colony thither. In a.d. 53 it was much 
damaged by a fire, but it was restored by Claudius. Mutina, Modena, 
lay 25 miles W. of Bononia, on the Via ^Emilia. It fell into the hands 
of the Romans probably in the Gaulish War, B.C. 225-222, and was 
made a colony in 183. It played a conspicuous part in the Civil Wars.^ 
In 44 D. Brutus occupied it, and was besieged in it by M. Antonius, 
who was defeated, however, outside the walls in two engagements in 
43, and was obliged to raise the siege. In a.d. 452 its territory was laid 
waste by Attila, and in about 600 it fell into decay. It was particu- 
larly famed for its wool."^ Parma, Parma, between Mutina and Pla- 
centia, was established as a Roman colony in B.C. 183. It is seldom 
noticed until the Civil Wars, when it sided against M. Antonius, and 
was consequently taken and plundered in B.C. 43. Its territory was 
celebrated for its fine w^ool.^ It survived Attila's invasion, and was a 
wealthy city after the Lombard conquest. Placentia, Piacenza, was 
situated near the S. bank of the Po, near the confiaence of the Trebia. 
It was founded in B.C. 219 by the Romans, and supplied with 6000 
colonists. In B.C. 200 it was captured by a sudden attack of the Gauls, 
and for some years was liable to their incursions, so much so that in 
190 a fresh body of 3000 colonists were sent there. Thenceforward it 
prospered, and under Augustus it is noticed as one of the most flourish- 
ing cities of Cispadana. 



- All the allusions to Kavenna bear upon its " watery " character : — 
Quique gravi renio limosis segniter undis 

Lenta jmludosce proscindunt stagna Ravennse. — Sil. Ital. viii. 602. 
Sit cisterna mihi, quam Tinea, malo Eavennse ; 

Quum possini multo vendere pluris aquam. — Mart. ui. 56. 
3 His C^sar, Perusina fames, Mutinseque labores 

Accedant. Luc. i. 41. 

Sutor cerdo dedit tibi, culta Bononia, munus ; 

Fullo dedit Mutinse. Mart. iii. 59. 

^ Yelleribus primis Appulia, Parma secundis 

Xobilis. Mart. xiv. 155 



Chap. XXIV. TOWNS — EOADS — HISTORY. 



501 



Of the less important towns Ave may notice — Faventia, Faenza, on 
tlie Via ^Emilia, famed for its vines and its manufacture of linen, and 
noted in history as the place where Carbo and Xorbanus Avere defeated 
by Metellus in B.C. 82 ; Forum Comelii, Imola, 10 miles W. of Faventia. 
said to have bpen named after the dictator Sulla, the residence of 
Mavrtial at one period of his life : Claterna, on the Via Emilia, the 
scene of some military operations during the Civil War in B.C. 43, and 
almost the only town on the Via ^Emilia which has ceased to exist in 
modern times ; Brixellum, Brescello, on the S. bank of the Po, chiefly 
celebrated as the place where the Emperor Otho put an end to his life : 
Regium Lepidi, Eeggio, 17 miles W. of Mutina, deriving its surname 
probabl}' from ^milius Lepidus, the constructor of the great road, a 
place frequently mentioned in the Civil War with M. Antonius ; and, 
lastly, Clastidium, Casteggio, on the borders of Liguria, 7 miles S. of 
the Po, chiefly celebrated for the victory gained there in B.C. 222, by 
Marcellus over the Insubrians, and a place apparently of some import- 
ance until the end of the Second Punic War. 

Roads. — We have frequently mentioned the Via .ffimilia in the pre- 
ceding pages. It W9,s constructed in B.C. 187, by M. ^milins Lepidus, 
to connect Placentia with Ariminum. It runs in a direct line for 180 
miles through a level plain, and is- still the great high road of that dis- 
trict. So great was its importance that its name was transferred to the 
province through which it passed.^ From Placentia the road wt.s con- 
tinued to Mediolanum, probably after the complete subjugation of the 
Transpadan Gauls. From Mediolanum branch-roads led to Augusta 
Pragtoria in the W. and to Aquileia in the K.E. There were also 
branch-roads from Mutina to Pata^vium, and from Placentia to Ticinum 
and Augusta Taurinorum, and so on to the Cottian Alps. There w^ere 
five important passes over the Alps in this province : — (1.) Across the 
Rhsetian Alps, between Verona and Augusta Vindelicorum, by was^ of 
Tridentum, the valleys of the Athesis and Atagis, and the pass of the 
Brenner, (2.) Between the Lacus Larius and Brigantia, on the Lalie 
of Constance, either by the Splugen or by the Sei^timer, both of which 
passes are noticed in the Itineraries. (3.) Across the Pennine Alps, 
between Augusta Prsetoria and Octodurus, Martigny, by the Great St. 
Bernard. (4.) Across the Graian Alps, between Augusta Prsetoria and 
the valley of the Isara, by the Little St. Bernard. (5.) Across the 
Cottian Alps, between Augusta Taurinorum and Brigantio, Briangon, 
in Gaul, by the pass of Mont Genevre. Lastly, the Apennines were 
crossed by a road between Bononia and Arretium. 

History. — The Gauls became first known to the Romans by the 
formidable incursions undertaken by them towards the S., in one of 
which, in b c. 390, the city of Rome itself w^as taken and in part de- 
stroyed. The first tribe on w^hose territory the Romans obtained a 
permanent footing were the Senones, who lived in the extreme S.E, 
and inUmbria: this occurred in 282. It was not until fifty years later 
that the great Gallic War took place in consequence of the distribution 
of the Gallicus ager." In this the Romans gradualh^ subdued all 
the Gaulish tribes ; Placentia and Cremona weve occupied as colonies 
in 219 ; the Boii, in Cispadana, yielded in 191 ; and the Gauls of Trans - 
padana, among whom the Insubres were most conspicuous for their re- 



6 This usage appears to have commenced at a very early period : — 
E-omam vade, liber. Si, veneris unde, requiret, 

iEmilise dices de regione vise. Mart. iii. 4. 



502 



LiaUPJA. 



Book IV. 



sistanc-e to Eome, yielded about the same time. Of the history of 
Gallia Cisalpina. as a Eoman province, we know little, except that in 
B.C. 89 the Jus Latii was conferred on the towns X. of the Po, in re- 
ward for the fidelity of the Gauls in the Social War. 

III. LlGURIA. 

§ 16. The province of liguria extended along the X. coast of the 
Tyrrhenian Sea, from the river Yams on the AT., separating it from 
Gaul, to the Macra on the E., separating it from Etruria ; north- 
wards it extended inland to the river Padus, the right bank of which, 
dovm to the confluence of the Trebia, formed the boundary. This 
district is throughout of a mountainous and rugged character, beino' 
intersected in all directions by the ridges of the Ai^ennines. The 
chief exports were timber, cattle, hides, and honey. Certain por- 
tions of the country were adapted to agriculture, but the majority 
of the inhabitants subsisted on the produce of their herds and flocks. 
Among the special productions may be noticed a breed of d^varf 
horses and rnules, and a mineral resembling amber, called ligurium. 
The coast is steep, and affords few natural ;[:iorts. The rivers on 
the S. of the Apennines are small, and call for no special notice : on 
the X. of them there are several important tributaries of the Padus, 
particularly the Tanarus, To.iwro^ with its confluent the Stura. 

§ 17. The inhabitants of Eiguria (the Ligyes and Eigystlni of the 
Greeks, the Eigiires of the Eomans) were a wild and hardy race, 
chieflv noted for their excellence as light-armed troops. They were 
divided into a number of independent tribes, which coalesced only 
on occasions of public danger. Of these tribes the most important 
were — the Apuani, in the valley of the Macra ; the Ingauni, on the 
"\V. coast ; the Intemelii, on the borders of Gaul ; the Vagienni, in 
the mountainous district X. of the Apennines to the sources of the 
Padus ; and the Taurini. who occupied the coimtry on both sides of 
the Padus, but whose capital {Turin) was on the left bank of the 
river. The Eigurians lived for the most part in villages and moun- 
tain fastnesses, and even under the Eomans the towns along the sea- 
coasts were few. Genua served as the chief port, and Eunas Portus 
in the E. was also a place of trade. In the interior there were 
several flourishing places under the Eomans, situated at the points 
where the moimtains declined towards the plain, such as Augusta 
Tagiennorum, Alba Pompeia, Asta, and Dertona. These are seldom 
noticed in history, but nevertheless appear to have been of import- 
ance. "We shall describe the towns in carder from W. to E., taking 
first those on the sea-coast, and afterwards those in the interior. 

^1.) On the Coast. — Nicaea, Xice. was situated at the foot of the 
Maritime Al-ps, and on the borders of Gaul. It was a colony of Mas- 
silia, and was therefore not a Ligurian possession. In e.c. 154 it was 



Chap. XXIV. TOAVXS — EOALs — HISTORY. 



503 



attacked by the Ligurian>. In the later period of the Eoniaii empire it 
^vas attached to GaiiL Herciilis Monoeci Portas, Jlonaco, was also a 
Massiliau colony, and derived its name from a temple of Hercules. It 
jDOSsessed a small harbour, which was frequently resorted to by vessels 
trading to Spain. Albium Intemeliuni. Vintiiniglia, the capital of the 
tribe of the Intemelii, was sitiiatod at the mouth of the Eutuba. and 
derived its name Albium from its proximity to the Maritime Alps. 
Albium Ingaunum, AVjengo.. the capital of the Ingauni, on the coast 
more to the E.^ became a municipal tovm of importance under the 
Romans. Genua, Genoa, stood at the head of the Ligurian Gulf, and 
was the chief town in Liguria, an eminence which it owed partly to its 
excellent port, and^ partly as being the point whence the valley of the 
Po was most easily accessible. — a road crossing the Apennines at this 
point. Hence it was visited by Scipio and by Mago in the Second 
Punic War. By the latter it was destroyed in B.C. 2l'5. but was rebuilt 
by the Eomans in 2<j3. It is seldom mentioned afterwards. 

;'2. In tlie Tnierlor. — Augusta Vagiennorum. the capital of the Yagi- 
enni. stood between the Stura and Tanarus. probably at a place near 
Bene, where considerable ruins exist, comprising remains of an aque- 
duct, amphitheatre, baths. &c. PoUentia, Foleica. was situated near 
the confluence of the Stura and Tanarus. Its chief celebrity is due to 
the great battle fought there between Stilicho and the Goths under 
Alaric, in a.d. 4''i3. Its pottery and its dark-coloured wool are noticed. 
Alba Pompeia, AJha. on the Tanarus. owed its distinctive appellation 
to Cn. Pompeius Strabo. who confeiTed many privileges on the towns 
of this district. It was the birthqdace of the emperor Pertinax. Asta, 
Asti, on the Tanarus. became a Ei:'man colony, probably under the 
Emperor Trajan. It was noted for its pottery, Aquse StatieUse, Acqu?, 
was the chief town of the Statielli. and owed its name to the mineral 
springs there. Some remains of the ancient baths and numerous otlier 
antiquities still exist. Dertona, Tortona. was founded by the Eomans 
under the republic, and recolonised by Augustus, It stood on the 
road leading from Genua to Placentia, and was a convenient station for 
troops. Cemeneiium, Cirniez. near Xicrea, the resort of wealthy Eomans 
under the later empire, on account of its mild air. Vada Sabata. Yo.do, 
possessing one of the best roadsteads on the Ligurian coast, and the point 
whence a road crossed the Apennines. 

Eoads. — The position of Liguria made it the greatest thoroughfare 
between Eome and Gaul. The maritime road was a continuation of 
the Via Aurelia, and was constructed as far as Yada Sabata by^Emilius 
Scaurus in B.C. 109. It was not imtil the time of Augustus, in e.g. 14, 
that it was carried on to Gaul. This was a work of some difficulty, the 
road requiring to be cut in the face of the mountain in certain places. 
At the head of the pass Augustus erected a massive trophy or mcmu- 
ment, named Tropica Augusti, the remains of which may be seen at 
Turin a. 

History. — VTe have some few notices of the Ligurians in early Greek 
writers, from which we conclude that they were a more powerful and 
widely-spread nation in early than in late times. The Eomans first 
entered into warfare with them in B.C. ^nT, and continued a series of 
wars for above eighty years. The progress of their arms was very slow. 
The Apuani were removed in a body to Samnium in IS'J ; the Ingauni 
and Intemelh were conquered in 1>^1, and the Statielli in 173 ; but the 
Ligurians were not really reduced to peaceable subjection until the 
construction of the roads just described, in the years 1' '9 and 14. 



View 111 the Xeigabourhojd oi ^ en 

CHAPTER XXY. 

ITALY — COrdinlif^d. ETEUEIA, UMBEIA, PICENUM, SABINI, MAESI, 
TESTIXI, MAEEUCIXI, PELIGNI, SAMXIUM. 

IV. Eteueia. § 1. Boundaries, and general features. § 2. Mountains 
and Rivers. § 3. Inhabitants; Towns; Roads; History. V. U^ibeia. 
§ 4. Boundaries, and general features. § 5. Mountains and Rivers. 
§ 6. Inhabitants; Towns; Roads; History. VI. Picenum. § 7. 
Boundaries ; Mountains and Rivers. § 8. Inhabitants ; Towns ; 
Roads; History. VII. The SAB^^^, Maesi, V^estixi, Maeeecixi, 
and Peligke. § 9. Sabini. Boundaries, and general features. 
§ 10. Mountains and Rivers. § 11. Inhabitants; Towns; Roads.; 
History. § 12. The Marsi. § 13. The A^estini. § U. The Marru- 
cini. § 15. The Peligni. VIII. Samxiem. § 16. Boundaries; 
Mountains and Rivers. § 17. Inhabitants; Towns; Roads; History. 
§ 18. The Frentani. 

IT. Eteueia. 

§ 1. Etruria (the Tyrrhenia of the Greeks) was bounded on the 
jS^.W. by the river Macra, separating it from Lignria ; on the X. by 
the Apennines ; on the E. by the Tiber, separating it from Umbria, 
the Sabini, and Latinm ; and on the "\Y. by the Tyrrhenian Sea. 
This province is varied in character : the X. and X.E. is very moun- 
tainous, being intersected with lofty and rugged spurs belonging 
to the central chain of the Apennines : the central district, though 



Chap. XXY. ETEUEIA. — MOUXTAIXS - EIYEES. 



505 



still of a mountainous character, lias ridges of less heigiit intermixed 
with valleys of considerable width, and fertility, such as are those 
of the Arnus and the Clanis ; the maritime district, now called the 
Maremma, is a plain of varying width, according as the ridges 
approach to or recede from the coast. The general direction of the 
ranges in the central region is parallel to that of the Apennines, 
^. e. from X.W. to S.E. ; and the rivers find outlets to the sea at 
places where the ranges are interrupted. Xear the coast the hills 
strike out at right angles to their former course, and in some 
instances descend to the very coast itself. In the S.E. there is a 
volcanic region of some extent, connected with that of the Eoman 
Ca/njxigna. The volcanoes have not, however, been active in histo- 
rical times, tlie craters having been transformed into lakes. Certain 
portions of Etruria were remarkably fertile, particularly the plain 
of the Arnus, the valleys of the Clanis and the Umbro, and the 
maritime plain. The coast-line is broken at certain points by the 
protrusion of the ranges, but still there is a deficiency of good 
harbours. 

§ 2. Few of the Etrurian mountains are known to us by special 
names ; we may, however, specify Argentarius, Argentaro, a remark- 
able mountain, forming a promontory on the coast ; Soraete/ Monte 
S. Oreste, near the Tiber, a bold and abrupt mass, rising out of the 
Eoman plain on the X., and hence a conspicuous object from Eome 
itself ; and Ciminius Mons, Monte Cimino, a range that stretches 
away in a S.W. direction from the Tiber to the sea-coast, and forms 
the boundary of the great plain of the Campagna on the X. The 
two chief rivers of Etruria are the Arnus and the Tiberis (p. 488). 
Of the affluents of the Arnus the only one whose ancient name has 
come down to us is the Auser, SercMo, which flowed by Luca, and 
formerly joined the Arnus, but now reaches the sea by an indepen- 
dent channel. Of the affluents of the Tiber, we have to notice the 
Clanis, Chiana, which drains a valley between the Arnus and the 
Tiber of such remarkable flatness that the waters can be carried off 
in either direction : in ancient times the outlet was to the Tiber : at 
present there are two channels, one into the Arnus, the other into 
the Tiber ; and the Cremera, Fosso di Vaica, a small and generally 
sluggish brook,2 flowing through a deep valley from Yeii to the Tiber, 



^ It is referred to by Horace in the well-known ode : — 
Tides, ut alta stet nive candidum 

Soraete. Carm. i. 9, 1. 

On its summit were a temple and grove of Apollo : — 

Summe deum, sancti ciistos Soractis, Apollo. jEn. xi. 785. 

2 It is only after heavy rains that its stream is violent : — 

Ut celeri passu Cremeram tetigere rapacem 
(Turbidus hibernis ille fluebat aquis), 

Castra loco ponunt. Ov. Fast. ii. 205. 

ANC. GEOG. Z 



506 



ETEUHIA. 



Book IV. 



and celebrated for the defeat of the Fahii in B.C. 476. On the coast 
between the Arnns and Tiber we meet with the Csecina, Cecina^ 
which watered the territory of Volaterra3 ; the Umbro, Omhrone, 
which flowed beneath the walls of Pinssella3 ; and the Minio, Mig- 
none, a small stream noticed by Virgil. The chief lakes of Etrmia 
have been already noticed : two of them were historically famous — 
the Lacus Trasimenus, for the great victory obtained there by Han- 
nibal over the Roman consul, C. Flaminius, in B.C. 217 ; and the 
Lacus Yadimonis, a mere pool near the Tiber, for two successive 
defeats of the Etruscans b}^ the Romans. The Lacus Clusinus was 
a stagnant accumulation of water connected with the river Clanis. 

§ 3. The origin of the Etruscans ^ is still wrapped in obscurity. 
The ancients, from Herodotus downwards, believed them to be 
Lydians.^ I'he probabihty is that they were a mixed people, con- 
taining three distinct elements : the Pelasgi, who supplied the bulk 
of the population ; the Rasenna, or proper Etruscans, who entered 
from the IST. as a conquering race, and subdued the Pelasgi ; and the 
Umbrians, who were regarded as the aboriginal population of 
Central Italy. The Etrurians were the most refined of all the 
inhabitants of Italy, and were particularly skilful in various kinds 
of handicraft. Their architecture resembled the Cj^clopean style of 
the Greeks, the walls being built of large irregular blocks, rudel}" 
squared, and laid, without cement, in horizontal courses. They 
were skilful in the construction of sewers, and in the lading 
out of streets ; in the erection of sepulchres, and the adornment of 
the interior walls with paintings ; in the manufacture of earthen- 
ware vases and dom.estic utensils ; in the sculpture of sarcophagi 
and sepulchral urns ; and in the casting of figures in bronze. They 
were not united under a single government, but formed a confede- 
racy of twelve cities, each of wdiich was an independent state, and 
united with the others only in matters of common interest. The 
folio wdng nine were unquestionably members of the league — Tar- 
quinii, Yeii, Yolsinii, Clusium, Volaterra3, Vetulonium, Perusia, 
Cortona, and Arretium : to these may probably be added, C^re and 
Falerii, though the claims of Fa5sula3, Rusellse, Pisa?, and Volci are 
nearly equally strong. Some of the Etruscan towns were of very 
great antiquity : Perusia, Cortona, and a few others, traced back 
their existence to the time when the Umbrians occupied the coun- 



3 The people were named by Latin writers either Etrusci or Tusci, both of 
which are modifications of the same original name Tursci. 

^ Hence the epithets " Lydian " and " Mseonian " are nsed as equivalent to 
Tuscan : — ■ 

ubi Lydius arva 

Inter opima virum leni fluit agmine Tibris. yEn. ii. 781. 

Mfeonise delecta juventus. Id. viii. 499. 



Chap. XXV. 



TOWN'S. 



507 



try : others claimed a Pelasgic origin, as Ca?re (under its older name 
of Agylla), Faleriij and PisaB ; others again were of a pm'ely 
Etruscan origin, as Tarqninii, Yolaterra?, and many others ; and, 
lastly, a few, as Sena Julia, Saturnia, and Florentia, dated only 
from the-Eoman period. The Etruscan towns occupied remarkable 
positions, being generally erected on the summits of precipitous 
hills. The walls which surrounded them were of the most massive 
character. Possessed of this double security, they appear to have 
passed a tolerably peaceable existence subsequently to the time of 
the Eoman conquest. "We shall describe them in oixler from N. 
to S. 

Luna, Lurd, was situated on the left bank of the Macra, on the 
borders of Liguria. At the time the Romans first knew it, the Ligu- 
rians had gained possession of it from its old masters, the Etruscans. 
The Romans colonized it, first in B.C. 177, and again under the Second 
Triumvirate : but it never rose to any eminence.^ Its territory was 
famous for its wine and its cheeses,^ and still more for its quarries of 
white Carrara marble, which was used both for building and for 
statuary.'' About five miles from the town there is a magnificent gulf 
called Portus Lunse,^ now the G. of Spezia : a range of rocky hills 
intervenes between the town and the bay, so that it does not appear 
how it could have served as the port of Luna. Luca, Lucca, was 
situated in a plain at the foot of the Apennines, near the left bank of 
the Auser, and about f2 miles from the sea. It was rather a Ligurian 
than an Etruscan town, and was included within the limits C)f Liguria 
b\' Augustus. It was colonized in 177, and became a municipium in 
49. Caesar, while in charge of the province of Gaul, frecpiently ap- 
pointed it as a rendezvous for his political friends. There are remains 
of an amphitheatre visible. Pisee, Pisa, was situated on the right bank 
of the Arnus, at a distance formerly of 2 J, but now of 6, miles from 
its mouth. Most ancient writers connected it with Pisa in Elis,'-^ and 
supposed it to be founded by Peloponnesians after the Trojan AVar. It 
aj^pears probable that it was a Pelasgic settlement; but it afterwards 
passed into the hands of the Etruscans, and became one of their chief 
cities. Its position rendered it an important frontier town in the wars 
of the Romans with the Ligurians. A Roman colony was planted there 



^ It was deserted even in Liican's time :— 

Aruns ineoluit desert ce moenia Luna?. i. 586. 

Caseus Etruscse signatus imagine Limee, 

Praestabit pueris prandia mille tiiis. Mart. xiii. 30. 

' Anne metalUferce repetit jam moenia Lunee ? — Stat. Silv. iv. 4, 23. 

Lunaque portandis tantum suffecta eolumnis. Id. iv. 2, 29. 

^ Tunc quos a niveis exegit Luna metallis 
Insignis portu ; quo non spatiosior alter 

Innumei-as copisse rates, et claudere pontum. — Sil. Ital. viii. 482. 
^ Hence the epithet of " Alphean " : — 

Hos parere jubent AJphew ah origine Pisse : 

rrhs Etrusea solo. x. 179. 

Nec AlphecB capiunt navalia Pisse. Clai'd. B. Gild, 483. 

z2 



508 



ETEURIA. 



Book IV. 



in ISO, at tlie request of the Pisans themselves, and again by Augustus. 
Its territory was fertile, pi-oclucing a fine kind of wheat and excellent 
wine. Its poit was situated a: a r- ^int between the mouth of the 
Arnus and Leglfrrn. FaBS"al8e. F situated on a hill about 
three miles of the Arnus. I: ::::ed in the gi^eat Gauhsh TTar 
in B.C. '2-2b. and in the S-o Punic War, as it stood on the route 
which the invading hos:- ::'_^: wcd, It was destroyed by Sulla, and 
restored bv a : _ :v- c f L:- v ^-.rty, who afterwards rendered it the head- 
quarters l: i TLr circuit of ihe walls, the remains of a theatre, 
a c-.;r:c'us re-eivjir. and r-ptr 'vt;-^ bwe been found on its site. 
Florentia. Flortuce, on the A::: - c^erived its origin as a town 
frcm a Roman colony planrcd i-cie. :i:^-:nally perhaps by Sulla, but 
renewed by the triumvh^s after the death of Caesar. From the latter 
of these periods it became a fiourishing town, though seldom noticed 
in history. There are some remains of an ampliitheatre there. Arre- 
tium. .1 /•';::■'. vra- s::u?.*e:I in the upper valley of the Arnus. It 
bcCAmr ::: vr;,-^ a military post - of the highest import- 
ance, as c:i---- :ne c i-mmunications between Cisalpine Gaul and 
Etruria. Ii. ^ . .vil wars of Sulla and Marius it sided with the latter, 
and suffer - \ - r l eiy in consequence. Caesai' occupied it in B.C. 49. 
■r~ the c riniiieiijement of the Civil AVar; but subsequently to this its 
n".:::e -:ar:r-v mentioned in histoiy. It was celebrated for its 
pottery of a br:_h: red hue.^ many specimens of which are still extant. 
Xumerous works in bronze have also been discovered there. Maecenas 
w:.i r 1 :b:.b"_v a native of this place. Cortona, Cortona, stood on a lofty 
hi'/-, : : A" i ctium^. and about 9 miles of the Lacus Trasimenus. 
It wa- rev uTc A a very ancient city, having been founded by the Um- 
brians. then occupied by Pelasgians under the name of Corythus,"* and 
finaliy bv E:r;--c:ns. It received a Roman colony, probably in Sulla's 
tii-.r I:- v:;.i'^ :.i:iy still be traced, and present some of the finest 
>^ ^: Lyci^pean architecture to be seen in all Italy. Sena 
Julia, > . : . was situated nearly in the centre of Etruria, and appeal^ 
t h;/ , ::unded by Julius Caesar: it is seldom noticed. Volaterrae, 
"r^ . , ■ . ;b jut o miles X. of the river Ccecina,. and 15 fi'om the 
s-^ P- " • ■ .. was fine, the height of the hill on which it stood 
^/ I: w-^ - :::v of the highest antiquity, andoneof 
t"-__ - t : _ lit- :: P:: i: , In the civil wars between Sulla and 
>i : ; -. ' _ : - 1;-: >-_ :::^hold of the party of the latter, and 
w - r-_v^ - : : " J V - . - - :^ulla himself, and, after its captm^e, 
-uiirir'. ^:-ScS, P : ; : 7:"^ 1 a fresh colony under the Trium- 
v:i_\:v. b;-.: -ubse^uen:i" :\ _ i^ed. The ancient walls may be 
tiaced liirou^hcu: their wh'ole c:rcu::. and in some places are in a high 



- Its iuiiabitaiirs were noted for theii' skill in divination : — 
Admit et sacris interpres fuiminis alis 

Fi^snla. SiL. Ital. viii. 478. 

- An. Corvine, sedet, clansiini se consul inerti 
Tt teneat vallo ; Pcpnus nunc occupet altos 
Arreti muros. Ld. v. 121. 

2 AiTtina nimis ne spernas vasa. nionemus : 

Laums erat Tuscis Porsena fictilibus. Maet. xiv. 98. 

The Latin poets hare borrowed this name from them : — 
Sui'ge age, et ha?c ioetus longcevo dicta parenti 
Hand duhitanda refer. Corythum, terrasque require 
Ausonias. ^n. iii. 169. 



Chap. XXV, 



TOWXS. 



509 



state of preservation: two of the ancient gatewaj^s, probably of the 
Roman period, also remain. The sepulchres are numerous, and have 
yielded a large collection of urns, many of which are adorned with 
sculptures and bas-reliefs. Clusium, Cliiusi, was situated on a gentle 
hill rising above the valley of the Clanis, and near the lake named 
after it. Its antiquity was believed to be very great, and Virgil repre- 
sents it as aiding ^Eneas against Turnus.^ It was one of the cities that 
joined in the war against Tarquinius Prisons . The invasion of the 
Grauls in B.C. 391 resulted (it was said) from an internal dissension at 
Clusium ; in 295 the Senones cut to pieces a Roman legion stationed 
there; and again in 225 the Gauls once more appeared under its walls. 
In the civil wars of Sulla and Marius^ two battles were fought in its 
neighbourhood, in both of which Sulla's party were successful. Por- 
tions of the walls are visible, and the sepulchres are very numerous and 
rich in urns, pottery, bronzes, and other objects. The district of 
Clusium was famous for its wheat and spelt, and also possessed sulphu- 
reous springs. Perusia, Perugia, stood on a lofty hill on the right 
bank of the Tiber, overlooking the Trasimene Lake, and thus near 
the borders of Umbria. Xo notice occurs of the time w^hen it yielded 
to Rome ; but in the Second Punic War it comes prominently forward 
as an ally of that power. In the civil war between Octavian and L. An- 
tonius in 41, the latter threw himself into Perusia: Octavian besieged it, 
and, on its capture, gave it up to plunder, and put its chief citizens to 
death. ^ The town was accidentally burnt at that time, but it was 
restored by Augustus. Portions of the walls and two gateways survive, 
the latter belonging to the Roman period. The sepulchres are numerous 
and interesting : a specimen of the Etruscan language was found m one 
of them. Volsinii, Bolsena, was situated on the shore of the lake 
named after it. The old Etruscan tovm stood on a hill; the later 
Roman one in the plain by the lake. After numerous wars with Rome, 
it was finally subdued in 280. The old town was then destroyed, and' 
the new one built : some remains of the latter exist, the most remarkable 
being those of a temple. It was the bu-th-place of Sejanus, the favourite 
of Tiberius. Cosa, Ansedonia, stood on a height near the sea-coast, some- 
what S. of Mons Argentarius. Its name first appears in B.C. 273^ when 
a Roman colony was planted there: Virgil, however, assigns to it a 
higher antiquity." In the Second Punic War it is noticed among the 
allies of Rome, and in 196 a new colony was sent thither, apparently 
from losses sustained in that war. Its port was a convenient point of 
embarkation for Corsica and Sardinia, and to this it ow^ed its chief 
importance. The walls of Cosa still exist, but are probably of the 
Roman period. Tarquinii, near Corneto, was situated about four miles 
from the coast, near the left bank of the river Marta. It was reputed 
the most ancient of the Etruscan cities, its origin being attributed to 
Tarchon, son of the Lydian Tyrrhenus.^ Its proximity to Rome brought 



^ MassicTis Eerata princeps secat sequora Tigri ; 
Sub quo mille manus juvenuni ; qui ma3nia Clusi, 
Quique urbera liquere Cosas. ^l^n. x. 166. 

^ His Caesar, Ferusina fames Mutinseque labores 
Accedant fatis. Lrc. i. 41. 

See note ^ above, where it appears as one of the allies of JEneas. 

s Ipse oratores ad me regnique coronam 
Cum sceptro misit, mandatque insignia Tarcho : 
Succedam castris, Tyrrhenaque regna eapessam. — .l^n, viii. 505. 



510 



ETRUEIA. 



Book IV 



it into early counexion with that towu, and it was reputed the native 
to^vn of the two Tarqnins, whose father, Demaratus, had emigrated 
from Corinth to Tarquinii. From B.C. 398 to 3C'9 Tarquinii wa^ engaged 
in wars with Rome at intervals; but subsequently to the great battle at 
Lake Tadimo it fell into a state of dependency, and is seldom noticed 
afterwards. The circuit of the ancient walls may be traced at Turchina, 
about 1^ mile from Corneto : there is also a very extensive necropolis, 
containing some tombs adorned with paintings : the paintings them- 
selves are of Greek character, but the subjects are purely Etruscan. 
Falerii, Sta. Maria di Falleri. stood X. of Mt. Soracte, a few miles \\ . 
of the Tiber. It was of Pelasgic origin, and retained much of its Pe- 
lasgic character after its conquest by the Etruscans. It is first noticed 
in B.C. Arol , as joining the Yeientes against Rome. After the fall of 
Veil it came to terms with Rome, but contests were from time to time 
renewed until B.C. 241. when their city was destroyed, and rebuilt on a 
new site of less natural strength. The position of the old Etruscan 
town was at C^vita CasfdJaiia, and of the later Roman town at Sta. 
Maria di Falhsri. a deserted spot where the ancient walls are still 
visible, Tiie surrounding territory was very fertile, and Falerii was 
much famed for its sausages.^ Its inhabitants were named Falisci, and 
sometimes .Equi Falisci, i.e. ^'^Faliscans of the Plain."" Veii stood 
about 12 miles X. of Rome, at IsoJa Faraese. It was a powerful city 
at the time of the foundation of Rome, and possessed a territory ex- 
tending along the right bank of the Tiber, from Soracte dovrn to the 
mouth of the river. The Yeientes first engaged in war vdth the 
Romans for the recovery of Fidena? : they were defeated hj Romulus, 
and lost a portion of their territory near Rome, known as Septem Pagi. 
War was renewed in tlie reigns of Tullus Flostilins, Ancus Marcius, L. 
Tarquinius. and Servius Tullius, and on every occasion with an un- 
favourable result for Yeii. After the expulsion of the second Tarqtiin, 
the Yeientines, with the aid of Porsena of Clusium, recovered their 
territory for a brief space : and thenceforward the war was of a more 
serious character, as the Yeientes obtained the assistance of the 
Etruscans. The slaughter of the Fabii in B.C. 476, who had gone out 
to check the incursiuns of the Yeientes, and the capttu^e of Yeii itself 
by Camillus. after a ten years' siege, in 396, are the most striking inci- 
dents in these wars. After its capture it fell gradtially into decay, ^ 
but continued to exist till a late period. There are remains of the 
ancient walls, and numerous sepulchres on its site. Caere, Cervetri. 
was situated a few miles from the coast, on a small stream formerly 
named Cceretanus Amnis,^ and now Vaccina. Its ancient name was 
Agylla,^ and its foimders were Pelasgi. It was concjuered by the 



9 It ^as the birthplace of Ovid's ^'ife : — 

Cum mihi pomiferis conjux foret orta Faliscis, 

]Ma?nia contigimus victa, Cair.ille, tibi. Ov. Am. iii. 13, 1. 

1 Lucan speaks of it as utterly desolate : — 

Tunc oume Latinuni 
Fabula nomeii erit : Gabios, Yciosque, Coram que 
Pulvere vix tecteu poterunt monstrare ruinae. vii. 391. 
- It is the Ccuritis anuiis of Virgil : — 

Est ingens gelidum lucus prope Ceeritis amnem, — ^T.n. viii. 597. 
3 Haud procul hinc saxo incolitur fundata retusto 
I'rbis Agyllina^ sedes : ubi Lydia quondam 
Gens, bello pra?clara, jugis insedit Ltruscis. Id. xiii. 47 8. 



Chap. XXV. 



Tovrxs. 



511 



Const. 

ry.-tcd to 



Etruscans, hni, like Falerii, it probably retained mucli of its Pelasgic 
character. It is first noticed by Herodotus as joiniu^" in an expedition 
against the Corsican PhocL~eans, and it appears to have been an im- 
portant maritime town at that time. It en^-aged in war with R-me 
under the elder Tarquin, ?md was the place whitlier the sec-nd kiiu" of 
that name first retked into exile. In B.C. 353 tbe Crerites au;iin t j'jk 
up arms against Eome to no elfect ; a.nd. it was probably on this occa- 
sion that they received the Roman citizenship without the riglit of 
sufii^age— a pohtical condition which was tantamount lo disfranchise- 
ment, and Y>-hich gave rise to the expression, ''in tabulas Cteritum 
referre." 

Of the less important towns we may notice — 1. On tlte 
Vetulonium, Magl/ano. one of the twelve confederate cities, r 
be the place where the Etruscan insignia of magistracy lie 
prgetexta, sella curulis, &c.^ were first used.^ Popnlonlum.-^ I 
on the promontory of the same name, opposite 
the island of Ilva, the chief maritime town ot 
Etruria, and the only city which possessed a 
silver coinage of its own. EusellaB, BosdJ 
about 14 miles from the sea., and 4- from the 
right bank of the river Umbro, the scene of a 
battle between the Romans, under Valerii - 
Maximus, and the Etruscans in B.Ct 3''1. and 
afterwards captured by Megeilus in 1.94. Telp- 
mon, Telamoae, on a proni^jntory between Mons 
Argentarius and the Umbro. noticed in B.C. 2 20 ob--r=-- 
as the scene of a great battle between the Romai 
and Gauls, and in 87 as the spot where Marius 
landed on his return from exile. Yolci, ne-^v Forde rldln 1 
river Armina, about 3 miles from its mouth, a place -elrw 
history, but kno\vn to be a large town from the extent ot i 
which was discovered in 1--"J"^. and in which no less thai 
have been oprv ^ ' ling a vast nurnber of pain e 1 \ d e 
Satumia, Sat :-tle X. of T^-ilci, sd named 1 i 

they sent a culony tlhther in b.c 1S3, the former hr 
having been Aurinia. Graviscae, on the sea-coast, pro' -al 
inentino, about a mile S. of the l\hrrta. colonized m -r.c. IsL onr nwiii..- 
to the unhealthiness^ of its situation a i-oor place. CentumcellaE!, 
Vecclila, on the sea-coast, 47 miles from R'jme, a town Avhich ovred it.- 
existence to the magnificent port which Trajan constructed there. 
Castmm Novum, Torre di Chiaruccla. about 5 miles S. of Centunicellje. 
colonized by the Romans in b.c. 191. PjT^gi, Santa Stv^ra, on the 




Com of pL.puiomum. 



7 

1 n 



head cr 
5 uiain. 



^e 
ced m 



m 1 
a 



n 

ame 

n . 



^ Meeonieeque deciis qnondam Tetuloriia gentis. 
Bissenos lieec prima cleclit prfecedere fasces, 
Et jimxit totidem tacito terrore secnres : 
Htec altas eboris decoravit honore caimle?, 
Et princeps Tyrio vestem preetexuit ostro : 
Heec eadem pugnas accendere protulit cere. 
It was one of the cities that assisted .Eneas : — 

I'na torviis Abas : huic totum insignibus armis 
Agmen, et aurato fnlgebat Apoiline pnppis. 
Sexcentos iili dederat Populonia mater 
Expertos belli juvenes. 
Et Pyi-gi veteres, intempesia'que Graviscee. 



SiL. Ital. viii. 4S.5. 



.r?;'. X. 169. 
Id. X. 1S4. 



512 



ETRUPJA. 



Book IV. 



coast^ 34 miles from Rome, probably a Pelasgian " town, and tlie seat 
of a celebrated temple of Eileitliyia. which was plundered in B.C. 35-i 
by Dionysius of Syracuse. Alsiuin, Fcdo. on the sea-coast, colonized in 
B.C. 245, and a favourite residence of the wealthy Romans under the 
empire. Fregense, Torre di Maccarese, between Alsium and the mouth 
of the Tiber, colonized probably in B.C. 245, and situated in an unhealthy 
position.^ 2. In the Interior. — Pistoria, Pistoja, under the ApenDines, 
between Luca and Faesulfe, the scene of Catiline's final defeat in B.C. 62. 
Ferentinum, Ferento, X. of the Ciminian range, and about 5 miles from 
the Tiber, the birthplace of the Emperor Otho, and a place of con- 
sideration under the empire : the theatre is still in a high state of pre- 
servation. Sutrium, Sutri, on an isolated hill 32 miles X. of Rome, 
a place frequently noticed in the wars of the Romans and Etruscans ; 
its amphitheatre remains, excavated in the tufo rock. Fescennimn, 
S.E. of Falerii, of which it was a dependency, a place of small im- 
portamce, and chiefly notorious as having given name to a rude kind of 
dramatic entertainment styled ^^Fescennini A^ersus,'"' which afterwards 
degenerated into mere licentious songs. Capena, about 8 miles S. of 
Soracte, an ally of Yeii in her Roman wars, and consequently reduced 
by the Romans after the fall of that town ; its territory was remark- 
ably fertile, and was further noted for the grove and temple of Feronia ^ 
situated at the foot of Soracte. Lastly, Nepete, Kepi, between Falerii 
and Yeii, and probably a dependency of the latter : it is first men- 
tioned in B.C. 386 as an ally of Rome, and it received a colony in 383. 

Boads. — Three great high-roads traversed Etruria in its whole ex- 
tent :— The Via Aurelia, which led from Rome to Alsium, and thence 
along the sea-coast to Pisfe and Luna ; the Via Cassia, from Rome, 
through the heart of the province by Sutrium and Clusium, to Aitc- 
tium, and thence by Florentia across the Apennines ; and the Via 
Clodia, which took an intermediate line by Saturnia, Ru seller, and Sena 
to Florentia, where it joined the Via Cassia. The dates of the con- 
struction of these roads are quite uncertain. The Via Flaminia skirted 
the S.E. border of Etruria, entering it by the ^lilvian bridge,, about 3 
miles from Rome, and striking to the X. under Soracte to Ocriculum 
in Umbria. 

Islands. — Off the coast of Etruria there are several islands, the most 
important of which, named Ilva by the Latins, -Ethalia by the Greeks, 
and Elba by ourselves, was only about 6 miles distant from the main- 
land, and was particularly famous for its iron-mines.^ The ore was 
originally smelted on the island itself, whence its Greek name (from 
alddXr], " soot ") ; but in later times, when fuel had run short, it was 
brought over to Populonium for that jDurpose. 

History. — The Etruscans were once widely spread over Central and 



Virgil refers to its antiquity ; see previous note. 

s Alsium et obsessfe canipo squalente Fregen^. Sil. Ital. viii. 47 7. 
9 Itur in agros 

Dives iibi ante omnes colitur Feronia luco, 

Et sacer humectat fluvialia rura Capenas. Id. xiii. S3. 

1 lira trecentos, 

Insula inexhaustis Chalybum generosa metallis. — ^£n. x. 173. 

Xon totidem Ilva viros, sed leetos cingere ferriun, 

Armarat patris, quo nutrit bella, metallo. Sil. Ital. viii. 616. 



Chap. XXV. 



UMBllIA. 



513 



Northern Italy, occupying not only Etruria, but a portion of Gallia 
Cisalpina in the X. and Campania in the S. They possessed from an 
early period gi'eat naval power, and engaged in maritime war with 
the PhocaBans of Alalia in B.C. 538, with Hiero of Syracuse in 474, and 
with other cities. They also founded colonies in Corsica. Their mari- 
time supremacy waned, however, about the time of the capture of Veil. 
Their territorial influence was. at its highest about 620-500 B.C., and was 
coincident with the rule of the Tarquins at Eome. At a subsequent 
period constant wars occurred betvv'een Rome and Veil, which termi- 
nated only with the destruction of the latter in 396. Thenceforward 
the Romans advanced northwards, reaching Sutrium in 390, crossing 
the Ciminian forest in 310, defeating the Etruscans at Lake Vadimo 
in 309, at Sentinum in Umbria in 295, and again at Lake Vadimo in 
293, and reducing the Volsinienses in 265, The Roman conc|uest does 
not appear to have interfered with the Etruscan nationality : colonies 
were founded in the S., and at Pisae and Luca in the X., but elsev.diere 
the population remained unchanged. The Etruscans received the 
Roman franchise in 89. In the civil wars of Marius and Sulla they 
sided with the former, and were severely handled by Sulla at the com- 
pletion of the war : they again suffered from the Catiline War. Finally, 
Caesar established a number of military colonies throughout the land. 

Y. Umbria. 

§ 4. TJmbria, in its most extensive sense, was bounded on the W, 
by the Tiber, from its somxe to a point below Ocricnlum ; on the E. 
by the river Nar, separating it from the land of the Sabines, and by 
the ^sis, separating it from Picenmn ; on the N.E. by the Adriatic 
Sea; and on the X. by the Rnbico, separating it from Gallia Cis- 
alpina. AVithin the limits specified are contained (1) Umbria Proper, 
which lay on the AV. of the Apennines, and (2) the district of the 
Senones, or, as the Romans termed it, the Gallicns Ager, on the E. 
of the range. Umbria is generally mountainous, being inter- 
sected by the Apennines, which, though neither so lofty nor yet so 
rugged as they become more to the S., are very extensive, occu- 
pying, vdth their lateral ridges, a space varying from 30 to 50 miles 
in width. On the W. the lateral ridges extend to the valley of 
the Tiber, but between them and the central range is a fertile and 
delightful district, watered by the Tinia and Clitumnus, and re- 
nowned for its rich pastures. On the E. of the central range the 
country is broken up by a vast number of parallel ridges, w^hich 
strike out at right angles to the main range, and subside gradually 
as they approach the sea. 

§ 5. The rivers of Umbria were numerous, but not of any great 
size. Of the tributaries of the Tiber, which may be considered as 
in part an Umbrian river, the most important is the Nar, Nera^ 
which rises in the country of the Sabines, and in its lower course, 
from Interamna to the Tiber, flow^ed entirely through Umbria. The 

z 3 



UMBRIA. 



Book IV, 



Clitumnus,^ Cliticmno, or Tinia (as it was called in its lower course), 
was a small stream wliicli flowed tlirougii a tract of great fertility 
by the town of Mevania. The streams which flow into the Adriatic 
are — the ^sis, Esino, which formed the limit on the side of Pice- 
num ; the Sena,^ Nevoid, which flowed under the walls of Sena 
Gallica ; the Metaurtis, Metauro, which joins the sea at Faniim 
Fortunes, and is celebrated in history for the great battle,^ in B.C. 207, 
between Hasdrubal and the Eomans ; the Pisaums, Foglia, which 
gave name to the city of Pisaurum ; and the Ariminus, Marecchia, 
which flowed by Arimininn. 

§ 6. The Umbrians at one period occupied a very extensive region 
in the northern part of Central Italy, spreading on each side of the 
Apennines from sea to sea. We know nothing of their character 
beyond the fact that they were reputed brave and hardy warriors. 
They were not united under one government, but lived in separate 
tribes, each of which followed its own line of policy. The towns 
were numerous, but not of any gi'eat importance. Several of them 
received Roman colonies after the country was conquered, as Xarnia, 
Spoletium, Sena, x\riminum, and Pisaurum. The towns in the E. 
district were situated on the sea-coast, at the mouth of the rivers ; 
those in the western district were in the fertile valleys of the Tiber, 
the ]N"ar, and the Clitumnus. We shall describe these in order from 
N. to S., beginning with those on the W. of the Apennines. 

Mevania, Bevagna, was situated on the Tinia, in the midst of the 
luxuriant pastures ^ for which that stream was so celebrated. It was 
an important town under the Umbrians, and was their head-quarters in 
B.C. 308. Its chief fame, however, rests upon its claim to be con- 
sidered the birtli-place of the poet Propertius.^ Tuder, Tocli, was 



2 The water.-; of this river were supposed to impart the white colour for whicli 
the cattle that fed on its banks were famous : — 

Hinc albi, Clitimme, greges, et maxima taurus 
Victima, S'aepe tuo perfusi fiumine sacro, 

Pvomanos ad templa deum duxere triurfiphos. Georg. ii. 146. 

Qua formosa suo Clitumnus flumina iuco 

Integit, et niveos abluit unda boves. Propert. ii. 19, 25. 

3 Et Clanis, et Eubico, et Senonum de nomine Sena. — Sil. Ital. viii. 455. 
^ Quid debeas, Eoma, Neronibus, 
Testis Metaurum flumen, et Hasdrubal 

Devictus. Hon. Carm. iv. 4, 37. 

^ His urbes Arna et laetis Mevania campis. Sil. Ital. viii. 458. 

Tauriferis ubi se Mevania campis 
Explicat. Luc. i. 473. 

^ The passage on which this claim is grounded is of an ambiguous character : — 
Umbria te notis antiqua penatibus edit. 

Mentior ? an patrise tangitur ara tua? 1 
Qua nebulosa cavo rorat Mevania campo, 

Et lacus eestivis intepet Tmber aquis. Propert. iv. 1, 121. 



Chap. XXV. 



TOAVXS. 



515 



situated on a lofty hill/ rising above the left bank of the Tiber. It 
received a colony under Augustus, and, though seldom mentioned in 
history, appears to have been a considerable town under the Roman 
Empire. The walls of the city, partly of an early Etruscan and partly 
of a later Roman character, still remain, as also do portions of a 
building (probably a basilica) called tiie " Temple of Mars." ^ Xu- 
merous coins and bronzes have also been found there. Spoletiuni, 
Spoleto, was situated near the sources of the Clitumnus. We have nu 
notice of its existence before B.C. 24-0, when a Roman colony was 
planted there. It was attacked by Hannibal, in 217, without success. 
A battle was fought beneath its walls in 82, between the generals of Sulla, 
and Carrinas, the lieutenant of Carbo, and the town suffered severely in 
consequence of having received the latter after his defeat. An arch, 
named Porta cV Ann wale, some remains of an ancient theatre and of 
two or three temples, still exist. Karnia, Narni, was strongly situated 
on a lofty hill^ on the left bank of the Xar, about 8 miles above its 
confluence with the Tiber. Previous to the Roman conijuest it was 
named Xequinum: it was taken and colonized in 299. For some time 
it appears to have been in a depressed condition, and in 199 it re- 
ceived a fresh colony, but afterwards its position on the Flaminian" 
Road secured to it a high degree of prosperity. The Emperor Xerva 
was born there. The chief remains of antiquity are one of the arclies 
and the two other piers of a magnificent bridge v/hich Augustus 
constructed for the Flaminian Road. Ariminuni, Ei.niini, lay on the 
sea-coast about 9 miles S. of theRubico. It is first noticed in B.C. 268, 
when the Rom?ms established a colony there, which became a railitary 
post of the highest importance, and wt.s justly considered the key of 
Cisalpine Gaul. It was strongly occupied by the Romans in the 
Gaulish War in 225, in the Second Punic War in 218, and again in 
200. It suffered severely from Sulla's troops in the Civil War with 
Marius. Csesar occupied it in his war against Pompey, and v/e have 
it mentioned in several subsequent wars. The most striking remains 
of antiquity are a splendid marble bridge of five arches over the 
Ariminus, commenced by Augustus and finished by Tiberius; and a 
triumphal arch, erected in honour of Augustus.' Fanum Fortiinge^ 
Fano, stood on the left bank of the Metaurus, at the point where the 
Flaminian Road fell upon the sea-coast. Its name is due to a temple 
of Fortune that stood there. It was occupied by Cccsar in B.C. 49, and 
by the generals of Vespasian in a.d. 69, and was undoubtedly of 
importomce as a military post. A triumphal arch, erected in honour 
of Augustus, is the only importrmt relic of antiquity. 

Of the less important towns we may notice in the s?.me order: — 



" Excelso summum qua vertice montis 

Derexum lateri peiidet Tuder. Sii . Ital. vi. 645. 

^ This name has been assigned to it from the fact that Mars was worshipped 
at Tuder : — 

Et gradivicolam celso de colle Tudertem. Sil. Ital. iv. 222. 

Haud parci jlartem eoluisse Tudertes. Id. viii. 4 64. 

3 Duro monti per saxa reeumbens 

Xarnia. Id. viii. 459. 

Narnia, sulphureo quam gurgite candidus amnis 

Circuit, ancipiti \ix adeunda jugo. Mart. vii. 93. 



516 



UMBEIA. 



Book IV. 



1. IT', of the Apennines. — Iguviiim.^ Guhhio. strongly situated on the 
Vs". slope of the Apennmes, the place where the Illvrian king Gentins 
and his sons were confined, but more celebrated for the seven tables 
with inscriptions in the old Umbrian tongue, which were found about 
8 miles off, on the site of a temple of Jupiter Apenninus. Hispellum, 
Spell 0. S. of Mevania, colonized under Augustus and again imder 
Yespisian. and regarded by some critics as the birthplace of Propertius. 
Amelia,- Aiiieh'a. the most ancient of the Umbrian towns, situated on a 
hill between the Tiber and the Xar. Interamna, Terni, '•'between the 
branches of the river Xar. which here divides and forms an island, 
a municipal town of some importance, and generally regarded as the 
birth-place of the historian Tacitus. Ocriculum, Otricoli. the 
southernmost to^m of Umbria, near the Tiber, and on the Flaminian 
Road; which leads to frequent incidental notices of it; it became a 
favourite residence of the wealthy Romans ; . and, from the remains 
discovered by excavating in 178", it a23pears to have been a splendid 
town. 2. E. of the Apjennrne?. — Sarsina, Sorsina, in the extreme X.. 
chiefiy famed for having given birth to Plautus. Urbinnni, surnamed 
Hortense, Vrhino. situated on a hill between the valleys of the Metau- 
rus and Pisaurus, the place where Fabius Yalens was put to death in 

A. D. 69. Pisauriim, Pesaro. at the mouth of a river of the same name, 
colonized by the Romans in B.C. 184, again by M. Antouius, and a 
third time by Augustus, having been destroyed by an earthquake in 

B. C. 31. Sena, surnamed Gallica, to distinguish it from the Etrurian 
city of the same name, founded by the Romans in B.C. 289 after their 
conquest of the Senones, and situated on the coast S. of Fanum For- 
timae: the name has been corrupted into SinigagJki. Sentlnuni, Sen- 
tiiio. near the sources of the ^Esis. celebrated as the spot Avhere 
Q. Fabius defeated the Samnites and Gauls in ];.c. 2V5. and itself a 
strong t :>wn, besieged by Octavian in the Perusian War vdthout success, 
Camerinum, Cainerino. in the Apennines near the frontiers of Picenum, 
the old capital of the Camertes, and occupied as a stronghold on several 
occasions in the Roman Civil AVars. 

JRoods. — Umbria was traversed in its whole length by the celebrated 
Via Flaminia, constructed by the censor C. Flaminius, in B.C. 220, as 
a means of communication with Cisalpine Gaul. It entered the pro- 
vince at Ocriculum, passed by Xarnia, and thence either by ]Mevania 
or by a more circuitous route by Spjletium to Fulginium. and 
across the Apennines to Fanum Fortunse on the Adriatic. A branch 
road left at Xuceria for Ancona. whence a road was carried along the 
coast by Sena Gallica to Fanum Fort una?. 

HiStorn. — The early history of the Umbrians is almost imknown. 
They were expelled from the maritime district by the Senonian Gauls. 
They made common cause with the Etruscans against the Romans, 
and suffered in consequence several defeats, the last of which, near 
Mevania in B.C. 3!^'8, was a decisive blow. They passed into the con- 
dition of a subject state, and remained, with few exceptions, faithful to 
their allegiance. Augustus retained the name for the sixth region in 
his division, but it was subsequently united to Etruria. 



1 Infesrnm nebulis humentibus olim 

Iguvium. SiL. Ital- viii. 45 9. 

Its osiers are noticed by Virsril : — 

Atque Anierina parant lentse retinaciUa viti. Georg. i. 265. 



Chap. XX T 



517 



VI. PlCENUM. 

§ 7. Picenum extended along tlie coast of the Adriatic from the 
river ^Esis, which separated it from Umbria, to the Matriniis, which 
separated it from the territory of the Testini ; inland, on the W., it 
was bounded by the central ridge of the Apennines. It is a district 
of great fertility and beauty, the greater part of it being occupied by 
the secondary ridges of the Apennines, which in their upper regions 
were clothed with extensive forests, while the lower slopes produced 
abundance of fruit, especially apples ^ and olives, as well as good 
corn and wine. The rivers are nttmerous, but of short course : the 
most important is the Truentiiis, T/'er^/o, which flowed by A senium. 

§ 8. The inhabitants of this district, named Picentes, are generally 
regarded as a branch of the Sabine race."* The Pra^tutii, who lived 
in the S., were to some extent a distinct people, as also were the in- 
habitants of Ancona, who were Syracusan Greeks. The towns of 
Picenum were numerous, and many of them of considerable size, bttt 
they did not attain to any historical celebrity. AVith the exception of 
Ancona, which alone possessed a good port, the most important cities 
were situated inland on hills of considerable elevation, and were thus 
so many natural fortresses. Asculum ranked as the capital. We 
shall describe these towns in order from X. to S., commencing with 
those on the sea- coast. 

Ancona, or Ancon, Aiicona, was so named from its being on an 
*^ elbow" ayKwu ^ or bend of the coast between two promontories, a 
peculiarity of position 



which 

fui^nished the town with a de- 
\ice for its coins. It was 
founded by some dissatisfied 
Syracusans in B.C. 392; and it 
became, under the Romans, one 
of the most important seaport 
towns on the AcUdatic, and the 
chief entrepot for the trade 
with Illyria. Trajan constructed 
an excellent harbour there, by 
the formation of a mole, 





Coin of Ancona belonging to the Greek coluny 



Obverse, bead of Venus. Reverse, a bent arm, or eibo'f 
in allusion to its name. 



^ Pieenis cedunt poniis Tiburtia sueco. Hok. Sat. ii. 4, 70. 

Quid qmim Pieenis excerpens semina pomis 

Gaiides ? Id. ii. 3, 272. 

De corbibus isdeni 
^mula Pieenis, at odoris mala recentis. Jrv. xi. 7 3, 

^ The name -^as usnally derived from jjicus "a wood-pecker, which guided 
the emigrants on their road. Silius Italiciis, however, refers it to an Italian 
divinity of that name : — 

Hoc Piciis, quondam nomen memorabile ab alto 
Satiirno, statuit genitor, qiiem carmine Circe 
Exutiim fornix volitare ]Der eethera jussit, 

Et sparsit plirmis -croceimi fiigientis honorem. viii. 441. 



518 



PICENlM. 



Book IV. 



which still remains, and is adorned with a triumphal arch of ^Yhite 
marble, erected in honour of that emperor. The town possessed a 
celebrated temple of Yenns,^ and was also noted for its purple dye.^ 
The surrounding district yielded large crops of wheat. The popu- 
lation T^as very large, the number of citizens at the time of the 
Roman conquest having been 360,000, according to Pliny, ^ Firmum, 
Fermo, was situated about 6 miles from the coast, on which it pos- 
sessed a port or emporium called Castellum Firmanum. The Romans 
colonized it at the beginning of the First Punic War. It was strongly 
placed, and was occupied on several occasions by Roman generals. 
Castrum Novum was founded by the Romans at the same time as 
Firmum: it probably occupied the site of the deserted town of S. 
Flaciano. Hadria, or Adria, Atri, stood between the rivers Vomaniis 

and Matrinus, about 5 
miles from the coast, on 
which it possessed a port 
named Matrinum : it was 
occupied by a Roman 
colony in B.C. 282, and 
was recolonized by Ha- 
drian whose family origi- 
nally belonged to this 
place. The coins of Adria 
are remarkable for their 
gi^eat weight. Great part 
of the circuit of the walls 
and other ancient remains exist there. Auxinnim, Oslmo, the most 
northerly town in the interior, stood on a lofty hill about 12 miles 
S.W. of Ancona ; from the strength of its position, it was occupied by 
Pompey in his wars against Sulla and Ca^sa^r, but it declared in favour 
of the latter." It did not become a colony until B.C. 157, though it 
was fortified by the Romans some twenty years earlier. TJrbs Salvia, 
Urhisaglia, was situated in the upper valley of the Flusor, and was 
a municipal tox^m. Asculum, AscolL stood on the banks of the 
Truentus.^ It bore an important part in the Social War, which com- 
menced in that town. It was hence besieged by Pompeius Strabo, and 
not reduced till after a long and obstinate defence. 

Of the smaller towns we may notice — Potentia, at the mouth of the 
river of the same name, colonized by the Romans in B.C. 1 84 ; Cupra 
Maritima, 8 miles N. of the Truentus, the site of an ancient temple of 
Cupra ' Juno), founded by the Etruscans \^ Cingulum, Clngoli, W. of 
Auximum, a place of great strength, ^ noticed in the Civil War between 



^ It is noticed by Juvenal : — 

Ante clomuin Veneris, quam Dorica sustinet Ancon. — iv. 40. 
6 Stat fucare coins nec Sidone vilior Ancon 
:Murice nec Libyco. Sil. Ital. viii. 438. 

' Lucan refers to this in tbe line — 

Yarns, nt admotse pnlsarunt Auximon aliP, kc. ii. 466. 
^ The natural strength of its position was remarkable, and it was further 
fortified by art : — 

Et inclemens hirsuti signifer Ascli. Sil. Ital. viii. 440. 

9 Et quels littorese funiant altaria Cuprae — Id. viii. 434. 

• 1 Celsis Labienum Cingula saxa 

Miserunt muris. Id. x. 34. 




Coin of Adria. 

This coin belongs to the class commonly known as .Es grave. 



Chap. XXV. 



SABIXI. 



519 



Caesar and Pompey ; Truentum, or Castrum Truentinum, at the mouth 
of the Truentus^ one of the places occupied by Caesar in the Civil 
Wars; and^ lastly^ Interamna, Terarao, the capital of the Prietutii, 
whose naroe was subsequently applied to the town under the form of 
Aprutium, whence the modern name of the province Ahruzzo. 

Roads. — Picenum was reached from Rome by the Via Salaria, which 
crossed the Apennines to Asculum and thence descended to the 
Adriatic. Another road followed the line of coast from Ancona to 
Aternum. where it united with the Via Valeria. A third left Ancona 
and Auximum for >7uceria, where it fell into the Via Flaminia. 

History. — The history of Picenum is unimportant: it was reduced 
by the Romans in a single campaign in B.C. 268: it suffered severely 
from the raA'ages of the Second Punic "War. The Social War took its 
rise in this ]3rovince in B.C. 90, and led to the siege of Asculum. Caesar 
occupied it at the commencement of the Civil War. 

YII. The Sabini, Maesi, YESTI^'I, Marrucixi, and Peligxi. 

§ 9. The country of the Sabini was a narrow strip, extending 
about 85 miles in length, from the sources of the Xar in the X. to 
the junction of the Tiber and Anio in the S. It was bounded on the 
N. and W. by the Umbrians and Etruscans ; on the X.E. by 
Picenum; on the E. by the Vestini, Marsi, and ^quiculi ; and on 
the S. "by Latium. This country is generally rugged and moun- 
tainous : but the valleys are fertile, and the sides of the hills and 
lower slopes of the mountains are adapted to the grow'th of the vine 
and the olive. The lower valley of the Yelinus, about Eeate, was 
particularly celebrated for its fertility. The country produced large 
quantities of oil and wine, though not of the best quality The 
savin, which was used instead of incense,^ derives its name from the 
Sabine hills, where it was found in abundance. The neighbourhood 
of Reate w^as famous for its mules and horses, and the mountains 
afforded excellent pasturage for sheep. 

§ 10. The Apennines attain their greatest elevation in this part 
of their course. A few of the prominent points received special 
names, as Tetrica and Severus,"^ btit it is difficult to identify them. 
Of the lesser heights we may notice Mons Lucretilis,^ Monte Gennaro, 



2 Deprome quadrimum Sabina, 

Thaliarche, merum diota. * Hor. Carm. i. 9, 7. 

Vile potabis modicis Sabinum 

Canlharis. Id. i, 20, 1. 

3 xlra dabat fiimos berbis coiitenta Sabinis. Ov, Fast. i. 343. 
^ Qui Tetricse horrentes mpes, montemque Severiim. — ^En, 713. 

Horace's villa was situated near it ; hence tlie allusion : — 
Yelox amoBnum sEepe Lucretilem 
Mutat LycEEO Faunas ; et igneam 
Defendit eestatem capellis 

Usque meis, pluviosque ventos. Cann. i. 17, 1. 



520 



SABmi. 



Book IV. 



which rises on the borders of the Eoman Campagna. The chief 
rivers were the ^ar, the Tiber, and the Anio. The two former have 
been already noticed : the Anio belongs more properly to Latium. 
Among the tributaries of these rivers we may specially notice the 
Velinus, Velino, which rises in the Apennines N. of Interocrea, and 
flows in the upper part of its course from X. to S., then to the AV., 
and finally to the N.W., discharging itself into the Xar about 3 
miles above Interamna. The Tolenus, Titjxino, is a small tributary 
of the Yelinus, joining it a few miles below Eeate. We may also 
notice the small stream Digentia, Licenza, a tributary of the Anio, 
on the banks of which Horace had a farm;^ and the still smaller 
Allia, also a tributary of the Anio, and probably to be identified with 
the Scolo del Oasale, 12 miles from Eome, memorable for the defeat 
sustained by the Romans from the Gauls under Brennus in B.C. 390.' 

§ 11. The Sabines were members of a race which was widely 
spread throughout Central and Southern Italy, and which may be' 
divided into three great classes : — the Sabini, with whom we are now 
more immediately concerned ; the Sabelli, including the various 
lesser tribes of the Yestini, Marsi, &c. ; and the Saninites, who were 
the most important of all. The earliest abode of the race appears 
to have been about Amiternum, at the foot of the Apennines : 
thence they issued in a series of migrations founded on a peculiar 
custom called Ver Sacrum, which consisted in the dedication of a 
whole generation to some god under the pressure of any great cala- 
mity. The Sabines were a frugal ^ and hardy race, deeply imbued 
with religious feelings, and skilled in augury and magical rites. 
They dwelt principally in villages, and the towns were accordingly 
very few. Reate ranked as the capital, and xlmiternum was a place 
of some importance. 

Amiternum was situated in the upper valley of the Aternus. We 

have already stated that it was the cradle of the Sabine race. It suf- 
fered severely in the Social and Civil AVars, but subsequently became a 
place of much importance, as the ruins at San Viftorino testify. It was 
the birth-place of the historian Sallust. Keate, Bleti, was situated on 
the Yia Salaria, 48 miles from Rome, and on the banks of the Yelinus. 
The surrounding district was one of the most fertile and beautiful in 
the whole of Italy ; the plains that intervened between the tovv'n and the 



^ Me quoties reficit gelidus Digentia riviis, 
Quern Mandela bibit, rug-osus frigore pagns. Hon. Uj). i. 18, 104. 
" This disaster is frequently referred to by the Koman poets : — 

Quosque secans infaustuni interluit Allia nomen. — vii. 717. 

Cedant feralia nomina Cannae 
Et damnata diu Romanis Allia fastis. Luc. vii. 408. 

8 Yel Gabiis, vel cum rigidis tequata Sabinis. Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 25.. 
Translatus subito ad Marsos mensamque Sabellam 
Contentusque illic veneto duroque culullo. Juv. iii. 169. 



Chap. XXV. TO WXS — HISTORY.— MAESI. 



521 



Lacus Yelinus were known as the Rosege Campi^^ and the valley is 
termed by Cicero the ^^Reatine Tempe." The plain vras however 
liable to inundation from the blocking up of the channel of the Ye- 
linus, and disputes occurred between Reate and Interamna on this sub- 
ject. Nursia, Xorcia, was situated in the upper valley of the Xar at a 
great elevation^ and consequently enjoyed a very cold climafce.^ It is 
noticed in B.C. 20b, along with Reate and Amiternum^ as aiding Scipio 
with volunteers. It was also the birth-place of Yespasia^n's mother. 
We may further notice — Falacrinum, on the Yia Salaria, the birth- 
place of the Emperor Yespasian ; Interocrea, between Reate and Aixd- 
tornum, deriving its name from its position between two rugged 
mountains ; Cutiliae, between Reate and Interocrea^ with a lake in its 
neighbourhood famed for the phenomenon of a floating isle, and also 
possessing medicinal springs of great repute^ which were visited by 
Yespasian ; Cures, Correse, about 3 miles from the Tiber and 24 from 
Rome, the birth-place of Xuma- and the city of Tatius^ but afterwards 
a poor decayed village; and Eretum, Grotta 2Iarozza, about 18 miles 
from Rome, at the junction of the Yia Xomentana with the Yia Salaria, 
and from its position frequently mentioned in connexion with the wars 
between the Sabines and Romans. 

Roads. — The territory of the Sabini was traversed throughout its 
whole length by the Via Salaria, which proceeded from Rome by Reate 
and Interocrea across the Apennines to Picenum. 

History, — The Sabines occupy a prominent place in the early history 
of Rome. They established themselves on the Quirinal Hill, and be- 
came a constituent element in the Roman population. ^Yars neverthe- 
less ensued between the two nations, and were continued down t-o 
B c. 290, when the Sabines were subdued by M. Curius Dentatus. The 
most signal event in the course of these wars was the decisive victory 
gained in B.C. 44-9 by M. Horatius. They are seldom mentioned after 
their incorporation with the Roman state. 

§ 12. The Marsi occupied a moimtainous district aroiiud the basin 
of Lake Fiiciniis, having to the N. of them the Sabines, to the E. 
the Peligni, and to the AY. and S. the ^qni, Hernici, and Yolsci. 
Their territory lies at an elevation of more than 2000 feet above the 
sea : hence the climate is severe, and ill adapted to the growth of 
corn ; fruit, however, abounded, and wine of an inferior quality was 
produced there. In addition to the basin about the lake, the "Slarsi 
also possessed the upper valley of the Liris. The Fueinus Lacus has 
been already briefly noticed : we may here add that it is about 29 



^ Qui Xomentum urbem, qui rosea rura YeUni 
Casperiamqiie colunt. ^n. vii. 712. 

1 Qui Tiberim Fabarimque bibunt, quos frigida misit 
Xursia. Id. vii. 715. 

Xecnon habitata pruinis 
Nursia. Sil. Ital. viii. 418. 

' Xosco crines incanaque menta 

Eegis Eomani ; primus qui legibus urbem 
Funclabit, Curibus parvis et paupere terra 
Missus in imperium magnum. ^n. vi. 809. 

Te Tatius, parvique Cures, Ceeninaque sensit. Ov. Fast. ii. 135. 



522 



MAESI — VESTIXI. 



Book IV. 



miles in circumference, of oval shape, and so completely slmt in by 
mountains that there was no natural passage for its waters ; these 
were originally carried off by subterranean channels, and the waters 
were supposed to reappear at the sources of the Aqua IMarcia,^ in the 
valley of the Anio, though the grounds for sitch belief are very in- 
siifdcient. An artificial duct vras made with immense labour by 
the Emperor Claudius, through the solid limestone rock, to the 
valley of the Liris ; and by this means the inimdations, to which the 
country of the Marsi was liable, were for a while checked. The duct 
is now closed. The Marsi were a Sabellian race, and resembled the 
Sabines in character. They possessed the art of charming venomous 
reptiles."^ Their principal and indeed only town was Marruviim:i.^ 

Marruvium lay on the E. shore of the Fncine Lake, and evidently 
derived its name from the Marsi, whose capital it was. Under the 
Romans it became a tlonrishing municipal town. Portions of the walls 
and of an amphitheatre still remain at a spot now named S. Benedetto. 
We may further notice Lucus Angiti©, L^^'co. a place which grew up 
about the grove and sanctuary of the god>less Angitia, on the W. bank 
of the lake : and Csrfennia, on the Via Valeria, at the foot of the pass 
(the Fo/'ca CarHso leading across to the valley of the Peligni. 

Boad. — The ]\iarsian district was traversed by the Via Valeria, which 
was originally constructed from Tibur to the Fucine Lake and Cer- 
fennia . but vras afterwards, in the reign of Claudius, caiTied over Mons 
Imeus to the valley of the Aternus and the Achiatic. 

Hist'j/'//. — Tlie jiarsi are first noticed in B.C. 34-0 as being on friendly 
terms with Rome. In 308, however, they joined the Samnites against 
the Romans; and in 3'Jl they appear to have imdertaken war with them 
singiedianded, and were consecpaently reduced with ease. At a later 
period they took a prominent part in the Social, or, as it was more 
usually termed, the Marsic War; and, even after the other tribes had 
yielded, they maintained an unequal struggle, which terminated in 
theh complete subjection. 

§ 13. The Vestini occupied a mountainous tract b»etween the 
Pyrenees and the Adriatic, bounded by the Matrinus on the X.AV., 
and by the Aternus on the S.E. Vrithin these limits are two dis- 
tinct regions : the upper valley of the Aternus, a bleak and cold 
upland tract lying at the back of the Jlonte Corno ; and the district 
that lies between that range and the Adriatic, which, though hilly, 
enjoys a tolerably fine climate. The mountains were the haunts of 
wild animals to a late period. The upland pastures were good, and 



^ Hence Statins speaks of the aqueduct as — 

r^Jarsasque nives et frigora ducens. Sih-. i. 5, 26. 

^ At ^Nlarsica pubes 

Et bellare mauu, et chelydris cautare soporem, 

Vipereumque herbis hebetare, et carmine clentem. — Sil. Ital. viii. 497. 
See also Virg. .j:/?. vii, 7 50. 

Marruvium. veteris celebratuni nomine Marri, 

Urbibus est iliis caput. ^ In. viii. 50 7. 



Chap. XXV. 



VESTIXI- MAEEUCIXI. 



523 



from them an excellent kind of clieese was produced. The Apen- 
nines here attain their greatest elevation in the group now called 
Monte Corno, which may perhaps represent the Mons Fiscellus of 
the ancients. The only river worthy of notice is the Aternus, 
Pescam,- which rises near Amiternum, and in its upper course flows 
from iST. to S. through a hroad valley, some 2000 feet ahove the sea, 
and, after passing through a gorge between two masses of moimtains, 
descends in a X.E. direction to the sea. The inhabitants of this 
district were a Sabellian race, and participated in the Sabine cha- 
racter. Their chief towns were Pinna in the interior, and Aternum 
on the sea-coast. 

Pinna, Penne, was situated on the E. slope of the AjDennines, about 
1 5 miles from the sea. The only historical notice of it is in the Social 
War, when it stood firm to the Eoman allegiance. Aternum, Pescara, 
stood at the mouth of the Aternus, and was a place of considerable 
trade. It joined the cause of Hannibal, and was consequently besieged 
and taken by the Romans in B.C. 213. It afterwards became a mani- 
cipium, and its port vras improved by the Emperor Tiberius. 

History. — The Yestini are first mentioned in B.C. 324, when they 
joined the Samrdtes ag-ainst Rome ; they were defeated by the consul 
D. Junius Brutus. In 301 they concluded a treaty ^with the Romans. 
They joined in the Social War, and were again conquered by Pompeius 
Strabo in 89. They were generally in league with the Marrucini and 
Peligni, and the histories of all these tribes are almost identical. 

§ IT. The Marrucini occupied a narrow strip of territory on the 
S. bank of the Aternus, between the A^driatic and the Apennines. 
On the AY. they adjoined the Peligni, from whom they were sepa- 
rated by the lofty ranges now named iLaJeUa and Jlorrone ; on the 
S. the Foro, 7 miles from the Aternus, appears to have been their 
boundary on the side of the Frentani. Their district was fertile, and 
produced corn, wine, oil, and especialh' excellent fruit and vege- 
tables. It appears to have been subject to earthquakes.^ The people 
were a Sabellian race, and their name is only another form of Marsh 
The only to^ui of consequence was the capital, Teate. 

Teate, Chieti, was situated on a hill about 3 miles from the Aternus, 
and 8 from the Adriatic. Though the capital of the district, and de- 
scribed by Silius Italicus " as the great" and -^illustrious," it is not 
mentioned in history. It was the native place of Asinius Poliio the 
orator. 

§ 15. The Peligni occitpied a small inland district in the very 
heart of the Apennines, between the Marrucini on the E., the Marsi 



Procul ista tuis sint fata Teate 
Xec Marrucinos agat hsec insania montes. 
MaiTiiciiia sinrol Frentanis aemula pubes 
Corfini populos, magniimque Teate traliebat. 

Cui nobile nomen 
Mavrucina domus, clarumque Teate ferebat. 



Stat. SUv. ir. 4, 85. 



SiL. Ital. vlii. 521. 



Id. xvii. -153. 



524 



PELIGXI — SAMXIUM. 



Book IV. 



on tlie AV., and tlie Yestini on tlie X. Tlieir district consisted of 
the valley of the Gizio^ which runs northwards into the Aternns ; 
in this direction alone did it lie open; elsewhere it was snrronnded 
on all sides by lofty monntains. The climate was proverbially 
severe^ from the elevation of the land ; still the valley of the Gizio 
was sufficiently fertile in corn and wine, and even produced the olive 
in some places. The peoxDle were a Sabellian race, and resembled the 
other branches of that race in character. They possessed three prin- 
cipal towns : Corfinium, Sulmo, and Superaqueum. 

Corfinium was situated in the valley of the Aternus, near the point 
where that river makes its great bend to the E. It is not noticed 
earlier than in the Social War, B.C. 90, when its position led to its 
being selected by the allied nations as the site of their capital. It was 
occupied by L. Domitius in the Civil War between Ctesar and Pompey, 
and held out for a time against the former. The ruius of the city are 
found at S. Peh'no. Sulmo, Snhnona, stood seven miles S. of Corfi- 
nium, in the valley of the Gizio, and is chiefly celebrated for its having 
been the birthplace of Ovid.^ It is noticed in B.C. 211, as suffering 
from the ravages of Hannibal's army ; and, like Corfinium, it was occu- 
pied by L. Domitius in the Civil War. Superaqueum stood on the 
right bank of the Aternus, about four miles from the Via Valeria : it 
was a municipal town, but Avithout any historical interest : the name 
Suhequo still attaches to its site. 

Eoads. — The territory of the Peligni was centrally situated in refer- 
ence to the lines of communication of Central Italy. The Via Valeria 
traversed it between the ^larsi and Marrucini, entering the district by 
the pass of Imeus, and leaving it by the gorge of the Aternus. In 
another direction the valley of the Aternus opened a natural route to 
Keate and the valley of the Tiber ; and in the opposite direction a 
jDracticable pass crossed the Apennines into the valley of the Sagrus. 

VIII. Samxium, with the Frextaxi. 

§ 16. Samnium was an extensive district in the centre of Italy, 
bounded on the X. by the jMarsi, Peligni, and Marriicini ; on the 
W. by Latinm and Campania ; on the S. by Lncania ; and on the 
E. by the Frentani and Apulia. The whole of this district is of a 
moinitainons character, and is broken up by lofty ranges emanating 
from the Apennines, which in this part of their course cease to be a 
regular chain, and resolve themselves into distinct and broken 
masses. The most important of these masses, now named Monte 
Matese, lies S.W. of Bovianum, and separates the basins of the 
Tifernns and Vultiniins ; a portion of it, containing the sources of 
the former river, was named Mons Tifernus. The next most im2X)r- 



^ Quo prfiebente domuni, et quota, 

Pelignis caream frigoribus, taces. Hor. Cann. iii. 19, 7. 

9 Sulmo mihi patria est, gelidis uberrimus undis. — Trisf. iv. 10, 3. 
Pars me Sulmo tenet, Peligni tertia ruris ; 

Parva, sed irriguis ora salubris aquis. Am. ii. 16, 1. 



Chap. XXV, 



SAMXIUM. 



525 



tant group was that named Mons Taburnus,^ separated from Mate&e 
by the valley of the Calor, and forming the boundary of the Cam- 
panian plain : the W. extremity of this ridge is the Mons Tif ata, so 
celebrated in the campaigns of Hannibal. Several chains strike out 
on the E. side of the Apennines, forming distinct and parallel 
valleys, through which the rivers seek the Adriatic. On the W. 
side there are two extensive valleys — the northern one, in which 
the Yulturnus flows in a direction from X."\V. to S.E. ; the southern, 
in which its tributary, the Calor, flows in an opposite direction, 
having its upper course in an extensive basin lying at the back of 
the groups of Matese and Taburnus. As Samnium thus includes 
the whole breadth of the Apennines, the rivers which belong to it 
seek both the Adriatic and the Mediterranean Seas. In the former 
direction run the Sagrus, Sangro, which rises S. of the Fucine lake, 
and flows through a broad upland valley by the walls of Aufidena ; 
the Trinius, Trigno ; the Tifemus, Biferno^ which rises near Bo- 
viaimm in Monte Matese; the Frento, Fortore ; and, lastly, the 
Aufidus, Of auto, in the extreme S. In the latter direction runs 
the Vulturnus, VoUurno, which rises about five miles S. of Aufidena, 
and pursues a S.E. course until its junction with the Calor, Galore, 
which rises on the borders of Lucania and flows by Beneventum, 
receivmg in its course the tributary waters of the Sabatus and 
Tamarus. 

§ 17. The country we are now describing was originally held by 
the Opicans, or Oscans. The Samnites were a Sabine race, who 
entered as an invading host and conc^uered the Opicans, coalescing 
with them afterwards, and adopting their language. They were 
divided into four tribes, the most important of which were the 
Caudini and Pentri, who lived respectively S. and X. of the Matese, 
while the less important were the Caraceni, in the valley of the 
Sagrus, and the Hirpini, in the upper valleys of the Calor and its 
tributaries. The Samnites were a brave and frugal race, leading a 
rude, pastoral life, and superstitious. They lived for the most part 
in villages, but they possessed some towns — as ^semia and Bovia- 
num, — which were strongly fortified. These, and all the Samnite 
towns, were utterly destroyed by Sulla after the Marian AVar ; nor 
did any of them, although supplied with colonists from Piome, rise 



1 This mountain forms a very conspicuous object from the Campanian plain : 
its upper region? are described by Virgil as being clothed Tvith forests, while on 
its lower slopes the olive flourished : — 

Ac velut ingenti Sila, summove Taburno 

Cum duo conversis inimica in prcBlia tauri 

Frontibiis incurrunt. .i'/^. xii. 715. 

Neu segnes jaceant terrte. Juvat Ismara Baccho 

Conserere, atque olea magnum vestire Taburnum. — Georg. ii. 37. 



526 



SAMNIUM. 



Book 1\ 




Coin of .Esernia 



again to importance, witli the exception of Beneventum, wliicli was 
centrally situated on the Yia Appia. 

^sernia, Isernki, Ts^as situated on a tributary of the Vulturaus, in 
the upper valley of that river. It was captured by the Romans in B.C. 

295^ and was colonized by 
them in 264. After its de- 
struction by Sulla, colonies 
were sent to it by Caesar, Au- 
gustus, and Xero; and it be- 
came a municipal town of 
im]3ortance in the time of 
Trajan and the Antonines: 
there are remains of an aque- 
duct and of a fine bridge of 
this period. Bovianum, Bojano, was situated close to the sources of the 
Tifernus, amidst lofty mountains. It wrs the capital of the Pentri, and 
hence figures in the Second Samnite War. It was besieged without 
success in B.C. 314, but was taken in 311, again in 305, and a third time 
in 298. In the Social AYar, it became the head-quarters of the allies 
after the fall of Corfinium : it never recovered its destruction by Sulla. 
Some portions of its ancient walls, of a very massive order, are still 
visible. Beneventum, Benevento, vvas situated on the banks of the 

Calor, and on the Via Appia. ^ 
It was a very ancient town, 
and its foundation was attri- 
buted to Diomedes. Its ori- 
ginal name was -Maleventum, 
which the Romans deemed of 
ill omen, and therefore 
changed it to Beneventum, in 
B.C. 268, when they planted 
a colony there. Its strength 
and the centrality of its position lead to frequent notices of it. 
Several colonies were sent there by the Roman emperors, and it was 
visited by ]Nero, Trajan, and Septimius Severus. A triumphal arch in 
honour of Trajan still remains. Caudium, tlie capital of the Caudini, 
stood on the Via Appia between Beneventum and Capua. It is noticed 
in the history of the Samnite "Wars, and is particTilarly memorable for 
the disastrous defeat of the Romans in B.C. o21, which took place at a 
pass called FurcrJa? Caudinfe, "the Caudiiie Forks," the position of 
which is near Arpaja, between Sta. Agata and Moirano. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Aufidena, Alfidena, the 
capital of the Caraceni, in the uppf^r valley of the Sagrns, a fortress of 
great streno^th ; Allifae, Alife, in the valley of the Y ulturnus, • on the 
borders of Campania, the scene of several military events, and a place 
of importance under the empire ; Calatia, ,Co/azzo, about a mile N. of 
the Yulturnus, and ten miles X.E. of Capua, the town at which the 
Romans were encamped before their disaster at the Caudine Forks ; 
Saticula,^ S. of the Yulturnus, and probably in the valley at the back 




Coin of Beneventum. 



Hence the well-known notice in Horace in his journey to Brundnsium :- 
Tendimns hinc recta Beneventum, &c. Sat. i. '5, 71. 

Virgil adopts the ethnic form SatlcuJus for Saticulanus : — 

Accola Yolturni, pariterque Saticulus asper. ^En. vii. 729. 



Chap. XXV. 



SAMXIUM — 



FEEXTAXI. 



527 



of Mount Tifata, besieged and taken by the Romans in B.C. 315; Equus 
Tuticus, S. Eleuterio, in the district of the Hirpini, on the Via Trajana; 
Trivicum, Trerico, on the Via Appia/ but not on the line of road fol- 
lowed in later times; Eomulea,^ on the same road at Blsaccia, noticed as 
a large town at the time of its capture by the Romans in B.C. 297, but 
not mentioned subsequently; Compsa, Conza, on the borders of Lucania, 
the place where Hannibal deposited his baggage in B.C. 216, and subse- 
quently taken by the Romans in 214; and, lastly, Abellimini, AvelUno, 
near the Campanian frontier, a place of wealth and importance under 
the Empire. 

Roads. — Samnium was traversed by several high-roads. The Via 
Appia entered it from Capua, and ^oassed through the S. part of the 
province, by Beneventum and the valley of the Calor, to Venusia in 
Apulia. A branch-road struck off from this at Beneventum, which 
joined the ViaEgnatia at ^cse in Apulia : this was named Via Trajana^ 
having been constructed by the Emperor Trajan. Another road, also 
starting from Beneventum, followed the valley of the Vulturnus to 
Venafrum and ^sernia, whence it crossed the ridge to Aufidena, in 
the valley of the Sagrus. Another crossed from iEsernia to Bovianum. 
and thence followed the valley of the Tifernus in one direction ; and 
in another crossed to Equus Tuticus, where it fell into the Via 
Trajana. 

History. — The Samnites are first noticed in B.C. 354, as concluding a 
treaty with Rome. Subsequently war broke out betw^een the two 
peoples, in consequence of the Samnite invasion of Campania, These 
wars continued, with a few interruptions, for fifty -three years (from 343 
to 290), when the Samnites were completely subdued. They joined the 
allies in the Social War in 90, and continued the struggle after the others 
had given way. In the Civil War between Sulla and Marius they again 
broke out ; but they were defeated by Sulla, in 82, before the gates of 
Rome, and suffered severely from his revenge, the w^hole country 
being reduced to a state of utter desolation, from which it never reco- 
vered. 

§ 18. The Frentani occupied a maritime district between Sam- 
nimii and the Adriatic Sea, from the border of the Marrucini in the 
X.W. to Apulia in the S.E., from w^hich it was separated by the 
Tifernus. It is for the most part liilly, but fertile, and well watered 

^ Incipit ex illo montes Api^ulia notos 
Ostentare mihi, quos torret Atabukis ; et quos 
Nunquam erepsemus, nisi nos vicina Tri^ici 

Villa reeepisset. Hor. Sat. i. 5, 7 7. 

* Between this and Beneventum lie the valley and lake of Ampsanctiis, which 
Yir.srll describes. The spot is now named Le Mofete, and the srdphureons vapourc 
are remarkably strong-. The woods which formerly surrounded it have been cut 
down. 

Est locus Italise medio sub montibus altis 

Nobilis, et fama multis memoratus in oris, 

Amsancti valles : densis hunc frondibus atrum 

Urget utrimque latus nemoris, medioque fragosus 

Dat sonitmn saxis et torto vertice torrens : 

Hie specus horrendmn, seevi spiracula Ditis 

Monstrantur, ruptoque ingens Acheronte vorago 

Pestifeias aperit fauces ; quis condita Erinnys, 

Invisum numen, terras coelumque levabat. .T.n. vii. 563. 



528 



FRENTANI. 



Book IV. 



by the loAver courses of the rivers Tifernus, Trinius, and other streams 
which take their rise in the mountains of Samnium. The Frentani 
were a Samnite race. The towns of importance on the sea-coast 
were Ortona, Ortona, Histonium, and Buca, probably at TermoU, 
none of which have any historical associations : Histonium ap- 
pears to have ranked as the capital under the Eoman empire ; there 
are extensive remains of it at H Vasto. Anxanum, Lanciano, in 
the interior, may also be noticed as a municipal town of some size. 

History. — The Frentani are first noticed in B.C. 319^ when they were 
a.t war with Rome, and were speedily reduced. In 304 they concluded 
peace with the Romans, and they remained fpdthful to them, even after 
the battle of Cannse. They joined in the Social War without taking 
any prominent part in it. 




Beneveiituni. 



Alban Hills and Remains of Roman Aqueduct. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 
ITALY — contin ued. latium. 

IX. Latioi. § 1. Boundaries^ and General Description. § 2. Moun- 
tains. § 3. Rivers. § 4. Inhabitants. § 5. Rome. § 6. Remain- 
ing Towns of Latium. Roads. Islands. History. 

IX. Latium. 

§ 1. In fixing the boundaries of Latium,^ care mnst be taken to 
distinguish between Latium in the original and historical sense, and 
Latium in its later geographical sense. The former was a small 
country, bounded on the N. by the Tiber and the Anio (w^ith the 
exception of a small district N. of the Anio, at the confluence of 
these rivers, which w^as included in Latium) ; on the E. by the 
low^er ranges of the Apennines, a little E. of Tibur and Pr^neste ; 
on the S. by a Hue drawn from the latter town to the promontory of 
Circeii ; and on the W. by the Tyrrhenian Sea. The latter compre- 
hended, in addition to the territory just described, the districts of 
the Mqm and Hernici in the E., and the Yolsci and Aurunci in the 



1 The origin of the name " Latium " is unknown : the Romans themselves 
connected it with lateo because Saturn had there laiii hid from Jupiter : — 
Composuit legesque dedit, Latiumque vocari 
Maluit, his quoniam latuisset tutus in oris. yEn, viii. 322. 

The name is undoubtedly connected ^Yith Lavinium and Lavinus, and pro- 
bably the oldest form was Latvinus. It should be observed that the name Lathrm 
was derived from Latini, and not vice versa. 

ANC. GEOG. 2 A 



530 



LATIOI. 



Book IV. 



S., so tliat it bordered in tlie former direction on Samninm, and in the 
latter on Campania, the point of separation being just S. of Sinnessa. 
The greater portion of Latinm consists of a broad undulating plain, 
now called the Campagna, extending from the sea to the advanced 
ridges of the Apennines, and interrupted only by the isolated group 
of the Alban hills : this plain, though apparently level, is intersected 
by ravines which the streams have worn for themselves, and which 
generally have rugged, precipitous sides, particularly in the E. por- 
tion of it. The eastern part of Latium, occupied by the ^qui and 
Hemici, is hilly ; and the southern district again, occupied by the 
Volsci, is intersected by an extensive range, similar in character 
to the xlpennines, but separated from them by the valleys of the 
Trerus and Liris. The districts vary in regard to the fertility of 
the soil : the Campagna and the Alban hills are of volcanic origin ; 
the former, though at present utterly desolate, was well cultivated 
in ancient times, and produced considerable c[uantities of corn. The 
slopes of the hills have been in all ages well adapted to the growth 
of the vine, the C'live, and other fruit-trees ; and among the special 
products of the country, we may specify the wine of the Alban hills,^ 
the figs of Tusculum, the hazel-nuts of Pr^eneste, and the pears of 
Cmstumerium and Tibur. 

§ 2. Of all the liills of Latium the most impoii:ant and conspicuous 
is the group of the Alban hills, the central height of which is the 
Albanus Mons ^ of the ancients and the Monte Cavo of modem times. 
The name does not appear to have been extended to the general group, 
though modern usage has effected this. The Alban hills are a nearly 
circular mass, about 40 miles in circumference, of volcanic origin, and 
t':)miing apparently at one time a single great cmter,the edge of which 
has been broken up into numerous summits, while from the lower 
slopes nmnerous spurs project into the plain, affording admirable sites 
for towns. The summit of Albanus Mons was crowned with the 
temple of Jupiter Latiaris, in which the Latins held their congress. 
In the X.E. cpaarter Algidus"^ was a name applied either to a 



- Horace classes it witli the Falernian : — 

Hie herns, Albanum, Ma?cenas, sire Falernum, 
Te magis appositis delectat ; hahemns ntriimqiie. — Sat. ii. 8, 16. 
3 This summit commands a magnificent view of the Campagna ; hence Virgil 
represents Jnno as observing from this point the combat bet^veen the Trojans and 
Latins : — 

At Jnno ex snmmo, qui nunc Albanns habetnr, 
Prospiciens tnmulo, campum spectabat. .En. xii. 134. 

The sides of this hill were covered, in the time of Horace, with dense 
forests : — 

Nam, qnte nivali pascitur Algido 
Devota, qnercns inter et ilices, 
Ant crescit Albanis in herbis 

Victima. CV/rw. iii. 23, 9. 



Chap. XXVI. 



MOO'TAIXS — 



EIYEES. 



531 



single summit or to that portion of the gronp ; the plam which in- 
tervenes between it and Tnscnlnm was the scene of frequent engage- 
ments between the Eomans and the ^qiiians. The Tolscian hills, 
now known as the Monti LejAni, received no special name in ancient 
times. They rise immediately S. of the Pontine Marshes, and fill up 
the whole intervening space (from 12 to 16 miles in breadth) be- 
tween them and the valley of the Trerus ; they descend to the coast 
between Tarracina and the Liris, and foim a succession of headlands. 
We must also notice the small Mons Sacer which overlooks the Anio 
at a distance of about 3 miles from Eome, and is memorable as the 
spot whither the Plebeians seceded m b.c. 494 and 449 ^ 

§ 3. The chief river in Latiuni is the Tiber the lower comse of 
which falls within the limits of this province ; about 2 miles alDove 
Eome it receives an imjX'rtant tributary in the Anio ^, Ttverone, vdiich 
rises in the Apennines near Treba, and descends rapidly throiiiii the 
^quian hiUs to Tibur, where it forms a remarkable Avaterfall ^, and 

Duris ut ilex tonsa bipennibus 

Xigrce f'eraci frondis in Algido. Cann. ir. 4, 57. 

At a later period the wealthy Komans had villas there, and its character Tvas 
changed : — 

Xec Tusciilano? Algidosve secessns 

Proeneste nec sic Antiiimve miratur. Mart. x. 30. 

nec amcena retentant 
Algida. SiL. Ital. xii. 536. 

The name is derived from the Lex Sacrata passed there in b.c. 494. 
6 Plebs vetus et nullis etiam nunc tiita Tribunis, 
Fiigit ; et in Sacri vertice montis abit. Ov. Fast. iii. 663. 

" The yelloTT hue and turbid character of its stream are frequently noticed by 
the poets : — 

\i([umxi flavum Tiberim, retortis 

Littore Etrusco violenter undis. Hoe. Carm. i. 2, 13. 

In fluvium dedit : ille suo cum gurgite ^/faro 

Accepit venientem ac mollibus extulit undis. J^ii. ix. 816. 

Hunc inter fluvio Tiberinus amoeno 
Yorticibus rapidis et niulta fiavus arena 

In mare prorumpit. Id. vii. 80. 

The river is frequently called Albula by the Roman poets, from a tradition that 
such was its earliest name, its later designation having been derived from a king 
named Tibris, according to Virgil ^En. viii. 330 , or from an Alban king, 
Tiberinus, according to Livy i. 3 . 

s The oblique cases of this name come from a more ancient form, Anien, which 
is itself used by some of the later poets Stat. SUv. i. 3, 20 . 

^ The present cascade is artificial, having been constructed in 1834 ; but there 
was always a considerable fall there, as the subjoined passages imply : — 

Et prceceps Anio. Hor. Carm. i. 7, 13. 

Et cadit in patulos Nympha Aniena lacus. Propert. iii. 16, 4. 

Aut ingens in stagna cadit vitreasque natatu 

Plaudit aquas. * Stat. SUi. i, 3, 73. 

It appears from the last two passages that the fall was broken towards its lower 
part by projecting ledsres. which caused it to form small pools. 

2 A 2 



532 



LATir^I. 



Book IV. 



tlience pursues a winding course tlirougli the CamjjfAgna ; its -water 
was very pure and it was one of tlie som'ces whence Eome drew its 
supply. The Liris, GarigJiano (p. 489), is the chief river in the 
southern district ; it receives the Trerus, Sacco, from the neighbotu^- 
nood of Pra?neste, a stream which, though itseh important and flow- 
ing thi'ough a wide vahey, is unnoticed by the historians and poets of 
ancient times. Of the lesser streams which crossed the plain, we 
may notice the Numicius \ Ilio Torto, on the banks of which ^Eneas 
was buried: the Astiira-, or Storas, which rises at the foot of the 
Alban hills, and on the banks of which was fought the last great 
battle between the Eomans and Latins in B.C. 338 ; the Amasenus ^, 
Amcfseno, which rises in the Tolscian hills and descends through the 
Pcritine I\harshes to the sea near Tarracina ; and the Ufens, Ufenfe, a 
sluggish stream which now joins the Amisenus in the. Pontine 
]\Iarshes There were numerous small lakes in Latium, the chief 
of which was Albaniis Laciis, L'^'-go di Alhano, beneath the moimtain 
of the same name, 6 miles in circumference, undoubtedly occupying 
the crater c^f an extinct volcano, and so entirely surrounded by moim- 
tain s that there was no natural outlet for the surplus waters; these 
were carried off by an artificial emissary pierced through the sohd 
rc<:dv, constructed in B.C. 397 and still existing, which conducts the 
waters by a stream named the Biro Alhano to the Tiber. We may 
also notice L. Nemorensis, I^'^'-go di Xemi, near Aricia, also a volcanic 
crater, of small size luit remarkable for its picturescjue appearance, and 
lamed in antiquity iVt the sanctuary of Diana (Xemus Diana?), to 
which it owtd its name : and L. Regillus, at the foot of the Tus- 
crJan hills, the scene uf the grt-at battle between the Eomans and 



^ He ^vas here ^orsliipped under the title of Jupiter Indiges : — 
Illic sanctus eris. qumn te veneranda Xumici 

I'lida Deuni ccclo miserit Indig-etem. Tibvll. ii. 5, 43. 

There was also on its banks a grove sacred to the nymph Anna Perenna : — 
Corniger hanc cupidis rapuisse Xumicius undis 
Creditur. et stagnis occuluisse suis^ 

Ipsa loqui A-isa est, phicidi sum n^inpha Xumici ; 

Amne perenne hitens Anna Perenna vocor. — Ot. Fast. iii. 647. * 
- At its mouth was a small islet, now converted into a peninsula by an artificial 
causeway : it was a favourite residence of the Eomans and, among others, of 
Cicero. 

^ Virgil describes it as swollen to a large stream in his account of the escape of 
Metabus : 

Ecce, fugae medio, summis Amasenus abundans ^ 
Spumabat ripis : tantis se nubibus imber 

Ruperat. xi. 547. 

Et quos pestifera Pomptini uligine campi,- 
Qua Saturee nebulosa paius restagnat, et atro 
Liventes cccno per squalida turbidus arva 

Cogit aquas Ufens, atque inficit eequora limo. Sil. Ital. viii. 381. 



Chap. XXVI. 



IXHABITAXTS. 



Latins in B.C. 496; it probably occupied a small crater at Cornufelle 
wliicb. lias since been cbained of its waters. The Pomptinae Paliides 
foiTQ an imjDortant feature in tlie S. c-f Latitun ; tliey occupy an ex- 
tensive tract between tlie A^olscian monntains and the sea, about 30 
miles in length by 7 or 8 in breadth, and are the resitlts of a consi- 
derable depression of the land, in which the waters of the Amasenus 
and other streams sta2:nate. The Via Appia was carried across them 
in B.C. 312, and a canal formed by its side betAveen Forimi Appii and 
Tarracina. Fruitless attempts were made to drain the marshes by 
Cornelius Cethegus m 160, and subsec|uently by Caesar, Augustus, 
and Trajan. 

§ 4. The inhabitants of Latium consisted of several distinct peoples. 
The Latini ^ occupied Latium proper ; the limits of their territijry un 
the side of the Yolscians were fluctuatino: ; on the one hand ^^everal 
tovms in the Yolscian mountains, as Velitra?, Cora, Xorba and Setia, 
belonged to the Latins, and on the other hand Antium belonged to 
the Yolscians. The Volsci spread over the greater part of the soutli- 
ern district from the seacoast to the borders of Samnium ; they tlius 
held the Pontine I^larshes, the Yolscian hills (jlonfi Lepiui)^ and the 
valley of the Liris. The Aurunei were a petty naticn on the left 
bank of the Luis and on the borders of Campania^ ; and the Ausones, 
who were originahy identical with the Aurunei lived in later times 
on the right bank of the Liris between the sea and the Yolscian moun- 
tains. The Hemici ^ held the upper valley of the Trerus, and the 
hill cotmtry adjacent to it. The ^qui C'ccupied the mountainous dis- 
trict in the upper valley of the Aniij, between the Saljini car the AY. 
and the Marsi on the E. ,The towns of Latium were ntunerous and 
remarkable for the natural strength of their position, furnishing a 
complete illustration of Yirgii's line : 

Tot congesta manu praeruptis oppida saxis."^ 



^ The origin of the term " Prisci Latini," which occurs in Eoman history sub- 
sequent to the fall of Alba, is uncertain : perhaps it represented a league of a 
portion of the Latin cities formed at that time, vrho set themselves up as the 
" old Latins." 

6 Their capital, Aurunca, stood about fire miles X. of Suessa, on a spur of 
Jloiite di Sta. Croce : to this A'irgil alludes : 

MiUe rapit populos : vertunt felicia Baccho 
Massica qui rastris ; et quos de coV.ihus altis 
Aurunei misere patres. ^En. vii. 725. 

' The names are in fact the same, the r being changed into -s, as is common in 
Latin. The distinction between the two tribes first appears in the 4th cent. b.c. 
The name is probably derived from the >ame root as Oscus. 

^ The name is said to have been derived from a Sabine word, lierna " a rock : " 
if so, it was truly appropriate to the district which the Hernicans occupied, which 
Virgil describes as, — 

Eoscida rivis 

Hernica saxa. ^^n. vii. 683. 

9 Georg. ii. 156. • 



534 



LATIUM. 



Book IY. 



Xot only do tlie Alban hills abound with sites of remarkable strength 
overlooking the plain from a great height, but the Campagna itself, 
furroAved as it is with deep channels fomed by the streams in the 
tnfo rock, afforded admirable positions for ancient towns. These na- 
tural advantages were improved by art, and walls of great strength 
in the Cyclopean style were erected on the brows of the cliffs, speci- 
mens of which remain to this day at Signia, Cora, and other places. 
The Latins possessed a confederacy of thirty towns, at the head of 
which stood Alba. The brilliant period of the Latin towns generally 
was anterior to the rise of the supremac}' of Eome. They subse- 
quently became little else than suburbs of the great metropohs, and 
derived their prosperity from the j^atronage of the wealthy Eomans 
who erected their viUas wherever the scenery or the fine air attracted 
them. The towns on the Appian Way, however, retained some im- 
portance as places of trade. 

§ 5. Rome, the metropohs not only of Italy but of the ancient 
world, was situated on the Tiber, about 15 miles from its mouth. The 
chief part of the town lay on the left bank, where the gromid is 
broken by a group of hiUs, and the river winds about with a treble 
ctirve. Of the seven hills which formed the site of the city, three are 
isolated, and the other four connected at their bases. Of the former 
the Capitoline stands about 300 paces from the river at its most 
easterly point, and is the hill to which all • the others seem to point ; 
it is of a saddle-back shape, depressed in the centre and rising towards 
its N. and S. extremities. To the S.E. lies the Palatine, a httle in- 
ferior in point of height, and of a lozenge shape ; and still more to the 
S. is the xlventine, closely bordering on the Tiber. The four connected 
hills ^ are, from S. to N., the C^elian, the largest of the whole group, 
lying opposite the Aventine ; the Esquiline, which divides at its ex- 
tremity into two tongues, named Gispius andOppius; the Yiminal, 
a small hill almost enclosed between the Esquiline and Quirinal ; and 
the Quirinal, which ctuves round in a hooked shape towards the 
Esquiline. StiU further to the N., bttt outside the walls, is the Pin- 
cian hill, while on the opposite side of the Tiber he the Janiculan, a 
ridge which nms in a direct hne between the two curves of the Tiber, 
and the Vatican yet more to the ]N". Piome is said to have been 
founded in B.C. 753; the original city of Eomulus stood on the Pala- 
tine 2, while a Sabine town occupied the Quirinal and Capitoline, and 
Etruscans were settled on the Caslian and Esqtiiline. The Sabine 



1 This part of Rome has been compared to the back of a man's hand -when 
slightly bent and held Tvith the fingers open, the latter representing the Esqui- 
line, Quiriiial, and Viminal (Arnold's Rome, i. 51). 

2 Inde petens dextram, porta est, ait, ista Palati ; 
Hie Stator, hoc primiun condita Roma loco est. — Or, Trist. iii. 1, 31. 



Chap. XXVI. 



ROME. 



535 



incorporated in the reign of Romnlus, 
reraoved from their settlement to the 




FORUM" 
ROMAMUM, 



and Eoman tovms were 
and the Etrnscans were 
]3lain between the Ca^- 
lian and Esquiline. An- 
cus Martins added the 
Aventine, and built a 
fortress on the Janicn- 
lan. Tarqninins Prisons 
drained the low gronnd 
between the Palatine and 
CajDitol, and planned the 
Circus Maximus and 
Foiinn. Finally Servius 
Tulhus added the Yimi- 
nal and Esquiline, and 
sun-ounded the seven 
hills with walls extend- 
ing about 7 miles in cir- 
cumference. In coui'se 
of time the city outgTew 
these limits, and in the 
reign of Vespasian reach- 
ed a circumference of 13 
miles, at which period it 
is computed to hare con- 
tained a population of 
nearly two milhons. Sub- 
sequently its size was 
somewhat diminished, 
the walls of Aurelian 
ha^-ing a cncumference 
of only 11 miles. The 
general appearance of the city was for a long xDeriod but poor ; alter 
its destmction by the Gauls in B.C. 390, it was rebuilt in haste with 
narrow crooked streets, and these remained down to the time of Xero, 
when two-thirds of the town were burnt down (a.d. 64), and were 
rebuilt with wide and regular streets. The houses were of two classes, 
called doraus and insulce, the foimer being the private houses of the 
wealthy, the latter the residences of the middle and lower classes, 
who occupied flats or portions of houses, which were carried to the 
unsafe height of 60 or 70 feet. There were 46,602 of the latter, and 
1,790 of the fomer. 

I. Divisions of the City. — Servius Tullius divided the town into four 
regions — Suburana, Esquilina^ Collina, and Palatina — corresponding to 
the number of the city tribes: these were subdivided into 27 Sacella 



Plan of the City of Eomulus. 



536 



LATIOI. 



Book IV. 



Argasonim. This division held good until the time of Aiignst-aS; v^ho 
rearranged the whole city in fourteen Regions^ named as follows : — 
^1) Poii:a Capena ; (2) Ccelimontium; (3) Isis et Serapis ; [4,] Via 
Sacra; (5) Es^uilina cum Viminali; (6) Alta Semita; (7) Via Lata ; 
(8) Forum Eomauum; ( 9) Circus Flamiuius ; (10) Palatium; (11) Circus 
Maximus ; 12; Piscina Publica : (13) Aventinus; (14) Trans Tiberim. 
The localities of these divisions are in several instances pointed out 
by the names which coiTespond to those of the hills and well-known 
quarters of the city : it will suffice to add that Isis and Serapis was 
at the back of the Esquiline. Alta Semita on the Quirinal and Pincian. 
Via Lata on the E. of the Campus ]\Iartius^ and Piscina Publica S. of 
the Aventine. 




IMap of Rome, showing the Servian AValls and the Seven Hills. 



IL Walls and &afes .— The Wall of Servius, which was built of stone, 
surrounded the whole city, with the exception of the Capitoline Hill 
and the portion adjacent to the Tiber, which were both defended by 
nature. On the E. side of the town a portion of the agger still remains 
at the back of the Esquiline and Quirinal hills.^ In other directions 



3 Recurring" to the comparison already made 'note the position of the walls 
of Servius vrould be represented by a line drawn across the J^nuckles ; those of 
Aurelian by a line drawn across the ivrist. 



Chap. XXVI. 



its course may be traced by means of the gates, of ^-liich n' .;.n 
twenty are enmneratecl. the most important being the I^orto. ^ . ..r 
theX. extremity of the Qiminal: Eatnmena. beneath the X'. pcin: li :he 
Capitoline Hill ; Carmentalis, at the S. foot of the Capit'jline : Trige- 
mina, near the Tiber at the foot of the Aventine; Capena. at the foot 
of the Ca^lian; CEelimontana, on the Ctehan ; Esqiiilina and Viminulis, 
at the back of the hills of the same name. These gates remained z'j a 
lat€ period, but the wall fell into decay, nor was there any necessity 
to rebuild it until the German hordes threatened the city. Aiireiian 
commenced a new wall in a.d. 271, vrhich was completed by Pr'jbus 
and repaired by Honoiins : it is substantially the same as novr exists. 
It enclosed a much larger area than that of Servius. including the 
Pincian Hill and the Campus ]\Iartius on the X'., the Janiculum on 
the W. of the Tiber, and a considerable district S. of the Avrutme. 
and at the back of the Esquiline and Quirinal. It had principal 
and sereral lesser gates. 




Temple of Jupiter Capiiolinus restored. 

III. Tlie Capitol. — The Capitoline Hill rose to a double stimmit at its 
X.E. and S.^V. extremities, as already noticed. On the former ]jro- 
bably stood the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, founded Ijy Tar(:piiniu5 
Pidscus ; the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius.^ in which the spd'CL opima 
were dedicated: and a Temple of Fides, On the S.AV. summit stood 
the Arx; the Temple of Jupiter Tonans,'^ erected by Ai:gu>tits; the 
Temple of Juno Moneta. erected by Camillus in 345 and used as a 
public mint; and the Temple of Eonos and Virtus, built by C. ^Tarius. 
Between the two summits lay the Asylum of Romulus : this name was 
afterwards transferred to a spot on the X'.E. summit. The Eupes 



* Xunc spolia in temple tria condita : causa Feretri 
Omine quod eerto dux ferit ense ducem. 
Seu quia victa suis humeris hue arma ferebant 

Huic Feretri dicta est ara superba .Jovis. Peopert. it. 10, 45. 

5 magnoe qui mcenia prospicis urbis 

Tarpeia de rupe Tonans : Luc. i. 195. 

2 A 3 



538 



LATIUM. 



Book IV. 



Tarpeia^ was probably on the E. side^ facing the Forum, though the 
name Ruj)e Tarijea is now assigned to a chff on the Wjieide. 




The Forum and its Environs. — The Forum, the great centre of 
Roman life and business, was situated in a deep hollow between the 
Capitoline and Palatine hills. It was of an oblong shape, 671 feet 
long, and diminishing in breadth from 202 feet at the W. end to 117 
at the E. It was bounded on the N. by the Via Sacra/ (see Plan, aa) 



6 Fi'om this criminals were executed by being hurled down : — 
Tunc Syri, Damae, aut Dionysi filius, audes 

Dejicere e saxo cives, aut tradere Cadmo. Hon. Sat. i. 6, 38. 

' The Yia Sacra was the route by which the processions of victorious generals 
ascended to the Capitol ; the name was more particularly applied to a portion of 



Chap. XXVI. 



ROME. 



539 



which led from the Colosseum to the Capitoline. Two parallel streets 
led out towards the S., the Vicus Jugarius (Plan, cc) from its W. end, 
and the Vicus Tuseus (Plan, dd), the best shopping street^ in Rome, 
from the centre. The Comitium, where public business was transacted, 
occupied the E. end of the Forum. The Forum was surrounded with 
porticoes and shops, those on the side being named Tahernae Novae, 
and those on the S. side Tabemae Veteres. 

The Forum itself contained the following buildings and objects ; — 
the Rostra (Plan, 19), or stage, in front of 
the Curia, and so named from the heahs of 
the vessels taken from the Antiates in 337, 
with which it was ad orned ; the Lacus 
Curtius (Plan, 18) in the very centre of the 
Forum, which was drained by Tarquinius 
Priscus, the site of it being subsequently 
mai-ked by a depression f the Jani, the chief 
resort of the money-lenders, in front of the 
Basilica Emilia on the N. side; the Tri- 
bunal of the PrjBetor, at the E. end of the 
Forum: the Puteal Libonis- (Plan, 17), near 
it, so called from the resemblance it bore 
to the top of a well ; the Temple of Divus 
Julius, erected on the spot where the 
body of Caesar was burnt, also at the E. end of the Forum -? the 
Rostra Julia, in front of it; the Milliarium Aureum, or gilt miie- 




Puteal Libonis or Scribonianum. 



the street which formed the ascent of the Yelia, and which was otherwise called 
" Sacer Cli\T.is " : — 

Quandoque trahet feroces 
Per sacrum clivwn, merita decorus 

Fronde Sicambros. Hon. Cann. iy. 2, 34. 

Intactiis aut Britannus ut descenderet 
Sacra catenatus Via. Id. I^j^od. vii. 7. 

At the summit of the ascent, called Srmima Sacra Via, a market was held for the 
sale of fruit and toys, and the street was generally a lounge for idlers : — 
Ibam forte^ Via Sacra, sicut meus est mos, 

Nescio quid meditans nugarum. Hon. Sat. i. 9, 1. 

8 Scents, frankincense, silks, &c., were sold there : — 
Deferar in vicum vendentem thus et odores 

Et piper, et quicquid chartis amicitur ineptis. Id. JEp. ii. 1, 269. 

Xec nisi prima velit de Tusco serica vico. Mart. xi. 27. 

9 Curtius ille lacus, siccas qui sustinet aras 

Nunc solida est tellus, sed lacus ante fuit. Ov. Fast. vi. 403. 

1 There were probably two of them, and when Horace speaks of the middle 
Janus, he means the middle of the street : — 

Postquam omnis res mea Janum 
Ad medium fracta est. Sat. ii. 3, 18. 

2 . Ante secundam 

Koscius orabat sibi adesses ad Puteal eras. Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 34. 

3 Ovid describes it as facing the Capitol : — 

Ut semper Capitolia nostra forumque 
Divus ab excelsa prospectat Julius sede. Ov. Met. xv. 841. 



540 



LATIUM. 



Book IV, 




Temple of Yesta. 

a Coin.) 



(From 



sone, erected by Augustus; tlie statue of Marsyas tlie resort of 
lawyers and courtezans— and numerous other statues ; the Columna 
Maeiiia, commemorative of the victory of Maenius over the Latins, in 
338; and the Columna Rostrata, adorned with the beaks of the ships 
taken bv Duilius from the Carthaginians in 260. 

Adjacent to the Forum we mav note the Temple of Vesta ^ (Plan, 
16), at its S.E. end, er?cted by Kuma Pompilius ; 
the Temple of Castor and PoUus^ (Plan, 13), just 
under the Palatine, vowed by Postumius in the 
Latin War, and dedicated by his son in 484-, 
of which three columns still remain ; the Basilica 
Julia, between the Vicus Tuscus and Jugarius, 
erected by Ceesar for the accommodation of the 
law-courts; the Temple of Saturn (Plan, 11), at 
the W. end of the Forum under the Capitoline 
Hill,dedicated in 497, and of which eight columns 
remain; the Temple of Concordia (Plan 2), 
erected by L. Opimius, in 121, at the l^.W. end 
of the Forum and on the rise of the Capitoline ; 
the Senaculum rpian, 3), an elevated area between the Teniple of 
Concord and the Forum, where the senators met before entering the 
Curia: the Tullianum, or lower dungeon of the Mamertine prison, 
erected bv Servius TuUius, and still in existence; the Curia (Plan, 6), 

or Senate-House, on 
the N. side of the 
Forum, at its W. end; 
the Graecostasis (Plan, 
5), adjacent to it at 
its S.W. angle, a place 
set apart as a v\'aiting- 
room for foreign am- 
bassadors ; the Basi- 
lica Porcia (Plan, 7), 
on the E. of the Curia, 
erected in 184, by 
Porcius Oato, for the 
assemblies of the tri- 
bunes of the people ; 
the Basilica -ffimilia 
(Plan, 8), originally 
erected in 179 by M. 
^milius Lepidus ; 
and, lastly, the Arch of Severus, erected in a.d. 203, at the X.W. angle 
of tile Forum, and still in a good state of preservation. 

V. The Imperial Fora. — As Rome increased in size the old Forum 




Mi 




Arch of Septimiiis Severus. 



* Obeundus Marsya, qui se 

Yultum ferre negat Xoviorum posse minoris. HoR. Sat. i. 6, 120. 
Ipse potest fieri Marsya causidicus. Mart. ii. 64. 

= Hie locus est Yestee : qui Pallada servat et igiiem. — Oy. Trist. iii. 1, 29. 
6 At quae venturas praecedet sexta Kalendas 
Hac sunt Ledseis templa dicata Deis. 
Fratribus ilia Deis fratres de gente Deorum 

Circa Juturnee composuere lacus. Id. Fast, i. 705. 



Chap. XXVI. 



ROME. 



541 



was found insufficient for the transaction of law business ; and hence 
numerous fora were erected by the emperors in the ground intervening 
between the Forum and the Quirinal, and in a line diverging to the 
iS'.W. from the old Forum. The chief of these imperial fora were 
the Forum Julium, founded by Caesar 
and finished by Augustus, which was 
situated at the back of the Basilica 
Emilia; the Forum Augusti, to the N". 
of the Forum Julii, enclosing a temple 
of Mars TJltor,^ of which three columns 
still remain ; the Forum Transitorium, 
commenced by Domitian and completed 
by Xerva, and containing a temple of 
Minerva, situated E. of the Forum Ju- 
Hum ; the Forum Trajaai, the most mag- 
nificent of them all, situated between 
the Quirinal and Capitoline, and contain- 
ing, in addition to the Forum itself, the 
Basilica TJlpia, at the W. end of which 
stands the famous Column of Trajan, 
commemorating the wars of that emperor with Decebalus : and, lastly, 
W. of the Basilica, completing the range ' of buildings, the Temple 
of Divus Trajanus, erected by Hadrian. 

VI. The Palatine and Telia. — After the Capitol and Forum, the 
Palatine Hill is the most interesting spot in Rome, both as having been 
the cradle of the eternal city and the later residence of the emperors 
in the time of its highest glory. The declivity towards the Capitoline 
was called Germalus, or Cermalus, and contained the Lupercal, a grotto 
sacred to Pan;^ the Ficus Ruminalis, the fig-tree under which Romulus 
and Remus were suckled by the wolf; and the Casa Romuli,^ a hut in 
which Romulus was nurtured. These objects were probably at the W. 
angle of the hill, near the Circus. . Among the illustrious Romans who 
had houses on the Palatine, we may notice Vitruvius Vaccus, whose house 
was pulled down in B.C. 335, Fulvius Flaccus, who perished in the 
sedition of Gracchus, Cicero, who lived on the X.E. side of the hill, 
Catiline, Antonius, and Scaurus. Augustus was born in this quarter, 
and adorned it with a splendid Temple of Apollo, surrounded with a 
portico containing the Bibliothecae Grseca et Latina: the temple itself 
was built of solid white marble, and contained statues of the god and 
of Augustus himself ; the columns of. the portico were of African 
marble and between them stood statues of the fifty daughters of 
Danaus -.^ its exact position is not known. The Palace of Augustus 



" It was vowed by Augustus in tlie civil war undertaken to avenge his father's 
death : — 

Mars, ades, et satia scelerato sanguine ferrum : 

Stetque favor causa pro meliore tuus. 
Templa feres et, me victore, vocaberis Ultor. Ov. Fast. v. 575. 
^ Hinc lucum ingentem, quern Eomulus acer Asylum 
E.ettulit, et gelida monstrat sub rupe Lupercal, 
Parrhasio dictum Panos de more Lyceei. JEn. viii. 342. 

9 Eomuleoque recens horrebat regia culmo. Id, viii. 654. 

1 Quseris cur veniam tibi tardior ? aurea Phoebi 

Portions a magno Ceesare aperta fuit : Tota 




Temple of Trajan. 



542 



LATIUM. 



Book IV. 




Arch of Titus restored. 



ajDpears to have stood on the X.E. side of the hill, and the Palace of 
Tiberius near the X.AY. corner. The two palaces of Xero, named 

Domus Transitoria 
and Domus Aurea, 
probably covered 
the whole of the 
hill. The Velia was 
the rising ground 
between the valley 
of the Forum on 
the one side and 
the t^olosseum on 
the other. It con- 
tained the follow- 
ing objects: — the 
jEdes Penatium, an 
ancient fane in 
which the images of 
the household gods 
brought from Troy 
were preserved: the 
Temple of Peace, 
erected by Vespa- 
sian after his tri- 
umph over Jerusa- 
lem, with the spoils of which it was adorned; the Basilica Constantini, 
erected by Maxentius in honour of Constantine, of which thi^ee massive 

arches still remain ; 
the splendid Temple 
of Soma and Venus, 
built by Hadi'ian, 
considerable re- 
mains of which ex- 
ist behind the con- 
vent of S. Fran- 
cesca Eomana ; the 
Arch of Titus, which 
spanned the Via 
Sacra at the very 
summit of the Ve- 
lian ridge, adorned 
with beautiful re- 
liefs illustrating the 
Je^vish triumphs of 
Titus, and still ex- 
isting ; the Arch 
of Constantine, at 
the N.E. corner of the Palatine, erected in honour of Constantine's 
victory over Maxentius, and still in a good state of preservation; and 




Arch of Constantine. 



Tota erat in speciem Poenis digesta columnis 

Inter quas Danai femina turha seiiis. Phopert. ii. 31, 1, 

Horace alludes to the Library : — 

Scripta Palatinus quEecunqne recepit Apollo. JEp. i. 3, 17. 



CiiAP. XXVI. 



PcOME. 



543 



the Meta Sudans, a fountain erected by Domitian^ of which there are 
some remains. 

YII. Tlie Aventine, — The Aventine was regarded as ill omened in the 
early days of Rome : it contained, nevertheless, several famous spots, 
such as the Altar of Evander, the Cave of Cacus,^ and the Temple of 
Jupiter Inventor, dedicated by Hercules after he had found his cattle. 
The Temple of Diana, erected by Servius Tullius as the sanctuary of 
the cities of the Latin League, stood on the side of the hill facing the 
Circus, while at its X. extremity, near the Porta Trigemina, stood the 
famous Temple of Juno Regina, built by Camillus after the conquest of 
Veh. A portion of the summit, j^i'obably about the centre of it, 
named Saxum,^ was the spot where Remus was reputed to have taken 
his auguries: a Temple of the Bona Bea,"' was afterwards erected, 
there. There was also a Temple of Luna,^ probably on the side next 
the Circus, and one of Libertas, founded by T. Sempronius Gracchus. 
We have notice of houses of Sura, of Trajan before he became emperor, 
and of Ennius the poet, on this hill. The strip of gi^ound between the 
Aventine and the Tiber was one of the busiest parts of the city, as it 
contained the emporium or quays for the discharge of the cargoes of 
ships, and the principal corn -market. L. ^milius Lepidus and L. 
JEmilius Paulus founded a regular Emporium and a portico named 
after them . Portions jEmilia. The broad level space to the S. of the 
hill was probably the site of large warehouses for storing goods. 
The 2Ionte Testaccio, which is in the same district, is an artificial 
hill of potsherds, 153 feet high, the origin of which is shrouded in 
mystery. 

YIIL Hie Velahrum, Forum Boarium, and Circus Maximus. — Be= 
tween the Palatine, Aventine, and Tiber, the level ground was occu- 
pied by two districts named, the Velabrum and the Forum Boarium, 
while between the two hills was the Circus Maximus. The Velabrum 
was originally a marsh ^ and afterwards a quarter of the town at the 
head of the Yicus Tuscus ; its name is preserved in that of the modern 
church of S. Giorgio in Velahro, near which still stand two ancient 
monuments, the Arcus Argentarius, built by the silversmiths in honour 
of Septimius Severus, and a square building named Janus Quadrifrons. 
The F. Boarium was a large unenclosed space extendino- from the 
Velabrum to the ascent of the Aventine, and from the Tiber to the 
Circus/ It probably derived its name from having been an old cattle - 
market : it was rich in temples and monuments, particularly a Temple 



2 Hie spelunca fuit, vasto summota recessu, 
Semihominis Caci fades quam dira tenebat 

Solis iuaccessam radiis. ^En. ^iii. 193. 

3 Interea Diva canenda Bona est. 
Est moles nativa, loco res nomina fecit. 

Appellant Saxum ; pars bona montis ea est.— Ov. Fast. v. 14S. 
^ Templa Patres illic, oculos exosa viriles, 

Leniter acclivi constitnere jugo. Id. Fast. v. 153. 

^ Luna regit menses ; hujus quoque tempora mensis 

Finit Aventino Luna colenda jugo. Id. Fast. iii. 883. 

6 At qua Telabri regio patet, ire solebat 

Exiguus pulsaper vada linter aqua. Tibvll. ii. 5, 33. 

' Pontibus et Magno juncta est celeberrima Circo 

Area, quae posito de bove nomen liabet. Ov. Fast. vi. 47 7. 



544 



LATIUM. 



Book IV. 





Temple of Hercules. 



of Hercules, covering tlie altar said to have been built by Evander; 
another round temple of the same god, possibly represented by the 

remains still existinpj at 



the church of 8. Maria 
del Sole : temples of 
Fortuna and Mater Ma- 
tuta, both of them built 
by Servius Tullius and" 
of uncertain position;^ 
and a temple of Pudi- 
citia Patricia, which 
may perhaps be repre- 
sented by the elegant 
remains now forming 
the Armenian church of 
S. Maria Eglzkica. The 
Cloaca Maxima dis- 
charges itself into the 
Tiber in this district, 
and its mouth is visible when the river is low. The Circus Maximus 
was nearly half a mile long and was the principal racecourse in Rome : 

it was founded by Tar- 
quinius Prisons, but it 
remained in. a rude 
state until the time of 
Julius Caesar, who placed 
permanent seats, the 
lower ones of stone and 
the upper of wood. It 
was further improved 
by Augustus, Claudius, 
and Trajan. It was pro- 
bably capable of con- 
taining about 385,000 
spectators. 

IX. The Cselian HUl. 
— The Caelian Hill was 
not much frequented in 
early times. The only 
public buildings on it 
worthy of notice were — a little temple of Minerva Capta'on the decli- 
vity of the hill ;9 a temple of Divus Claudius, begun by Agrippina, de- 
stroyed by ^s'ero, and restore'd by Vespasian ; and the Arch, of Dolabella, 
erected in the consulship of Dolabella, a.d. 10, and probably designed 
as an entrance to some public place. In the imperial times many illus- 




Temple of Pudicitia Patricia. 



569. 



They are referred to by Ovid : — 

Lux eadem, Fortuna, tua est, auctorque, locusque, 

Sed superinjectis quis latet sede togis ? 
Servius est. Fast. vi. 

Hac ibi luce ferunt Matutge sacra parenti 

Sceptriferas Servi templa dedisse manus. Id. vi. 4 79. 

9 Caelius ex alto qua Mons descendit in apquum ; 
Hie ubi non plana est, sed prope plana via est, 
Parva licet videas Captae delubra Minervse. Ov. Fast, iii, 835. 



Chap. XXVI. 



EOME. 



545 



trioiis Romans had fine houses here, particularly Mamurra, Annius 
Veras the grandfather of Marcus Aurelius, and the Laterani, whose 
house appears to have been confiscated after the treason of Plautius 
Lateranus in Xero"s reign. 

X. Tlie District S. of the Cxlian. — To the S. of the Cfelian were the- 
1st and 12th regions of Augustus^ named Por^a Ccqiena and Piscina 
FvMica. In the former of these lay the Porta Capena itself the 
Valley of Egeria,^ watered by the small stream Almo,^ and the tradi- 
tional scene of Xuma's interviews with the nymph ; and the Thermae 
Antonianse or Caracallse, on the right of the Appian Way, remains of 
which are still in existence. For several miles the tombs of eminent 
Romans skirt the Via Appia, commencing immediately outside the P. 
Capena. The most interesting of these is the Tomb of tie Scipios, about 
40u paces within the P. S. Sehastiano ; while the mausoleum of Septi- 
mius Severus and that of Caecilia Metella deserve notice, though the 
latter lies beyond the limits of the city. 




Tomb of Ctecilia ^letelia. 



XI. TJie Escj^uih'ne and its Xeiglihourhood. — The Esquiline was ori- 
ginally covered with a thick wood, to which its name may be referred. 
On the larger and more southerly of the two tongues into which the 



1 A branch of the Aqua Murcia passed over this gate, and kept it in a dripping 
state : — 

Substitit ad yeteres arcus, madidamque Capenam. — Jrv. iii. 11. 
Capena grandi porta, qua pluit gutta. Mart, iii. 47. 

2 In vallem Egeri-ae descendinius et speluncas 
Dissimiles veris. Jvv. iii. 17. 

3 The waters of this stream were sacred to Cybele : — 

Et parvo lotam revocant Ahiione Cybebem. Lvc. i. 600. 



546 . LATIUM. Book IV. 

hill is divided, viz. Mons Oppius, was situated the district named 
Carinae; extending down from the extremity of the hill into the sub- 
jacent vaneys. In the valley between this and the Cselian lay the 
gio-antic Amphitheatrum Flavium, more commonly known as the 
Colosseum, probably from a colossal statue of Xero. It was com- 




Culosseum. 



menced by Vespasian, v\-as completed by Domitian, and was capable of 
holding 87,0'''0 spectators. On the hill above the Colosseum were 
the Thermss Titi, of which there are still considerable remains ; and 
near them the Thermae Trajani. The Vicus Cyprius ran along the X. 
base of Mons Oppius, under the Carin^e, and ascended the hill at the 
head of the valley between the Oppian and Cispian mounts by the 
Clivus Urbius, near which point the palace of Servius Tullius stood. 
In the valley between the extremities of the Quirinal^ Viminal, and 
Esquiline. lay the populous region of Suburra, the resort of huckster, 
prostitutes, and the dregs of the population.-* During the republic a 
part of the Esquiline outside the walls, named Campus Esquilinus, was 
used as a burying-ground for paupers and slaves. Maecenas converted 
this into a public garden or park, the celebrated Horti Maecenatis,^ ex- 
tending to the Agger of Servius Tullius, which then became the resort 
of fortune-tellers.^ In the same part of the tovTi were the Horti Lamiani, 



^ Sciiem, quod omiies ricleant, adiilterum 

Latreiit Suburranee canes. Ho'r. I^j^od. v. 57. 
Dum tu forsitan inqiiietus erras 

Clamosa, Juvenalis, in Suburra. Mart. xii. 18. 

Ego vel Prochytam prcepono Suburra?. Jrv. iii. 5. 
^ Nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus atque 
Aggere in aprico spatiari, quo modo tristes 

Albis informem spectabant ossibus agrum. ITor. Sat. i. 8, 14. 
^ Plebeium in circo positum est et in aggere fatum. — Juv. vi. 588. 



Chap. XXVI. 



EOME. 



547 



belonging perhaps to ^Elius Lamia, and the Horti Palantii, founded 
apparently by Pallas, the freedman of Claudius. It was also the resi- 
dence of the poets Virgil and Propertius. and a favourite resort of 
Horace. Pliny the younger also had a house there. There were nume- 
rous temples, the most important of which was the Tamplum Telluris. 

XII. The Colles, or tlie ViminaL Quirlnal and Pincian Hais.— The 
Viminal is separated from the Esquiline by a valley through which ran 
the Vicus Patricius, and from the Quirinal by a valley the X. part of 
which was named Vallis Quirini.'^ The Viminal was chiefly inhabited 
by the lower classes, the only remarkable building being the palace of 
C. Ac[uilius. The Quirinal v\^a3 separated from the Pincian on the X. 
by a deep valley, and skirted the Campus Ma,rtius on the AV. It was 
the most ancient quarter of the town, and abounded in fanes and 
temples, the most famous of which was the Temple of Quiiinus, ori- 
ginally erected by Xuma to Romulus after his apotheosis. Xuma re- 
sided on the Quirinal : his capitol probably stood on the \V. side of 
the hill, and contained a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and ]\Iinerva. Xear 
it was the Temple of Flora, and the house of the poet Martial, The part 
adjacent to the Porta Salutaris was named Collis Salutaris, after an 
ancient shrine of Salus. Between the temples of Salus and Flora 
stood the shrine of Semo Sanctus or Dius Fidius, an old Sabine deity, 
said to have been founded by Tatius. We may also notice the Horti 
Sallustiani, formed by Sallust the historian, in the valley between the 
Quirinal and Pincian, the subsequent residence of the emperors Ves- 
l^asian, Xerva, and Aurelian ; the Thermae Diocletiani, the largest of all 
the Roman baths, but novr in a very ruined state : the Campus Scele- 
ratus, where Vestal virgins convicted of unchastity were buried alive ; 
the Templum Gentis Flaviae, a magnificent mausoleum^ erected by 
Domitian for his family ; and the Praetorian Camp, established in the 
reign of Tiberius outside the Porta Collina. The Pincian Hill was so 
named from a magnificent palace of the Pincian family on it : previ- 
ously it had been called Collis Hortorum, from the gardens which 
covered it. The only place to be noticed on it was the Gardens of 
Lucullus, the scene of Messalina's infamous mai'riage with Silius, and 
of her death by the order of Claudius. 

XIIL — Tlie Campus ^laj'tius, Circus Flaruinius, and Via Lata. — The 
Campus Martins was the plain lying between the Pincian, Quirinal, and 
Capitoline hills on the E., and the Tiber on the AV. It was intersected 
in its whole length by the Via Flaminia. The S. portion of the plain 
between the road and the river constituted the 9th region of Augustus, 
under the name of Circus Flaminius ; and the S. portion, on the other 
side of the road, between it and the hills, formed the 7th region, -svith 
the name of Via Lata. The temples and public buildings in this dis- 
trict were very numerous. The Circus Flaminius contained the Temple 
of Pietas, dedicated by the son of M. Acilius Glabrio, in B.C. 180; the 



Some of the tombs remained in this part of the grounds, as alluded to by Horace 
in describing the magical rites of Canidia : — 

Lunanique rubentem, 
Xe foret his testis, post magna latere sepulchra. — Sat. i. 8, 35. 
' Officium eras 

Primo sole mihi peragendum in valle Quirini. Juv. ii. 132. 
8 Jam vicina jubent nos vivere IMausolea 

Quum doceant ipsos posse perire deos. Map.t. v. 64. 



548 



LATIUM. 



Book IV. 



Temple of Janus; tlie Theatre of Marcellus; the Temple of Apollo, 
dedicated in B.C. 430 ; the Temple of Bellona, said to have been built 
in pursuance of a vow made by Appius Claudius Ceecus^ in the battle 
against the Etruscans in B.C. 297, and the place where the assemblies 
of the Senate met outside the pomcerium : the Circus Flaminius, under 
the Capitol, extending in a westerly direction towards the river ; the 
Porticus Octaviae, erected by Augustus in honour of his sister, con- 
taining a library, and Temples of Jupiter Stator and Juno ; the Porticus 
Pliilippi,^ enclosing a Temple of Hercules Musarum, built by M. Fulvius 
Nobilior, and rebuilt by L. Marcius Philippus, the stepfather of Au- 
gustus ; the Theatre of Pompey, with a portico, adjoining the scena; a 
Curia, or large hall in the portico, used both for scenic purj^oses and 
for the assemblies of the Senate, with a statue of Pompey in it, before 
which Csesar was assassinated ; and another portico, named Hecato- 
stylon, from its having 100 columns. ^ The Campus Martins itself was 
originally nothing more than an open plain used for gymnastic and 
warlike exercises,^ and also for large public assemblies of the people. 
Subsequently to the 6th century of the city, temples began to be bidlt 
there ; and gradually it was almost covered with important edifices, 
among which the most conspicuous were — the Septa Julia, a marble 

building commenced 
^-""""^ by Caesar, and com- 

X , pleted after his death 

for the purpose of 
holding the assemblies 
of the Comitia Cen- 
turiata ; the Villa Pub- 
lica, adjoining the 
Septa Julia on the 
S., used by the con- 
suls for the levying 
of troops, and for the 
reception of foreign 
ambassadors ; the 
Pantheon of Yip- 
sanius Agrippa, in the 
very centre of the 
Campus, and still in 
a very good state of 




Pantheon of Agrippa. 



preservation ; the Thermae of Agrippa, adjoining the Pantheon on the 
S.; the Diribitorium, also adjoining it, a large building erected by 
Agrippa, and used for the scrutiny of the voting tablets used in the 
Comitia; the Porticus Argonautarum, ^ erected in commemoration of 
Agrij^pa's naval victories, and named after a picture of the Argonauts, 



^ Yites ceiiseo porticuni Philippi : 

Si te viderit Hercules, peristi. Mart. v. 49. 
Inde petit centum peiidentia tecta colimmis; 

lUinc Pompeii dona, nemusque duplex. Id. ii. 1-1. 
2 Tunc ego me memini ludos in gramine campi 

Adspicere ; et didici, lubrice Tibri, tuos. Ov. Fast. vi. 237. 
Quamvis non alius flectere equum sciens 

^que conspicitur gramine Martio. Hor. Carm. iii. 7, 

2 An spatia carpit lentus Argonautarum ? Mart. iii. 20. 



Chap. XXVI. 



ROME. 



549 



with which it was adorned ; the Mausoleum of Augustus in the northern 
angle of the Campus, between the Via Flaniinia and the river, wherein 
were deposited the ashes of Marcellus,^ Agi^ippa. Octavia, Drusus, Au- 
gustus, and other illustrious personages; the Thermae Neronianae,-^ 
erected by Xero close to the baths of Agrippa ; the Temples of Isis and 
Serapis,^ in the same quarter, restored by Domitian after the fire in the 
reign of Titus ; and the Temple and Column erected in honour of !M. 
Aurelius Antoninus, the latter of which named Columbia Cochlis, fi^om 
the spiral staircase inside it was erected by AJ. Aurelius and L. Verus, 
and now stands in the Piazza dl Monte Citorio. The Via Lata contained 
the Campus Agrippae. used, as the Campus Martius was, for gymnastic 
exercises and amusement, the buildings about it having been erected 
by Vipsanius Ascrippa for that piu^pose; the Triimiphal Arches of 
Claudius and M. Aurelius ; and the Forujn Suarium or pork-market. 

XIY. — The Transtihei-tne District. — The district beyond the Tiber 
was never regarded* as a portion of the Urbs. properly so called, al- 
though it formed one of Augustus's regions, and was included within 
the walls of Aurelian. It may be divided into three parts : the Insula 
Tiberina, said to have been formed by the corn of the Tarquins thro^vn 
into the river, and on which stood a Temple of -Ssculapius. much 
visited by sick persons: the Janiculum.' enclosed It" - ridge 
running due S. from the point where the Tiber takv : great 

bend and the river itself, a considerable space, chiefly . . :r i ov the 
lower classes, but containing the Horti Caesaris.= which C3^sar be- 
queathed to the Roman people, and two Naumaehiae. constructed by 
Augustus^ and Domitian: and the Mons Vaticanus,^ a little X^.W. of 
the Mons Janiculus. not included in the walls of Aurelian. and noted 
for its unhealthy air and its execrable wine. The only building of note 
between this hill and the river was the Mausoleum or Moles Kadriana. 
erected by Hadrian, and the tomb of himself and the succeeding em- 
perors until the time of Commodus. and now known as the Castle of 
St. Angelo. 

XT. Bridges. — The Tiber was crossed by seven bridges, which may 
be enumerated in the following order from X. to S. : — Pons -Elius. 
built by Hadrian to connect his mausoleum with the city. P. Neroni- 



^ Qnse, Tiberine, ridebis 

Fiinera, quum tuinulum preeterlabere recentem. — .En. vi. S74. ^ 
^ Quid Xerone pejus ? 

Quid Thermis melius Xeronianis. Map.t. vii. 34. 

^ A Meroe portabit aquas, ut spargat in aede 

Isidis, antique quse proxima surgit ovili. Jut. vi. 52 S. 

' The name Tvas derived from .Janus : — 

Hanc Janus pater, banc Saturnus condidit arcem : 

Janiculimi huic. illi fuerat Saturnia nomen. viii. 35 7. 

5 Trans Tiberim longe cubat is, prope Caesaris hortos. — Hoe. Sat. i. 9, 18. 
9 The lake of this one remained for a long period : — 

Continuo dextra- flavi pete Tibridis oras, 

Lydia qua penitus stagnum navale coercet 

Pdpa, suburbanisque vadum prtetexiuu' hortis. — Stat. Sih:. iv, 4, 5. 
^ Simul et jocosa 

Eedderet laudes tibi Vaticani 

Montis imago. Hoe. Carm. i. 20, 6. 



550 



LATIOL 



. BuOK IV. 




Mole of Hadrian restored. 



anus or Vaticanus, leading from the Campus Martins to the Vatican 
and the Gardens of Xero ; the remains of its piers are still visible. 
P. Aurelius, on the site of the Fonte Sisto, leading to Janiculum. P. 
Fabricius^ and P. Cestius, the former connecting the Insula Tiberina 
\\ith. the city, the latter with the Janiculum; they still exist under the 
names of Ponte Quattro Capi and Ponte S. Bartolommeo. P. Senatorius 
or Palatinus, opposite the Palatine Hill ; and P. Sublicius,^ the oldest of 
all. said to have been erected by Ahcus Martins, and named after the 
" wooden beams" (suhlices) of which it was built. We may also notice 
the P. Milvius or Mulvius, the present Ponte JSIolle, 2 miles X. of the 
city at the point where the Flaminian Way crossed the river. 

XYI. A queducts. — Rome was supplied with water by fourteen aque- 
ducts, the first of which was constructed in B.C. 313 by the Censor 
Appius Claudius Csecus, and was named after him Aqua Appia, Of the 
others we may notice the Anio Vetus, constructed in 273, which derived 
its supply from the Anio above Tibur, and was 43 miles in length : 
the Aqua Marcia, built in 144 by the Praetor Q. Marcius Rex, and which 
was reputed to bring the most wholesome water of all ; the Aqua Julia, 
built by A^-rippa in his aedileship in 33, a very magnificent work; the 
Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula^ and dedicated by Claudius; and the 



2 It was the favourite bridge for suicides : — 

Jussit sapienteni paseere barbam 
Atque a Fabricio non tristem ponte reverti. Hor. Scd. ii. 3, 35. 

2 A stone bridge was erected by the side of the old wooden one : it was called 
Pons J51milius, and is noticed in the following line : — 

Cum tibi vicinum se prtebeat iEmilius pons ? Jrv. vi, 32. 



Chap. XXVI. 



TOWXS. 



551 




Insula Tiberina, with the Pons Fabricius and Pons Cestius. 



Anio Novus, also completed by Claudius, 59 miles in length, and with 
arches occasionally 109 feet high. The two last were the most gigantic 
of all the Roman aqueducts. 

§ 6, The remaining towns of Latium were as follows : — 

Ostia, Ostia, was situated at the mouth (as its name implies) of the 
river Tiber ^ on its left bank, and was the original port of Rome. It was 
founded by Ancus Martins, and in the time of the Second Punic War 
was important both as a commercial and naval station. It suflPered 
severely in the Civil Wars of Sulla and Marius, and was destroyed b}' 
the latter in B.C. 87. As the coast had advanced cousiderably through 
the alluvial deposit of the Tiber, it was found necessary to make a new 
port ; and this was effected by Claudius, who constructed a basin 
about 2 miles X. of Ostia, which he connected with the river by means 
of a canal. This was designated Portus Augnsti, and was further en- 
larged by the addition of an inner dock by Trajan, which was named 
after him Portus Trajani. The canal was enlarged, and henceforth 
known as Fossa Trajana, and now as the Fhimk-rno ; and an extensive 
to-^Ti named Portus Ostiensis, or simply Portus, grew up about the 
place. The remains of this town still retain the name of Porto, and the 
outline of the mole and dock may be traced. It became blocked up by 
sand in the 10th century, and the trade returned to the old channel. 
The ruins of Ostia itself are extensive, but uninteresting : the statues 
and other objects discovered there prove it to have been a place of con- 



* Ostia contigerat, qua se Tiberiniis in altiun 

Dividit, et campo liberiore natat. Ov. Fast. iv. 291. 

s Non ita Tyrrhenns stupet loniiisqiie magister. 
Qui portus, Tiberine, tuos. claramque serena 
Arce Pbaron prceeeps subiit : nusquam Ostia. nusquam 
Ausoniani videt. Val. Flag. vii. S3. 



552 



LATIUM. 



Book IV. 



siderable wealth. Antium, Porto cVAnzo, was situated on a promontory 
about 38 miles from Rome. It was in the early age of Roman history 
the resort of Tyrrhenian pupates. In B.C. 468 it was captured and colo- 




Plan of Ostia. 

A A. Main Channel of tlie Tiber. B. Kight ami of ditto, the Fossa Trajana, no<x called Fiumi -ino. 
C. Dry bed of ancient course of Tiber. " D. Modem village of Ostia. E. Ruins of Ancient Ostia. 
F, Portus Augusti. G. Portus Trajani. 



nised by the Romans; in 459 it revolted^ and remained independent for 
120 years, during which it waged several wars with Rome. Thence- 
forth its history is unimportant; but it remained a very flourishing 
place,, and was the residence of Cicero and the birth-place of Caligula 
and Xero. It possessed a celebrated Temple of Fortune,^ and another 
of JEsculapius. On the site of the old town numerous works of art 
have been discoyered. particularly the statues of the Apollo Belvedere 
and the Fighting Ghidiator. Circeii lay at the foot of Mons Circeius. 
on its X. side, and not far from the sea. It was founded by Tarquinius 
Superbus, and rose to such a state of commercial prosperity that it 
appears among the towns with which Carthage concluded a treaty. In 
B.C. 340 it was a member of the Latin League, having revolted from 



^ Hence Horace addresses Fortune as — ' 
Diva, gratum qnee regis Antium. 



Carm. i. 35, 1. 



Chap. XXVI. 



Tovrxs. 



Rome : and tliencefortli its name seldom appears in history. It became 
a favom-ite residence of the vrealthy Romans, and was the occasional 
abode of the Emperors Tiberius and Doniitiau. Its chief fame, how- 
ever, is due to its excellent oysters." A few polygonal blocks of 
ma^sonry are all that remains of it. Tarracina, Terracina, was situated 
on the summit of a white cliff/ about I'j miles S. of Circeii, and at the 
extremity of the Pontine ^Marshes. It was also called Anxur, a name 
familiar to us from iis being constantly used by the poets. In b c. 5<>9 
Tarracina appeal's in the Carthaginian treaty as a dependent of Rome ; 
in 406 it was under the Volscians, and was attacked and taken by M. 
Fabius Ambustus; in 402 it Avas again under the Volscians, and in 400 
was recaptured by the Romans; finally, in 329, a colony was sent there 
by them. Its position on the Appian Way rendered it always a place 
of importance and of resort. Considerable portions of the walls re- 
main, as well as some tombs. It possessed an artificial port, which is 
noticed in B.C. 21o, and was subsecjuently improved under the em- 
perors. Formiae, ^lola di Gaeta, was situated on the innermost point 
of the Sinus Caietanus and on the Appian "Way. It is first noticed in 
B.C. 338 as being on friendly terms with Rome, and as receiving the 
Roman citizenship in reward for its services. From the beauty of its 
position it became a favourite resort of the wealthy Romans,'^ and. 
among others, of Cicero, who ^^erished there in B.C. 43. The ruins of 
villas and sepulchres hne the coast and the Appian Way for some miles 
E. of Formice. The hills at the back of the toAvn produced a good 
kind of wine.i Caieta,- Gaeta, v\-as situated on a projecting headland 
on the S. side of the bay named after it. and Pcbout 4 miles from Formiee. 
The town itself was poor, but the port was frequented from the earliest 
ages, and is spoken of by Cicero^ as p'ortus celeberrimus et plenissi- 
mus navium." Antoninus Pius had a villa there, which the younger 
Faustina frequented. Among the ancient remains we may notice the 
sepulchre of L. ^lunatius Plancus, and j^ortions of a temple of Serapis 



" Circseis nata forent, an 

Lucrinuin ad saxmn, Eutupinove edita fuiido 
Ostrea, callebat primo depreudere morsii. Jrv. iv. 140. 

s Millia tiim pransi tria repimus ; atque subimus 
Impositmn saxis late candentibus Anxur. Hoe. Sat. i. 5, 25. 

Sive salutiferis candidus Anxur aquis. Mart. v. 1. 

Scopulosi verticis Anxur. Sil. Ital. viii. 392. 

9 Martial enlarges on its many recommendations in the poem commencing-, — 
temperatee dulce FormiGe littus, 
Tos, quum severi fugit oppidum Martis, 
Et inquietas fessus exult curas, 

Apollinaris omnibus locis preefert. x. 80, 

The wealthy Mamurra resided there ; hence the allusion in Horace . 
In ]Mamurrarum lassi deinde urbe manemus. Sat. i. 5, 37. 
1 Mea nec Falernae 

Temperant vites, neque Formiani 

Pocula colles. Hor. Carm. i. 20, 10. 

2 It is said to hare been named after the nurse of -Eneas : — 

Tu quoque littoribus nostris, Jineia nutrix, 

^ternam moriens famam, Caieta, dedisti : 

Et nunc servat honos sedem tuus. ^^n. vii. 1. 

3 Pro Leg, Manil. 12. 

Ali^C. GEOG. 2 B 



o54 



LATIUM. 



Book IV, 



and of an aqueduct. Minttirnse was situated on the right bank of the 
Liris^ about 3 miles from the sea, and on the Appian Way. It was 
originally an Ausonian town, but was colonised by the Eomans in 
B.C. 296. Its position on the Appian Way secured its prosperity, in 
spite of the unhealthiness of the locality. The only interesting event 
connected with it is the capture of C. Marius in 88 in the neighbouring 
marshes,-* and his subsequent release. Extensive ruins of an amphi- 
theatre, of an aqueduct, and of other buildings, mark its site. Xear it 
were the celebrated grove and temple of the goddess Marica.^ Sinuessa, 
the most southerly town of Latium, stood on the shore of the Sinus 
Caietanus. about 6 miles X. of the river Vulturnus, and on the Appian 
Way.'^ It was colonised at the same time as Minturnae, the object of 
this step being the protection of the Roman border against the Sam- 
nites. In its neighbom^hood was produced the famous Massic wine 
and near it there were some much-frequented baths named Aqua3 
Sinuessana?. and no^r I JBagni. The ruins of Sinuessa lie just below 
the hill of ^londragone, and consist of the remains of a triumphal arch, 
an aqueduct, and other buildings. 

2. In tlit Interior. — Tibnr, Tivoli, was situated on the banks of the 
Anio. just above the spot where that river makes its descent into the 
Canipagi'ta. It thus appea.red from one side to stand on the summit of 
a lofty cliflf.^ The town was very ancient, and was believed to have 
been been founded by the Siculi. It is first noticed in B.C. 446 as the 
place whither M. Claudius retired in exile. In 357 it was engaged in 
dis^^utes with Rome; and for the next twenty years frequent wars took 
place between them, ending in the capture of Tibur by L. Furius 
Camillus in 335. It enjoyed the privileges of an asylum, ^ and was the 
place of exile of M. Claudius in 446, of Cinna after the mm^der of Ceesar, 
of Syphax king of Xumidia, and of the beautiful Zenobia. It possessed 
a very famous temple of Hercules^ Victor Tiburs, with a library, a 
treasury, and an oracle attached. It became, from the beauty of its 
scenery, a favourite resort of the wealthy Romans. Mjecenas, Catullus^ 



Exsilinm, et career, Minturnanimque paliides 

Hinc causas habnere. Jrv. x. 276. 

^ Et mnbrospe Liris per regna Mariece. — Lrc. ii. 424. 

CfBniLeus nos Liris amat, queni silva Marie ee 

Protegit. Mart. xii. S3. 

^ Postera lux oritur multo gratissima : namque 

Plotius et Yarius Sinuessee, Tirgiliusqiie 

Occurriint. Hor. Sat. i. 5, 39. 

' Quocunqiie lectuin nomine Massicum 
Servas, moveri digna bono die. Id. Carm.. iii. 21, 5. 

Uviferis late florebat Massicns arvis. Sil. Ital. vii. 20'. 

Hence Horace's epithet : — 

Praeneste, sen Tibur sujnnum. Carm. iii. 4, 23. 

9 Quid referam veteres Romano? gentis, apud quos 

Exsiliimi tellus ultima Tibur erat. Ov. ex Pont. 1. 3, 81. 

Hence the epithet " Herculeus " was applied to it : — 

Itur ad Herculei gelidas qua Tiburis arces. Mart. i. 13. 

Yenit in Herculcos colles : quid Tiburis alti 

Aura valet ? Id. vii. 13. 



Chap. 



XXVI. 



555 




TiYoli, the ancient Tibur. 



Horace^ ^ Sallust, Yopiscns^ and Qiiinctilius Yams had villas theiv : 
and about 2 miles S. of the town the emperor Hadrian erected a mag- 
nificent palace vdth. an immense number of buildings, such as a Ivceum, 
an academy, Sec, and extensive pleasure-grounds. Considerable re- 
mains of the buildings are still visible. The chief remains of Tibur 
are a circular, peripteral temple, reputed to be dedicated to the sibyl 
Albunea, with ten out of the original eighteen columns still existing ; 
an oblong temple, su]3posed to be of Yesta ; part of a temple which 
stood in the ancient forum; together with remains of two bridges, and the 
-villas of Maecenas, Yarus. Sec. The surrounding country was celebrated 
for its fruit, and for its extensive C[uarries, which supplied Rome with 
the trace rt/uo used in the Colosseum and the basilica of St. Peter. 
Praeneste, Palestrina, stood on a projecting spur^ of the Apennines, 
dii-ectly opposite the Alban Hills, and 23 miles E. of Rome. Yarious 
accounts were given of its origin, not one of which is trustworthy. It 



]\Iih.i jam non regia Eoma 
Sed vacuum Tibur placet. Hor. JT/;. i. 7, 44. 

Sed quae Tibur aquse fertile preefluunt 

Et spisspe nemorum com£e, 
Fingent ^Eolio carmine nobilem. In. Carm. iv. 3, 10. 

Quique ahum Praeneste viri, quique arva Gabinae. — J£n. vii. 6S2. 

2 B 2 



556 



LATIUM. 



Book IV. 



was a member of the Latin League; in B.C. 499 it seceded and joined 
the Eomans; in 383 it commenced hostilities against them; in 380 it 
was captured by T. Quinctius Cincinnatus after the defeat of its ai^my 
in the open field; in 340 it took a prominent paii: in the great Latin 
War; and in 338 it shared in the defeat at Pedum. In the Civil War 
between Sulla and Marias it was occupied by the latter, who put an 
end to his life there. The city was subsequently destroyed by Sulla, 
and its site removed from the hill to the subjacent plain. Its elevated 
position and bracing air"^ made it a favourite retreat of the Romans 
during the summer months ; and it was the occasional abode of Au- 
gustus, Horace,^ Hadrian, and M. Aurelius. It also possessed a cele- 
brated shrine of Fortune, ^ of which the terraces still remain, and the 
temple itself existed until the 13th century. There are a.lso extensive 
remains of Hadrian's villa. Tusculum, Frascati, stood on a spur of the 
Alban Hills, about 15 miles S.E. of Rome, with its citadel posted on a 
very lofty peak on the E. of the town. Its foundation was attribut-ed 
to Telegonus,' the son of L^lysses and Ciroe. It first appears in histopy 
as the abode of Octavius Mamilius, the son-in-law of Tarquinius 
Superbus, who took refuge there on his expulsion from Rome, and 
thence headed the Latins against the Romans at the battle of Lake 
Regillus. Thenceforward the Tusculans appear as the steady allies of 
Rome. They nevertheless joined in the great Latin War against Rome, 
but were favourably treated in the settlement that took place in 335. 
Many of the Tusculan families were distinguished at Rome, particularly 
the gens ]\Iamilia, the Porcia, the Fulvia, &c. Among the eminent 
Romans who had villas there, we may notice Lucullus, Cato, Marcus 
Brutus, L. Crassus, Maecenas, ^ and particularly Cicero, who there com- 
posed most of his philosophical works, one of which, the ' Tusculan 
Disputations,' derives its name from the place : his abode is probably 
identical with the ruins of Villa Rufinella. The chief relics of the town 
are portions of the walls, of a piscina, and of two theatres, Alicia, 
La Eiccia, was situated on the Appian Way, at the foot of the Alban 
Mount and on the Appian Road,^ 16 miles from Rome. It was a 
member of the Latin League, and appears to have been one of the 
most powerful in the time of Tarquinius Superbus. It took part in 
the great Latin War, and subsequently received the full rights of 



Sen mihi frigidum 
Pr^eneste, sen Tibiir siipiniini, 

Seu liquidee placuere Baise. 
Quis timet aiit timuit gelida Preeneste minam.- 
Dum tu declamas Romse, Praeneste relegi. 

Sacrisqne dicatum 
portimce Prseneste jngis. 
Inter Aricinos, Albanaqne tempora constant 

Pactaque Telegoni moenia celsa mann. 
Quid petis J^cei moenia Telegoni ? 
Xec nt superni villa candens Tuscnli 

Circeea tangat moenia. 
Ne semper ndum Tibnr, et ^Esnlce 

Deelive contempleris arvum, et 
Telegoni jnga parricidee. 
Egressum magna me accepit Aricia Roma. 



Hon. Carin. iii. 4, 23. 
-Jrv. iii. 190. 
HoR. Ep. i. 2. 

SiL. Ital. viii. 366. 

Ov. Fast. iii. 91. 
Propert. ii. 32, 3. 

HoR. Epod. i. 29. 



In. Carm. iii. 29, 6. 
Id. Sat. i. 6, 1. 



Chap. XXVI. 



TOWyS. 



557 



Roman citizenship. Anagnia,^ Anagni, was situated on a hill to the 
left of the Via Latina, 41 miles S.E. of Rome. It appears to have 
been the capital of the Hernican cities, but its histojy is devoid of 
interest. Its position on the Via Latina exposed it to the ravages of 
invading armies, audit suffered both from Pyrrhus and from Hannibal. 
Its teiTitory was remarkably fertile^ and the city abounded in temples 
and sanctuaries. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — (1.) On the Coast, — 
Laurentum, Torre di Paterno, about 1 6 miles from Rome, the ancient 
capital of Latinus, with marshes about it^^ and a very extensive forest, 
in which the laurel was common, and was supposed to have given 
name to the place ;^ Lavimum, Pratica, S. of Laurentum (said to have 
been founded by ^neas^ and named after his ^^ife Lavinia' , the sacred 
metropolis of the Latin League, but an insignificant place in the latei 
days of the republic^ and finally (probably in the reign of Trajan^ re- 
colonised and united with Laurentum under the name of Lauro- 
Lavinium; Ardea, Ardm, 24 miles S. of Rome, and about 4 miles from 
the sea-coast, a city of gi-eat antiquity, said to have been founded by 
Danae"^ the mother of Perseus, the capital of the Rutiili and royal abode 
of Turnus, but in later times a poor decayed place, probably from 
the unhealthiness of the neighbourhood; Lautulse, a spot between Tar- 
racina and Fimdi, where a naiTow pass ^the Passo di Portella) occurs, 
through which the Appian Way passed, the scene of the insurrection of 
the Roman army under C. Marcius Rutilus in B.C. 342, and of a battle 
between the Romans and Samnites in 315; Fundi,'^ Fondi, on the Appian 
Way, between Tarracina and Formise, and near a considerable lake 
named Lacus Funclanus, Lago di Fotidi, which intervened between it 
and the sea, a town of no pretensions, but noted for the excellence of 
the wine, particularly the Caecuban," produced in its territory; and, 
lastly, A my else, on the shores of the bay named after it, Sinus Amy- 



^ Surgit suspensa tumenti 

Dorso frugiferis Cerealis Anagnia glebis. Sil. Ital. xii. 532. 

2 yam Laurens mains est, iilvis et ariindiiie pinguis. — Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 42. 
These marshes were the haunts of wild boars : — 

Inter quae rari Laurentem ponderis aprum 

Misimus, ^tola de Calydone putes. Mart. ix. 49. 

3 Ipse ferebatur Phocbo sacrasse Latinus ; 

Laurentisque ab ea {sc. lauro) nomen posuisse eolonis. — ^Eu. vii. G'2. 

Quam dicitur urbem 
Acrisioneis Danae fundasse eolonis, 
Prtecipiti delata Noto, locus Ardea quondam 

Dictus avis ; et nunc magnum manet Ardea nomen. — .E/i. vii. 409. 
^ Magnanimis regnata vii-is, nunc Ardea nomen. Sil. Ital. i. 291. 

^ The pompousness of the " mayor " of this town was the object of Horace'^ 
ridicule : — 

Fundos Aufidio Lusco praetore libenter 
Linquimus, insani ridentes praemia scriba?, 

Praetextam, et latum clavum, prunceque batillum. — Sat. i. 5, 34. 
' Caecuba Fundanis generosa coquuntur Amyclis. Mart. xiii. llo. 

Absumet haeres Caecuba dignior 

Servata centum clavibus. Hor. Carm. ii. 14, 25. 



558 



LATIOI. 



Book IV. 



clanus, a place which had altogether disappeared in the time of 
Pliny. « 

"2/, In the Interior. — Corioli, supposed to have been situated on the 
most westerly of the Alban Hills, chiefly celebrated for its connexion 
with the legend of C. Mareius Coriolanus. Alba Longa, situated on a 
long narrow ridge between the Alban Mount and Lake^. the ancient 
capital of the Latin cities, said to have been founded by Ascanius ^ the 

son of JEneas, and de- 
/ , ^ stroyed by Tullus Hos- 

J , W f"^, _ tilius. Lanuvium,! Ct y'da 
Lavinia, on a southern 
spur of the Alban Hills, 
about 20 miles from 
Rome, a member of the 
Latin League, but still 
more famed for its tem- 
ple of Juno Sospita,- and 
as the birth-place of An- 
toninus Pius, who made 
it his Qccasional resi- 
dence. Velitrae, Yelletri, 
on a Southern spur of the 
Alban Hills, overlooking 
the Pontine Marshes, pro- 
bably a member of the 
Latin League, though 
otherwise regarded as a 
Yolscian town, and an 
active opponent of Rome 
in the Latin AVars, sub- 
sequently an ordinary 
municipal town, and the native place of the Octavian family, from 
which the Emperor Augustus was descended. Signia, Serjni, on a 
lofty hill at the X.W. angle of the Volscian Hills, founded by Tar- 
quinius Superbus. and, with few exceptions, a faithful dependent of 
Ivome, chiefly noted in later tiines for its astringent wine ^ used for 
medicinal purposes, its pears and vegetables, and a kind of cement 
known as '"'opus Signinum its Cyclopean walls may still be traced, 




Gatewav of Signia. 



- It is said to have fallen tliroiigli a law imposing silence on its inhabitants in 
reference to any report of an enemy approaching : — 

Magnanimo Tolscente satum, clitissimus agri 
Qui fuit Ausonidum, et tacit is regnavit Amyclis. — ^En. x. 563. 
^ The name was connected with the tradition of a M'hite sow appearing to 
^Eneas : — 

Ex quo ter denis nrbem redenntibus annis 

Ascanius clari condet cognominis Albam. Id. viii. 47. 

- The names Lanuvium and Lavinium are constantly interchanged in early 
Eoman history ; the modern name affords a further illustration of this. 

- Lanuvio generate, inquit, quem Sospita Juno 

Dat nobis, IMilo, Gradivi cape victor honorem. Sil. Ital. xiii. 364. 
3 Qucs Cora, quos spumans inmiti Signia niusto. — Id. viii. 3 SO. 

Potabis liq^uidum Signina morantia ventrem ; 

Xe nimium sistant, sit tibi parca sitis. Mart. xiii. 116. 



Chap. XXVI. 



559 



and there is a remarkable gateway in the same style. Cora,^ Corl on a 
bold hill S.E. of Velitrse, at a very early period one of the first cities of 
Latium, for a time conquered by the Volscians, but regained by the 
Latins, now remarkable for the remains of its ancient walls, and a bridge 
thrown over a deep ravine. Suessa Pometia,-^ on the borders of the 
Pontine Marshes, which were supposed to be n?.med after it, a place of 
great wealth at the time of its capture by Tarquinius Superbus, but not 
mentioned after B.C. 495, and utterly extinct in Pliny's time. Setia, 
Sezze, on a lofty hill overlooking the Pontine Marshes, about 5 miles 
to the left of the Appian Way, a Latin city, but at one peiiod subject 
to the Volscians, the place where the Carthaginian hostages were depo- 
sited at the close of the Second Punic War, and celebrated under the 
empire for its superior wine. Privemiun, Fiperno Veecliio, on the E. 
slope of the Volscian Hills, overlooking the valley of the Amisenus, 
an important town of the Volscians, engaged in hostilities with Eome 
in B.C. 358 and 327, and under the empire noted for its wine. Fregellse, 
on the left bank of the Liris, near its jimction with the Trerus, a 
Volscian city, destroyed by the Samnites, but rebuilt by the Eomans 
in B.C. 328, and subsequently signalized for its fidelity to Eome in the 
Second Punic War, and for its defection from that power in 125, when 
it was utterly destroyed. Arpinum, A/'pino, on a hill in the upper 
valley of the Liris, originally belonging to the Volscians, then to the 
Samnites, and captured by the Eomans in B.C. 305, chiefly famous, 
however, as the bhi:h-place of Cicero and C. Marius,^ the former of 
whom possessed a patrimonial estate there, and now remarkable for the 
remains of its Cyclopean walls and an old gateway. Sora, Sora, about 6 
miles higher up the river, a Volscian town, captured by the Eomans in 
B.C. 3-45, and colonised by them : under the empire a cheap, retired 
country town. Frusino, Frosinone, on the Via Latina, belonging ori- 
ginally to the Volscians, but in close connexion with the Hernicans, 
and at a later period having the same character as Sora. Ferentinum, 
Ferentino, on the Via Latina, between Frusino and Anagnia, a Hernican 
town, but subject to the Volscians about B.C. 413, actively engaged in 
the war against Eome in 361, a severe sufferer from the ravages of 
Hannibal's army in 211, and now famous for the remains of its Cy- 
clopean walls. Pedum, GaUicano, between Tibur and Prseneste, a mem- 
ber of the Latin League, and an active participator in the wars vdth 
Eome, particularly in the last great war, when it became the centre of 
hostihties, and was captured by Camillus. Lahicum^ or Lavicum, La 



♦ Virgil {^n. vi. 775) reckons it among the colonies of Alba : — 

Pometios, Castrumque Inui, Bolamque, Coramque. 
^ See previous note. 

^ Nec facili pretio, sed quo contenta Falerni 

Testa sit, aut eellis Setia cara suis. Mart. x. 36. 

Tunc ilia time, cum pocula sumes 
G^mmata^ et lato Setiiium ardebit in auro. Juv. x. 26. 

' Jurenal contrasts these two great men in the passages commencing — 
Hie norus Arpinas ignobilis, et modo Eomos 
Municipalis eques, kc. 
Arpinas alius Tolscorum in monte solebat 

Poscere mercedes, 6zc. Sat. viii. 237, 245. 

3 It is noticed by Tirgil as one of the towns allied to Turnus : — 

Et Saeranee acies, et picti scuta Labici. .I^n, viL 7 96- 



560 



LATIUM. 



Book IV. 



Colonna, at the N.E. foot of the Alban Hills, and about 15 miles from 
Rome, a member of the Latin League, frequently mentioned in the 
history of the ^quian wars, but in after times a poor decayed place. 
Gabii, between Rome amd Prseneste, a colony of Alba^ and a member 
of the Lp.tin League, captured by stratagem by Tarquinius Superbus, 
and thenceforward a place rarely mentioned in history, having sunk 
gradually to a state of decay ^ until a temporary reviyal of it took place 
under the emperors, probably on account of its cold sulphureous 
springs. Fidenae, Castel Giuhileo, on a steep hill overlooking the Tiber, 
5 miles from Rome, founded by Alba,^ conquered and colonised by 
Romulus, and engaged in constant feuds with Rome until B.C. 438, 
when it was destroyed, and thenceforward remained a poor deserted 
place,3 notorious only for a terrible disaster which happened in the time 
of Tiberius, when 50,000 persons were either killed or hurt by the fall 
of a wooden amphitheatre. Ficulea, Cesarini, between Rome and jSTo- 
mentum, about 9 miles from Rome, said to have been founded by the 
Aborigines, conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. Cnistumerium, on the 
borders of the Sabine territory, and at one time regarded as a Sabine 
town, captured by Romulus, and again by Tarquinius Priscus, but 
subsequently unnoticed in history. Nomentum, Mentana, on the 
Sabine frontier X. of the Anio, and 14 J miles from Rome, a colony 
of Alba, and frequently noticed as a Latin town, and as taking part in 
the wars against Rome, the abode in later times of Seneca, Martial, 
Q. Ovidius, and Nepos. 

Boads. — As Latium contained the metropolis of Italy, it was naturally 
the point to which all the great roads converged : we shall therefore con- 
sider ourselves as stationed at Rome, and describe the roads that issued 
from it. 1. The Via Latina, which we mention first as being probably 
the most ancient of all the Italian roads, issued from the Porta Capena, 
and led through Ferentinum, Frusino, Aquinum, and Teanum, to Casi- 
linum in Campania, where it fell into the Via Appia. It skirted the 
Alban Hills near Tusculum, and followed the valleys of the Trerus and 
Liris to the borders of Campania. 2. The Via Appia, the great southern 
road of Italy, also issued from the Porta Capena, and made in a straight 
line for Tarracina on the sea-coast ; thence it went by Fundi to Formise, 
and then followed the sea-coast to Sinuessa, whence it struck inland to 
Capua, Beneventum, and ultimately to Brundisium. It was constructed 
as far as Capua in B.C. 312, by the Censor Appius Claudius. Between 
Rome and the Alban Hills this road was bordered with tombs and 
other buildings, the remains of which render it, even at the present 
day, one of the most remarkable objects in the neighbourhood of Rome. 
3. The Via Ostiensis originally passed through tlie Porta Trigemina, 
but afterwards through the Porta Ostiensis, and followed the left bank 
of the Tiber to Ostia. 4. The Via Portuensis issued from the Porta 
Portuensis in the w^alls of Aarelian, and followed the right bank of the 



^ Hi tibi Xomentum, et Gabios, urbemque Fidenam, 
Hi CoUatinas imponent moenibus arces. ^Eti. vi. 773. 

1 Scis Lebeclus quid sit ; Gabiis desertior atqiie 

Fidenis vicus. Hor. Up. i. 11, 7. 

Gabios, Teiosque, Coramque 
Pulvere vix tectse poterunt monstrare ruiiias. Lrc. vii. 392. 
- See note ^ above . 

2 See quotation from Horace in note i. 



Chap. XXYI. EOADS — ISLANDS - HISTOEY. 



561 



Tiber to Portus Trajani. 5. The Via Labicana passed out by the 
Porta Esquilina^ and, passing by Labicum, fell into the Via Latina at 
Bivium, 30 miles from Rome. 6. The Via Praenestina, or, as it was 
originally called, Via Gabina, issued from the Porta Esquilina and led 
to Prseneste ; a branch thence communicated with the Via Latina near 
Anagnia. 7. The Via Tiburtina issued from the Porta Esquilina, 
crossed the Anio by a biidge 4 miles from Rome, and re-crossed it at 
the foot of the hill on which Tibur stood ; it was thence continued, 
under the name of Via Valeria, to Corfinium and the Adriatic. 
8. The Via Nomentana left by the Porta Collina, crossed the Anio just 
under the Mons Sacer, and thence reached Xomentum ; a branch road 
from this point led to Eretum, where it fell into the Via Salaria. 9. The 
Via Salaria also issued from the Porta Collina, struck into the heart of 
the Sabine country by Reate, and thence was carried across the Apen- 
nines to Picenum and the Adriatic. JO. The Via Flaminia, the great 
northern road of Italy, crossed the Campus Martins and issued from 
the Porta Flaminia, crossed the Tiber by the Pons Milvius, 3 miles 
from Rome, into Etruria, where its course has been already described 
(pp. 512, 516). It was constructed by the censor C. Flaminius in B.C. 
220. 11. The Via Aurelia, the Great Coast Road, issued from the Porta 
Janiculensis, and struck off towards the W. for the coast, which it 
reached at Alsium, whence it followed the line of coast throughout 
Etruria and Liguria (see pp. 512, 503). 

Islands. — Off the coast of Latium lies a group of islands of volcanic 
origin, of which Pontia, Ponza, was the most considerable; it was colo- 
nized by the Romans in B.C. 313, and became imder the emperors a place 
of confinement for state prisoners. The others were named Palmaria, 
Palnuiruola, Sinonia, Zannone, and Pandataria, Vandotena, also used as 
a State prison. 

History. — The extension of the Roman supremacy over Latium was a 
long and gradual process. We find the kings waging successful war with 
the Latin cities (Alba itself being destroyed by Tullus Hostilius), and 
shortly after taking the supremacy of the Latin league, as appears from 
the treaty concluded with Carthage in B.C. 509. Upon the expulsion cf 
the kings, however, the Latins regained their independence, and in 493 
they concluded a treaty with Rome, the object of which appears to 
have been to counteract the growing power of the Volscians and 
JEquians. For the next 100 years little occurred to break this arrange- 
ment ; some small wars were then waged with the Pr^enestines and 
others, which were but a prelude to the great struggle for independence 
in the war of 341-338, when the Latins combined with the Volscians, 
j3Equians, and Hernicans against Rome. The battles of Vesuvius, 
Pedum, and Astura, decided the struggle in favour of the latter power. 
The Latins were subdued in 338, the Hernicans in 306, and the 
-^quians in 304. The period of the final subjection of the Volscians 
is not so certainly fixed ; they were subjected, however, before 326. 



2 B 3 




Ruins of Capua. 



CHAPTEE XXYIL 
ITALY — continued, campania, apulia, calabria, lucania, 

THE BRUTTir. 

X. Cajipaxia. § 1. Boundaries and general description. § 2. Moun- 
tains and rivers. § 3. Inhabitants ; towns ; roads ; islands ; his- 
tory. XI. Apulia. § 4. Boundaries, mountains, and rivers. § 5. 
Inhabitants ; towns ; roads ; history. XII. Calabria. § 6. 
Boundaries ; inhabitants ; towns ; history. XIII. LrcAXiA. § 7. 
Boundaries, mountains, and rivers. § 8. Inhabitants ; towns ; 
roads ; history. XIV. The Bruttii. § 9. Boundaries, mountains, 
and rivers. §10. Inhabitants; towns; history. 

X. Campania. 

§ 1. Campania was bounded on the N. by Latium, on the E. by 
Samnium, on the S. by Lucania, from which it was separated by the 
river Silams, and on the W. by the TyiThenian Sea. These limits 
include the district of the Picentini in the S. The chief portion of 



Chap. XXVII. 



CAMPAXIA. 



563 



this province consists, as its name (from carrqjus) implies, of an ex- 
tensive plain extending fr'om the sea to the Apennines, and broken 
.only by a group of volcanic hills between CumaB and Neapolis, and 
by the isolated mountain of Vesuvius. Tliis plain was bounded on 
the S. by a lateral ridge which strikes off from the Apennines at right 
angles to the general direction of the range, and j)rotrudes into the sea 
at Prom. Minerva, fonning the southern termination of the Sinus 
Cumanus, On the other side of this range follows the hilly country 
of the Picentini. The soil of this plain is of volcanic origin, and has 
been celebrated in all ages for its extraordinary fertility. ^ It pro- 
duced thi'ee and even four crops in the year, and was particularly 
famous for its sheep, its wine,^ and its oil.^ The genial mildness of 
the climate, combined with the beauty of the scenery, and the nu- 
merous theimal springs it possessed, rendered it highly attractive to 
the luxurious and wealthy Ptomans. 

§ 2. The most conspicuous feature in the Campanian plain is the 
volcanic mountain Vesuvius, which rises in an isolated conical ma&s 
to the height of 4,020 feet, to the E. of Xeapolis. Xo eruption is re- 
corded before the terrible one in a.d. 79, which overwhelmed Her- 
culaneum and Pompeii, and in which the elder Pliny perished ; ^ two 
subsequent emptions are recorded in ancient times, in a.d. 203 and 
472. The summit of the mountain is described by Strabo as nearly 
level, and probably the present central cone tirst came into existence 
in A.D. 79. The volcanic group to the W. of Xaples culminated in 
Mons Gaurus, Monte Barharo, about 3 miles X. E. of Cumas, famed 
for its excellent wines. ^ The plains to the X. of this were denomi- 
nated by the Greeks of Cuma3 the Campi Phlegraei, from the evident 



1 Ilia tibi laetis intexet vitibus ulmos ; 
Ilia ferax oleo est : illam experiere colendo 
Et facilem pecori, et patientem yomeris unci. 
Talem dives arat Capua et vicina Vesevo 

Ora jugo, et vacuis Clanius non sequus Acerris. — Georg. 11. 221. 

2 The Massic, Falernian, Gaurian, and Surrentine, were the most celebrated 
kinds. 

3 The oil of Venafrum was particularly prized : — 

Insuper addes 

Pressa Yenafranae quod bacca remisit olivae. Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 68. 
Hoc tibi Campani sudavit bacca Yenafri. Mart. xiii. 101. 

* Previous to this, the fertility of the soil about Vesuvius was famed (see Georg. 
ii. 221, above quoted). Martial contrasts Avith this the desolation that reigneu 
there in his time : — 

Hie est pampineis viridis modo Vesbius umbris ; 
Presserat hie madidos nobilis uva lacus. 



Cuncta jacent flammis et tristi mensa favilla : 

Isec superi vellent hoc licuisse sibi. iv. 44. 
frondentia laeto 

Palmite devastat Isyssea cacumina Gauri. Sil. Ital. xii. 160. 



564 



CAMPANIA. 



Book IV. 



signs of Tolcanic action apparent on them : ^ tliey were also called 
Campi Laborini, a designation preserved in the modem Terra di La- 
voro, now appHed to the whole district. On the borders of Samnium,. 
the ranges which overlook the plain, and which stand forth as the ad- 
vanced guard of the central Apennines, were named Tifata, Monte di 
Iladdcdoiii, near Capna, and Taburnus, Tahurno, S. of the Via Appia. 
The range which we have already noticed as bounding the plain on 
the S. was named Lactarius, Monte S. Angelo, from the excehent milk 
produced from its pastures. Between the projecting points of Ptohl 
Minervae and Misenum lies the deep and beautiful Bay of Na.ples^ to 
which the ancients gave the name of Crater from its cv/p-like form, 
though it was also otherwise named after the towns of Cum^ and 
Puteoli. The rivers of Campania are unimportant, with the exception 
of the Vulturnus, j)i*eviously described (p. 489) ; we may notice the 
Savo, Savone, a small sluggish ^ stream X. of the Yulturnus ; the 
Cianius, to the S. of it, now converted into the canal of Lagno ; the 
SebetbuS; which flows under the walls of Neapolis ; the Sarnus, Saimo, 
which waters the plain to the S. of Vesuvius ; and the Silarus, Sele, 
on the S. border. Campania possessed a few small lakes, one of 
which, Avernus, has been previously noticed (p. 490), while another 
hardly less famous was known by the name of Lucrimis Lacus ; this 
lay at the head of the Sinus Baianus, and was separated h'om the sea 
only by a narrow barrier of sand : it was shallow, and hence jdccu- 
liarly adapted for oyster-beds. ^ Agrippa constracted a port, named 
Julius Portus, by opening communications between the Lucrine Lake 
and the sea on one side and Lake Avemus on the other ; at the same 
time he constmcted a mole of great strength outside the banier of sand.^ 
This project turned out a failure. A large portion of the Lucrine Lake is 
now occupied by the Monte Nuovo, a liill some 400 feet high, which 
was thrown up by volcanic action in 1538. 

§ 3. The original inhabitants of Campania were an Oscan or Opican 



6 Turn suipliure et igni 

Semper aiihelantes eoctoqiie bitumine campos 
Ostentant. Tellus, atro exundaiite vapore 
Suspirans, ustisque diu calefacta mediillis 

^stuat, et Stygios exhalat in aera flatus. Sil. Ital. xii. 133. 

' Statins [Silv. i\. 3, 66) describes it as " piger Savo." 

^ Non me Lucrina juverint conchylia. Hon. Epod. ii, 49. 

Miirice Baiano melior Lucrina peloris. Id. Sat, ii. 4, 32. 

9 An memorem portus, Luerinoque addita claustra, 

Atque indignatum magnis stridoribus aequo r, 

Julia qua ponto longe sonat unda refuso, 

Tyrrhenusque fretis immittitur sestus Arernis ? — Gcorg. ii. 161. 
Debemur morti nos nostraque : sive reeeptus 
Terra Neptianus classes aquilonibus arcet, 

Regis opus. HoR. Art. Foet. 63. 



Chap. XXVII. 



TOWNS. 



565 



race. Tliey were subdued by the Etruscans, and tlie date of this oc- 
cun*ence is variously fixed at B.C. 471 and 771. Finally the Sam- 
nit€s entered as a conquering race, and established themselves in the 
neighbourhood of Capua about B.C. 440. Throughout all these 
changes, however, the Oscan element remained the basis of the popu- 
lation, and imposed its language upon the conquerors. We have 
yet to notice the Greek settlers on the coast, who exercised a material 
influence in works of art. The Campanians were reputed generally 
a soft and luxurious race ; at the same time they are noticed in his- 
tory as serving as mercenaries in the Carthaginian annies. The 
towns of Campania rose at different periods of its history : the earliest 
settlement of which we hear was the Greek colony of Cumse, founded 
(according to tradition) in B.C. 1050 ; this in turn founded the other 
Greek cities on the coast, Dicsearchia, Pala?pohs, and Xeapolis, and, 
according to some writers, Nola and AbeUa in the interior. The 
Etmscans are said to have had a confederacy of twelve cities in Cam- 
pania, as they had in Etraria and GaUia Cisalpina, at the head of 
which stood Capua. This remained the chief town under the Sam- 
nitcs also, and was the place with which the Eomans came into con- 
tact in the 4th century B.C. Under the Eoman empire the towns on 
the Campanian coast rose to wealth and celebrity as the fashionable 
watering places of Italy ; new towns sprang up at Baise and Bauli 
on the N. coast of the Bay of Naples ; the whole circuit of the bay 
was studded with villas and palaces, and Neapolis, Pompeii and Sur- 
rentum were much frequented. The temble disaster in a.d. 79 gave 
a temporary check to this j)rosperity ; but the country soon recovered 
the blow, and remained one of the most flourishing and populous pro- 
♦ vinces of Italy down to the very close of the Western Empire. We 
shall describe the towns in their order from N". to S., taking first 
those on the sea-coast, and then those in the interior. 

1. On the Coast. — Cumae, one of the most ancient and celebrated 
Greek colonies in Italy, stood on the summit of a cliff, 6 miles of 
Prom. Misenum. It was founded jointly by Chalcidians of Euboea^^ 
under Megasthenes, and Cymeeans of ^olis^ under Hippocles; and, 
according to agreement, it received the name of the one town and 
ranked as the colony of the other. The assigned date of its foundation 
(B.C. 1050) is too early to be accepted. It soon rose to commercial 
wealth and power, and founded several colonies in the neighbourhood. 
Its fall may be attributed to its internal dissensions, which led to the 
establishment of a despotism under Aristodemus, in 505, during whose 
rule Tarquinius Superbus took refuge and died there in 496. It 
suffered from the growing power of the Etruscans, who attacked it in 



Hence the epithet of Eiiboic, commonly applied to it : 

Et tandem Euboicis Cumarum allabitur oris. ^ti. vi. 2. 
Sedibus Eiiboicam Stygiis emergit in urbem 

Troius ^neas. Ov. 3Iet. xir. 155. 



566 



CAMPAXIA. 



Book IV. 




Coin of Ciimaj. 



474, and were only resisted by the aid of Hieron of Syracuse; and 
it was finally crushed by the Samnites, who captured it in 42u. Under 

the Romans it became a muni- 
cipium and a colony, but never 
regained its importance.- It 
was noted for its red earthen- 
ware and its flax. The chief 
celebrity of Cumse is, however, 
derived from its being the re- 
puted residence of the Sibyl, 
whose cave ^ existed in histori- 
cal times, probably on the E. 
side of the cliff. The remains 
of Cunipe are inconsiderable, but valuable works of art (statues, vases, 
&c.) have been discovered on its site. Misenum, on the promontory of 
the same name, first rose to importance under Augustus as the station 
of a fleet for the defence of the Tyrrhenian Sea, and is memorable as 
the scene of an interview between Octavian. Antony, and Sextus Pompeius, 
LucuUus had a magnificent ^illa there, which the Emperor Tiberius ^ 
subsequently acquh'ed, and in which he died. Several interesting 
inscriptions have been found on the site of Misenum. Baiae, Baja, was 
situated W. of Misenum and on the S.W. side of a bay, named after 
it, which penetrates inland between Misenum and Puteoli. Its port 
was frequented in early times; but the town rose, under the patronage 
of the Romans, towards the end of the Republic, and became one of 
the most popular watering-places on this coast.^ Among the illus- 
trious men who had ^fillas there, we may notice Cicero, Lucullus, 
C. Marius, Pompey, Caesar, ]Sero, Caligula, Hadrian (who died there), 
and Alexander Severus. Many of the villas were built on piles 
actually in the sea.^ The chief relic of antiquity is the so-called 
Temple of Venus, near the sea-coast. Puteoli, PozzuoU, was situated 
on the promontory which forms the E. boundary of the Sinus Baianus. 
It was founded by Greeks of Cum£e, in B.C. 521, and was originally 
named DicaearcMa. This was exchanged for Puteoli when the Romans 
got possession of it in the Second Punic V^'ar, the new name being 



2 Juvenal speaks of it as quite deserted : — 

Laudo tamen vac ids quod sedem figere Cumis 
Destinet, atque unum civem donare Sibyllae. 

3 Excisum Euboicae latus ingens rupis in antrum ; 
Quo lati ducunt aditus centum, ostia centum, . 
Unde ruunt totidem voces, responsa Sibyllee. 

^ CEEsar Tiberius quum peteus Xeapolim 
In Misenensem villam venisset suam, 
Quse monte summo posita LucuUi manu, 
Prospectat Sicuium et prospicit Tuscum mare. — 

^ Nullus in orbe sinus Bails prselucet amoenis. 
Littus beatee Veneris aureum Baias, 
Baias superbEE blanda dona naturae, 
L't mille laudem, Flacce, versibus Baias, 
Laudabo digne non satis tamen Baias. 
^ To this Horace alludes : — 

Marisque Bails obstrepentis urges 

Sununovere Uftora 

Parum locuples continente ripa. 



Sat. in. 2. 



.lEn. vi. 42. 



Ph.i:de.. ii. 5, 7. 
HoR. £2}' i- 1, 83. 



Mart. xi. 80. 



Carm. ii. 18, 20. 



Chap. XXVII, 



TOWNS. 



567 



derived either from the stench of the sulphureous springs/ or from the 
wells (putei) of a volcanic origin about it. It was colonized by the 
Romans in 194:. It possessed an excellent harbour, which was further 
improved by a mole, and which became the most frequented port for 
Egyptian, Tyrian, and Spanish traffic. It was also frequented by the 
wealthy Romans, and Cicero possessed a villa there, at which Hadrian 
was afterwards buried. Caligula established a temporary bridge, two 
miles long, between Baiie and Puteoli. The remains are extensive, the 
most important being those of the amphitheatre, of the mole, and of the 
so-called temple of Serapis, probably used as a bath-house, and inter- 
esting from the proof which it affords of extensive changes in the level 
of the soil on which it stands. Neapolis, Ncq^hs, was situated on the 
W. slope of Mt. Vesuvius and on the banks of the small stream 
Sebethus. It was founded by 
Greeks of Cumae,^ and was 
named Xeapolis, ^'XewCity," 
in contradistinction to Palaepo- 
lis, Old City," which had 
been previously established, pro- 
bably on the hill of Pausilypus. 
The name of Parthenope appears 
to have originally belonged to 
Palsepolis, but was subsequently 
transferred to Xeapolis. ^ Neapolis was conquered by the Samnites 
in B.C. 327, and passed into the hands of the Romans in 290: it 
retained its Greek character under them, and hence became a favoiurite 
resort ^ of the Romans before the end of the Republic. It was sub- 
sequently made a municipium, and fineJly a colony, though the 
date of this latter change is uncertain. Of the Roman villas about 
Xeapolis that of Vedius Pollio, on the ridge named by him Pausi- 
lypus, and now Posilippo, was the most famous. The Emperors 
Claudius and Nero had villas there, as also had the poets Virgil 
(who was buried there), Statins, and Silius Italicus. The only re- 
mains of the town are two arches, part of an aqueduct, and the 
ruins of a temple of Castor and Pollux. The tomb of VfrgiP also 
survives. Pompeii stood at the mouth of the river Sarnus and on the S. 
side of Vesuvius.- The line of the coast has been carried out two miles 




Coin of Xeapolis. 



' Near Puteoli was a spot called Forum Tulcani, now Solfatara, from the 
number of holes whence issued sulphureous vapours. 

8 Hence the epithets of Euboic and Chalcidian given to it : — 
Anne quod Euboicos fessus remeare penates 

Auguror. Stat. Silv. iii. 5, 12. 

Omnia Chalcidicas turres obversa salutant. Id. ii. 2, 94. 

^ This is the name usually adopted by Statius and Silius Italicus. 

1 In otia natam 

Parthenopen. Ov. Met, xv. 711. 

Et otiosa credidit Neapolis. Hor. Epod. v. 43. 

Many literary men settled there ; hence the epithet docta : — 

Et quas docta Neapolis creavit. Mart. v. 78. 

2 Statius refers to it as being near Neapolis : — 

Maroneique sedens in margine templi 
Sumo animum, et magni tumulis adcanto magistri. — Sllv. iv. 4, 54. 



568 



CAMPAXIA. 



Book IV. 



from the site of tlie town by the changes produced by the catastrophe 
in A.D. 79. The tovm was a very ancient one, and belonged succes- 
sively to the Oscans and Etruscans ; it served as the port of Xola. 
Nuceria^ and other inland towns. It became a favourite abode of the 




Temple of Venus at Pompeii. 



Eomans; and^ among others, Cicero had a villa there. It was partly 
destroyed by an earthquake in a.d. 63, and utterly by the eruption 
of 79, which buried it beneath a vast shower of ashes and other 
volcanic substances. So completely did the town disappear, that even 
its site was unknoT^-n: it was discovered accidentally in 1689^ and 




Street of the Tombs at Pompeii. 



Chap. XXVII. 



569 



excavations were commenced in 17 bo. which have been carried on at 
intervals to the present day, so thai about half the town is now 
exposed to view. The most remarkable buildings are found in the 
Fomm. and consist of the Temples of .Jupiter. Venus, and Mercury, a 
Ba-silica, Baths, a Pantheon. &c. Outside the gate leading to Hercu- 
laneum lies the Street of the Tombs. The light which ha? been thrown 
on the private life of the ancients by these discoveries is invaluable. 
StirrerLtuin, Sorrerdo. stood on the S. coast of the Bay of Xaji^les, 
about 7 miles X.E. of Prom. ]\Iinerv£e. It was reputed a Greek town, 
but this, as well as its remaining history, is a matter of uncertainty. 
It was chiefly famed for the wine grown on the neighbouring hills, ^ 
and for its pottery. Polhus Felix, the friend of Statins, had a villa 
there, of which extensive ruins still remain. Salemum, Salerno^ was 
situated in the territory of the Picentini on the X. shore of the Sinus 
Paestanus. We know nothing of it previous to the settlement made 
by the Romans there,, in B.C. 19-1:. for the purpose of holding the 
Picentini in check. It thenceforward became the chief town in this 
pai't of Campania.-' 

2. In tlie Inter ior. — TeBimxm, surnamed Sidiclnum, to distinguish it 
from the Apulian town of the same name, stood on the Via Latina in 
the extreme X.E. of the 
province. It was origi- 
nally the capital of the 
Sidicini, and its position 
on the Via Latina made 
it important as a military 
post. It received a colony 
under Augustus, and re- 
mained a large and popu- 
lous town under the Em- 
pire. Pemains of an am- 
phitheatre and of a theatre 
exist on its site. Capua, Sta. ^laria di Ca}-''"^' - ^'^-^ situated about two 
miles S. of the Vulturnus and one from the foot of Mount Tifata. 
It was called Vulturnum under the Etruscans ; it was either founded 
or colonized by the Etruscans, but the date of tliis event is quite 
uncertain. The Samnites captured it in B.C. : its first intercourse 
with Rome was in 34-3, when it obtained aid against the Samnites : in 
216 it joined the cause of Hannibal, and in 211 was severely punished 
by Rome for this defection. It was placed under a P'jman Pra^fectuSj 
was made a colony by Cfesar in 59, and was re-colonized by X'ero. 
The luxury and refinement of the Capuans became proverbial. The 
town, being built on a plain, was of gTeat extent ; it was surrounded 
by walls, and had seven gates. In the neighbourhood the famous 



3 Inde le?lt Capreas, promontorimriqne AlinervEe, 
Et Surrentino generosos palinite colles. Ov. ITet. xv. 7 09. 

Caraque non molli juga Surrentina Lyaeo. Stat. Sih. iii. 5, 102. 

^ It was Tisited by Horace for the improvement of his health : — 
Quae sit hiems Teliee, quod ccelimi. Vala, Salerni, 
Quorum hominum regio, et quails via ? Zj). i. 15, 1. 

^ The origin of the name is uncertain ; Virgil derives it from Capys : — 

Et Capys : hinc nomen Campana? ducitur urbi. — x. 145. 
It is probably connected with Campus on account of its situation on a plain. 




570 



Book IV. 



Falernian wine was jjroduced. Some portions of the ancient walls, of 
an amphitheatre, and of a triumphal arch remain. The town was 

destroyed a.d. 840, and 
was rebuilt on the site of 
Casilinum, 3 miles distant, 
which has hence inheriied 
the name of Co. p v. a . Nola, 
XoJa, stood 21 miles S.E. 
of Ca^Dua. between Vesu- 
vius and the Apennines : 
it was a town of gi^eat an- 
tiquity, founded by the 
Ausonians, colonized by 
the Greeks of Cum«, ^ 
occujjied successively by 
the Etruscans and Samnites, and, finally, conquered by the Romans 
in B.C. 313. It was signalized for its fidelity to Rome after the battle 
of Cannfe, in reward for which it was allowed to retain its consti- 

than three occasions in the 
Second Punic Var." It 
bore a conspicuous pait 
in the Social TTar, having 
been occupied by the al- 
lies, and subsequently cap- 
tured and destroyed by 
Sulla. It was rebuilt, and 
received colonies under 
Augustus and Vespasian. 
Augustus died there. Xu- 
merous inscriptions in the 
Oscan language and a vast number of Greek painted vases have been 
found at Xola. Nuceria, Xocera. >urnamed Alfateraa, to distinguish 
it from other towns of the same name, stood on the Sarnus, about 9 miles 
from its mouth, and on the Appia Via. Its early histoiy is unknown. 
In B.C. 315 it is noticed as joining the Samnites against Rome, and in 
ou8 it was taken by the consul Fabius. In '216 it was taken by 
Hannibal, and its inhtibitants were subsequently re-settled at Ateila, 
Xuceria was, however, rebuilt and received colonies under Augustus 
and Xero. 

Of the less important towns we may notice: — 

(1.^- On the Coast. — VultuiTLum. Costd VoJturno, at the mouth of 
the Vultnrnus. originally only a foit erected by the Romans in the 
Second Punic War, but subsequently colonized in B.C. 194 ; Litemum, 
Tor d'i Po.tria, on the verge of a marsh or lagoon called the Literna 
Palus,- a place famous as the retreat of Scipio Africanus, who died and, 
according to one accotmt, was buried there : Eauli, between Bai^e and 




Coin of Capua. 



tution : it withstood Hannibal on no less 




Coin of Xola. 



Hence it is termed Chalcidian : — 

Hinc ad Clialcitiicam transfert citns agmina Xolam. — Sil. Ital. xii. 161. 
' Campo Xola sedet crebris C'ircimidata in orbem 
Turribu?. et celso facilem tutatur adiri 

Planitiem vallo. Sil. Ital. xii. 162. 

s Hinc calidi fontes, lentiscifemmque tenentur 
Liternnm. Or. Jlet. xv. 713. 

4 



Chap. XXVII. TOWNS — EOADS — ISLANDS. 



571 



Prom. Misenum, a favourite resort of the Romans, and, among others, 
of Hortensius and of Xero, who here planned the death of Agrippina ; ^ 
Herculaneum, Ercolano, at the foot of Vesuvius, founded by the Oscans, 
occupied by the Etruscans, and subsequently by Greeks, captured by 
the Romans in the Social War, and finally buried to a depth of from 
70 to 100 feet beneath the ground by the same catastrophe which 
destroyed Pompeii; it was discovered in 1738, and partly explored, the 
chief buildings found being a theatre capable of seating 10,0uO persons, 
portions of two temples, and other buildings ; Stabiae, Castell-a-Mare 
di Stahia, 4 miles S. of Pompeii, destroyed by Sulla in the Social AVar, 
subsequently the residence of several Romans, and, among others, of 
Pomponianus, the friend of the elder Pliny, who perished here in the 
overwhelming catastrophe of a.d. 79; and, lastly, Picentia, Vicenza, 
the chief town of the Picentini. 

(2.) In the Interior. — Cales, Ccdvi, on the Via Latina, S.E. of Teanum, 
originally the capital of the Ausonian tribe named Caleni, subsequently 
taken and colonized by the Romans in B.C. 335, and especially famed 
for its fine wine;' Casilinum, Ccqma, on the Vulturnus, famed for the 
noble stand made there by 1000 Roman troops against the whole army 
of Hannibal in B.C. 216 ; Atella, midway between Capua and Xeapolis, 
historically famous only for the severe punishment inflicted on it by 
the Romans in B.C. 211 for its defection to Hannibal, and otherwise 
better known for the dramatic representations, named Fabulse Atel- 
lanse," which originated there; and, lastly, Acerrae, Acer r a, 8 miles 
X.E. of Xe:^polis, which received the Roman franchise in B.C. 332, was 
destroyed by Hannibal in 216, and rebuilt in 210.- 

Boads. — Campania was traversed by the Via Appia, which entered it 
at Sinuessa, struck inland to Casilinum and Capua, and quitted it for 
Caudium and Beneventum; this portion of the road could not have 
been constructed before the end of the Samnite Wars. The Via Latina 
entered Campania near Teanum and passed by Cales to Casilinum, 
where it fell into the Appian Way. Other roads, the names of which 
are unknown, led from Capua by Xola and Xuceria to Salernum, and 
so on to Rhegium, and again from Sinuessa along tlie coast to Cumss 
and Xeapolis. 

Islands. — Off the coast of Campania lie the following islands: — 
Prochyta, Pi-ocida, off Prom. Misenum, from which it is distant about 
3 miles, a flat and comparatively low ^ island, and, though now thickly 
populated, formerly uninhabited : ^naria,. Iscliia — the Pithecusa of 



9 Dum petit a Baulis mater Cserelia Baias, 

Oceidit insani crimine mersa freti. Mart. iv. 63. 

I CEecubum et piaelo domitam Caleno 

Tu bibes uvam. Hor. Carm. i. 20, 9. 

Premant Galena falce, quibus dedit 

Fortuna vitem. Id. i. 31, 9. 

- It appears to have been a poor, forsaken place : — 

Et vacuis Clanius non sequus Acerris. — Yirg. Georg. ii. 225. 

Allifee, et Clanio contemptse semper Acerrae, Sil. Ital. viii. 537. 
3 Virgil's epitliet " alta " is incorrect : — 

Tmn sonitii Prochyta alt a tremit, durumque cubile 

Inarime Jovis imperils imposta Typhoeo. ^En, ix. 715. 

* Ego vel Prochytam praepono Suburrse. Jrv. iii. 5. 



572 



APULIA. 



Book IV. 



the Greeks, and the Inarime-^ of the Latin poets — a httle TV. of 
Prochyta, of volcanic origin, and hence both fertile and provided with 
thermal springs; and Caprese,^ Capri, off Prom. Minervae and at the 
S. extremity of the Bay of Xaples, a lofty and almost inaccessible 
mass of limestone rock, which became the imperial abode, occasionally 
of Augustus and permanently of Tiberius,' during the last ten years of 
his life. 

History. — We have already stated that the Oscans, the Etruscans, 
and the Samnites became the successive masters of the rich plains of 
Campania. It remains for us to narrate the circumstances of the 
Roman conquest. Capua, having been attacked afresh by the Sam- 
nites, in B.C. 343, solicited the aid of Rome, which was accorded, and 
-resulted in the victories of Valerius Corvus at Mt. Gaurus and Sues- 
sula, and the expulsion of the Samnites. The Campanians, i. e. the 
Capuans, thus became the nominal subjects of Rome: nevertheless, 
they joined in the Latin "^ar, in 340, and were defeated at the foot of 
Mt. Vesuvius by the consuls T. Manlius and P. Decius. The submis- 
sion of the other towns of Campania shortly afterwards followed, viz., 
of Neapolis, in 326, of Xola, in 313, and of Xuceria, in 308, and at the 
end of the Second Samnite Wai% in 304, Rome was master of all the 
province. In the Second Punic War, when Campania was one of the chief 
seats of war, Capua and some of the smaller towns espoused the cause 
of Hannibal, while Casilinum, Xola, and Xeapolis, remained faithful. 
The capture of Capua by the Romans, in 212, re-established their 
supremacy. 

XL Apulia. 

§ 4. Apulia was situated on the E. coast of Italy, and was bounded 
on the X. by the Tiferniis, dividing it from Picenum ; on the AV. by 
Saninimn ; on the S. by Lncania and Calabria, from the former of 
which it was separated by the river Bradanns, and from the latter 
by a line drawn across the Messapian peninsula from the head of 
the Tarentine bay to a point between Egnatia and Bmndusium ; and 
on the E. by the Adriatic Sea. The X. portion, from the Tifernus 



5 The name Inarime appears to be derived from the Homeric "Apt/xot, the fable 
of Typha3us having been transferred from Asia to Italy. Ovid incorrectly distin- 
guishes Inarime and Pithecusa : — 

Orbataque prceside pinus 
Inarimen, Prochytenqne legit, sterilique locatas 
Colle Pithecusas, habitantum nomine dictas. 2fet. xiv. 88. 

6 The original occupants of this island are said to have been named Teleboae, a 
people whom we only know as occupying the Echinades, off the W. coast of 
Greece : — 

CEbale, quem generasse Telon Sebethide nympha 

Fertur, Teleboum Capreas quum regna teneret. — ^En. vii. 734. 

" Juvenal speaks of him as — 

Principis, angusta Caprearum in rupe sedentis. — Sat. x. 93. 

Statins applies to it the epithet "dites," apparently in reference to the palaces 
erected by Tiberius : — 

elites Capreee viridesque resultant 
Taurubulee, et terris ingens redit sequoris echo. — Silv. iii. 1, 128.. 



Chap. XXVII. 



PLAIX OF CAXXiE. 



Plain of Cann^. 



to the AiifidiTS, consists almost wholly of a great plain sloping down 
from the Pyi*enees to the sea, the only exception being the isolated 
mass of GarganiTS, the ^' spur" of Italy, on the sea-coast. The S. 
portion is for the most part covered with barren hills, which emanate 
from the Apennines near Yennsia, and extend in a broad chain to- 
wards Brnndiisium : between these and the sea is a narrow strip of 
land of great fertility. The northern plains afford pasture for rast 
numbers of horses and sheejD during the winter months ; in the 
summer they become parched in consequence of the calcareous 
nature of the soil, and at this period the flocks are removed to the 
highlands of Samnium, which are then rich, but are covered with 
snow in the winter. A constant interchange thus takes place be- 
tween these two districts, and has done so from the earliest ages : 
the Romans imposed a tax on all flocks and herds thus migrating. 
The only mountains that received special designations were Gar- 
ganus, which projects alcove 30 miles into the sea, forming a 
vast promontory,^ of which Mons Matinus ^ was the most southerly 



^ The forests, for which it was formerly so famous, have now disappeared : — 
Aquilonibus 

Querceta Gargani lahorant. Hoe. Carm. ii. 9, 7. 

Gargtinum mngire pntes nemus, ant mare Tuscnm. — Id. Ep. ii. 1, 202. 
9 This and all the other heights of Garganns are covered with aromatic herbs, 
and produce excellent honey : — 

Ego apis Matinae 
More modoque 
Grata carpentis thyma per laborem 



Carmina fingo. 



Hon. Carm. iv. 2, 27. 



574 



APULIA. 



Book IV. 



offshoot ; and Vultur, 2Ionte VoUore, an isolated hill of volcanic 
origin on the borders of Lucania and Samniiim. The rivers are — 
the Tifernus, Biferno, on the boundary ; the Frento, Fortore, 
X. of Garganns ; the Cerbalus, Cervaro, S. of that mountain ; the 
Aufidus (p. 480) ; and the Bradanus, Brada.no, on the borders of 
Lucania, falling into the Tarentine Gulf. These rivers are small in 
summer, bat exceedingly violent in winter, and at this season they 
not unfrequently inundate the x^lains. 

§ 5. The inhabitants of Apulia were a mixed race, consisting of 
the three following elements : — (1.) The Apuli, probably an Oscan 
race ; (2.) the Daunii, a Pelasgian race ; and (3.) the Peucetii or 
Pcediciili, also of Pelasgian origin. The two former races were fused 
into one people in historical times, and occupied the plains of 
Northern Apulia ; the third lived separately in the hilly country of 
the S. The Apulians were not united under one government at the 
time the Eomans came in contact with them, but each town formed 
an independent community. Of these, Arpi, Caimsium, Luceria, 
and Teanum, appear to have been most prominent. These towns are 
frequently mentioned in the Second Samnite, the Second Punic, and 
the Social AVars, but subsequently became historically unimportant. 
Their chief interest is derived from the large amount of Hellenic 
influence which was infused into them by Tarentum and the other 
Greek towns in those parts, and which is manifest both in their coins 
and in the numerous works of art, particularly painted vases, dis- 
covered on their sites. We shall describe first those in the interior, 
then those on the coast. 

(1.) In the Interior. — Larinmn, Larino Teccliio, was situated 14 miles 
from the coast, a little S. of the Tifernus. It is sometimes regarded as 
belonging to the Frentani : it did not originally belong to either, but 
formed a separate and independent state. In Augustus's ^ division, how- 
ever, it was included in Apulia. During the Second Pimic War its ter- 
ritory was the scene of several operations between the Roman and Car- 
thaginian armies ; the town itself is seldom noticed. Arpi, Arpa. the 
Argyripa of the poets^ - stood in the centre of the great Apulian plain. 
20 miles from the sea. Its foundation was attributed to Diomede, but 
without any solid reason. Its extent and population were very large at 
the time of the Second Punic War. In this it was originally friendly to 
Eome. but after the battle of Canna? it joined Hannibal, and was in con- 
sequence severely punished by the Romans in B.C. 213 : from that time it 



^ Horace seems to refer to its position as partly in and partly out of Apulia, 
when lie says : — 

]\[e fabulosae Vulture in Appido 

Altricis extra Jimeii Apulice. Carm. iii. 4, 9, 

2 The name first appears in Lycophron : it was adopted from the Greeks by the 
Latins : — 

Ille urbem Argyripam, patriae cognomine gentis, 

Victor Gargani condebat lapygis arris. .En. xi. 246. 



Chap. XXVII. 



TOWXS. 



575 



sank. Canusium, Canosa, stood near the right bank of the Aufidus, about 
15 miles from its mouth. Its origin was attributed to Diomede, and it 
certainly had a strong infusion of the Greek element in it, ^ but there 
are no grounds for supposing it to be a Greek colony. It was conquered 
by the Romans in B.C. 318^ and is memorable for the hospitality afforded 
to the Roman army after the defeat at Cannee. It received a colony 
under M. Aurelius. It possessed a splendid aqueduct, made by Herodes 
Atticus, to supply its natm^al deficiency of water. ^ Its remains, con- 
sisting of portions of the aqueduct, of an amphitheatre, and a gateway, 
belong to the Roman era. Luceria, Lucera, was situated about 12 
miles W. of Arpi ; it was probably of Oscan origin. It first appears in 
history as friendly to Rome in the Second Samnite AVar, then as cap- 
tured by the Samnites, and recovered by the Romans in B.C. 320, re- 
captured by the Samnites, and again recovered in 314, and finally be- 
sieged by the Samnites in 294. In the Second Punic "War it was the 
head-quarters of the Romans in Apulia. It subsequently became a 
colony, and remained a considerable town. ^ Venusia, Venosa, lay on 
the frontiers of-Lucania,^ 
and on the Appia Via. 
It was captured by the 
Romans in b.c 262, and 
shortly afterwards was 
colonized by them. It 
became the Roman head- 
quarters after the battle 
of Cannse. In the Social 
War it was the strong- 
hold of the allies in 
these parts. Its position 
on the Appian road se- 
cured its subsequent prosperity, and it is well known to us as the 
birth-place of Horace. (2.) On the Coast. — Siponttim, '* Sta, Maria di 
Siponto, stood immediately S. of Garganus, and was reputed to have 
been founded by Diomede. It was captured by Alexander of Epirus, 



3 That the Greek tongue prevailed here to a great extent, appears from 
Horace's allusion : — 

Canusini more hilinguis. Sat. i. 10, 3^. 

* To this Horace alludes : — 

Nam Canusi lapidosus ; aquse non ditior urna : 
Qui locus a forti Diomede est conditus olim. Sat. i. 5, 91. 
The gritty quality of the bread, to which " lapidosus " refers, is still noticed 
by travellers, and arises probably from defective millstones. 
^ Its wool was famous : — 
Te lanEe prope nobilem 
Tonsse Luceriam, non citharge, decent. Hoe. Carm. iii. 15, 13. 

6 Hence Horace speaks of himself as — 

Lucanus an Appulus, anceps, 
yam Yenusinus arat nnem sub utrumque colonus. — Sat. ii. 1, 34. 
' The poets adopted the Greek form of the name, Sipus : — 
QuEesivit Calaber, subducta luce repente 

Immensis tenebris, etterram et littora Sipus. Sil. Ital. viii. 634. 

Quas recipit Salapina palus, et subdita Sipus 

Montibus. Lrc. v. 37 7. 




Coin of Yenusia. 



576 



CALABEIA. 



Book IY. 



in B.C. 330, was colonized by the Romans in 194 and again at a later 
period, and became a place of considerable trade in corn. Salapia, 
Salpi, lay more to the S. on a lagoon named Salapina Palus,^ which 
formerly had a natural, but now has only an artificial outlet to the sea. 
It was the head-quarters of Hannibal in B.C. 214, was captured by the 
Romans in 210, and again attacked by the Carthaginians in 208. It was 
destroyed by the Romans in the Social War, and never recovered its 
prosperity. 

Of the less important towns we may notice Teanum, surnamed Apu- 
lum, Civitate, on the Frento, about 12 miles from its mouth, noticed 
as being conquered by the Romans in B.C. 318, and the head-quarters of 
M. Junius Pera in the Second Punic War ; Herdonia, Ordona, on the 
Via Egnatina, the scene of the Roman defeats by Hannibal in B.C. 212 
and 210 ; Asculum, Ascoli, 10 miles S. of Herdonia, the scene of the 
great battle between Pyrrhus and the Romans in B.C. 279; Cannae,^ 
Canne, on the Aufidus, 6 miles from its mouth, celebrated for the me- 
morable defeat of the Romans by Hannibal in B.C. 216, which took place 
on the N. side of the river (see note at end of chapter. Battle of 
Cann^) ; Barium, Bari, on the coast, about 36 miles S. of the Aufi- 
dus, on the Via Trajana, noticed by Horace as a fishing town ; ^ and 
Egnatia,2 or Gnatia, at the point where the Appia Via came upon the 
coast. 

Roads. — Apulia was traversed by the two great branches of the Ap- 
pian Way — the Via Trajana, which passed through Herdonia, Canusium, 
and Barium to Brundusium, and the Via Appia, properly so called, which 
passed through Venusia to Tarentum. 

History. — Apulia first comes into notice in the Second Samnite War, 
as in alliance with Rome, with the exception of a few towns which 
joined the Samnites. Pyrrhus reduced several of its cities in B.C. 279, 
bi.it did not shake the fidelity of the province generally. In the second 
Punic War it was for several successive years the winter quarters of 
Hannibal, and, after the battle of Cannae, many of the cities jomed his 
cause. The punishment inflicted subsequently by the Romans was 
very severe. In the Social War the Apulians embraced the side of the 
allies, and the renewed punishment then inflicted on them by the 
Romans proved fatal to the prosperity of the province. 

XII. Calabkia. 

§ 6. Calabria was the name given to the peninsula which runs out 
to the S.E. of Tarentum, and which is commonly known as the 



s See Luc. v. 377, in previous note. 

^ Ut ventum ad Cannas, urbis vestigia priscse, 
Defigunt diro signa infelicia vallo. Sil. Ital. viii. 624. 

1 Postera tempestas melior, via pejor, adusque 
Bari mcenia ^iscosi. Hon. Sat. i. 5, 96. 

2 Horace seems to describe its water as bad ("lymphis iratis "), but it is now 
celebrated for tbe abundance and excellence of its water. The pretended miracle 
which he witnessed is also noticed by Pliny (ii. 111). 

Dehinc Gnatia, Lymphis 
Iratis exstructa, dedit risusque jocosque, 
Dum flamma sine thura liquescere limine sacro 
Persuadere cupit. Sat. i. 5, 97. 



Chap. XXVII . XAME — IXHABITANTS — TOWS. 



577 




Brundiisiiim. 



" heel " of Itslj. The Greeks named it Messapia and lapygia — 

terms which are used with varying significance by different writers. 
The whole of this peninsula is occupied by broad and gently undu- 
lating hills of small elevation. The soil is dry, being of a calcareous 
nature : it was nevertheless famed for its fertility, and particularly 
for its growth of olives. The province was also famous for its horses, 
wines, fruit, honey, and wool, and, in another sense, for its venomous 
serpents. It possesses no stream of any size. The inhabitants of 
Calabria were divided into two tribes — the Messapii or Calabri proper, 
who occupied the E., and the Sallentini, who occupied the W. and 
S. coasts. These tribes belonged to the Pelasgian stock, and Avere 
not originally distinct. They appear to have attained a certain de- 
gree of culture before the appearance of the Greek settlers, and they 
possessed the towns of Hydruntum and Hyria. The foundation of 
Tarentum, about 708 B.C., formed an era in the history of this 
province. Tt was the metropolis of this part of Italy until the 
period when the Eomans established their ascendency. Under them 
Brundusium rose to importance as the terminus of the Appian Way, 
and tlie chief port for communication with Greece. 

BrTLndusium or Brundisium, Brindisi, was situated on a small enclosed 
bay, which communicated with the sea by a narrow chanueb and ter- 



^ The Sallentini were traditionally believed to be of Cretan origin : — 
Et Sallentinos obsedit milite campos 

Lyctius Idomeneus. yEn. Hi. 400, 

ANC. GEOG. ' 2 C 



578 



CALABRIA. 



Book IV. 



minated inland in two arms, giving it a general resemblance to a stag's 
Jiead, from which it is said to have derived its name. This bay formed 
an admirable port, about which the Sallentini built a town, and which 
the Eomans acquired in B.C. 267 and colonized in 244. It was the scene 
of many interesting events ; of Sulla's landing from the Mithridatic 
war in 83, of Cicero's return from his exile, of the blockade of the fleet 
of Pompey by Csesar, of the death of Virgil, and of Agrippina's landing 
with the ashes of Germanicus. Its name is familiar to us from the 
visit of Horace, who went thither with Maecenas and Cocceius, when 

the place was threatened 

by Antony in 41. Hy- 
druntum, Otranto, the 
Hydrus of the Greeks, 
was situated S. E. of 
Brundusium, and was the 
nearest point to Greece. 
It w^as a customary port 
of embarkation for the 
East as early as 191 B.C., 
and ultimately, in the 
4th century a.d., sup- 
planted Brundusium as 
the principal port in that 
district. Tarentum, Ta- 
ranto, was situated on a 
peninsula at the entrance 
of an extensive but shal- 
low bay, which runs in- 
land for some 6 miles 
from the head of the 
Tarentine Gulf. This 
bay served as its port, 
being connected with the 
sea by a channel so nar- 
row that a bridge is now thrown across it. The surrounding country 
was remarkably fertile, and its climate luxuriously soft. It was founded 
by a colony from Sparta,^ led by Phalanthus*^ in B.C. 708. For the 
first two centuries of its existence we hear little of it, but it was grow- 
ing in wealth and commercial greatness. A terrible defeat sustained 
by the Tarentines from the Messapians in 473 is the first event of 
importance in their history. In 432 they were engaged in war with 
the Thurians, which ended in the joint foundation of Heraclea. In 346 




Plan of Brundusium. 



A. Inner Hiubour. B. Outer Harbour. 
r8e.-.ar tried to block up the entrance of the Inner Harbour. 
D. Modem city of Brindisi. E. Islands of ,S;. Aridrea, the 
ancient Barra, 



C. Spot where 



4 Hence its foundation is assigned by Lucan (ii. 610) to the Cretans. 

s Hence the epithet of " Lacedeemonian," and the name GEbalia, an ancient 
name of Laconia, are applied to it : — 

NaYigat Ionium, Lacedsemoniumque Tarentum. — Ov. Met. xv. 50. 

Aut LacedEemonium Tarentum. Hon. Carm. iii. 5, 56. 

Namque sub CEbalise memini me turribus altis 
Qua niger humectat flaventia eulta Galeesus, 
Corycium yidisse senem. Georg. iv. 125. 

6 Duke pellitis oribus Galesi 
Flumen, et regnata petam Laconi 

Rura Phalanto. Hor. Carm. ii. 6, 10. 



Chap. XXVII. 



^ TOVTXS — HISTORY. 



579 



they were inYolvecl in a more serions struggle with the Lucanians and 
Messapians, and they were obliged to call in the aid first of the Spartans, 
whose leader, Archidamus, fell in battle in 338, and afterwards of Alex- 
ander of Epirus, who finished the war vdth. the Lucanians, and then 
himself became the enemy of the Tarentines. In 302 they came for 
the first time into collision Avith the Eomans in consequence of an attack 
made on ships that had passed, the stipulated boundary, viz., the La- 
cinian cape. The Tarentines called in the aid of Pyrrhus in 281, after 
whose withdrawal in 274 resistance became futile, and their city was 
taken in 272. The only other important events are the revolt of Ta- 
rentum to Hannibal in 212, and its recovery by the Eomans in 207, 
when it was most severely treated. It then fell into a state of decay, 
but was subsequently revived by a colony sent there in 123, and it 
became a naval station of importance under the empire. The general 
form of the city was triangular, having the citadel at the apex, 
adjoining the mouth of the harbour. Hardly any remains of it exist. 
The chief productions of its territory were honey, olives, wine,' wool 
of the very finest description,^ horses, fruit, and shellfish, which were 
used both as an article of diet, and for the preparation of the famous 
purple dye.'* The Tai^entines were reputed a luxurious and enervated 
race. - 

Of the less important places we may notice: Castra Miner vae, between 
Hydmntum and the lapygian promont(iry, named after a temple of 
Minerva which occu23ied a conspicuous position on a cliff ; Manduria, 
Manduria, 24 miles E. of Tarentum, the scene of the great battle in 
which Archidamus perished ; Uria or Hyria, midway between Brun- 
dusiimi and Tarentum, the ancient metro j)olis of the Messapians ; and 
Callipolis, Gallijjoli, on the W. coast, a Lacedsemonian colony with an 
excellent port, which is, however, rmnoticed in ancient times. 

Bo 'ds. — There were three roads in Calabria — one a continuation of 
the Via Trajana, which led from Brundusium to the lapygian promon- 
tory : another from Tarentum to the same point ; and a third from 
Tarentiun to Brimdusium. 

History. — The history of Calabria may be disposed of in a few words, 
In spite of the great defeat which the Tarentines received in B.C. 473, 
as already related, they succeeded in establishing a supremacy over the 
tribes of the peninsula. The fall of Tarentum into the power of the 
Romans involved almost as a matter of course the submission of the 
whole peninsula, which was obtained in a single campaign. 



" The best kind was grown on a hill named Anion, as we learn from tha 
passage in which Horace expatiates on the fertility of the Tarentine territory : — 
Amicus Anion 
Fertili Baccho minimum Falernis 

Invidet uvis. Hon. Ccunn. ii. 6, 18. 

8 The pastures about the small stream Galaesus produced the best 'see notes * 
and ^ above}. 

9 Lana Tarentino violas imitata veneno. * In. Ep. ii. 1, 207. 

1 Pectinibus patulis jactat se lyioUe Tarentum. Id. Sat. ii. 4, 34. 

Sed vacuum Tibur placet, aut bnhelle Tarentum.— Id. Ep. i. 7, 45. 
2 Yirgil represents this as the first object which met the eye of .Eneas as he 
approached the Italian coast : — 

Crebreseunt optatee aurce : portusque patescit 

Jam propior, templumque apparet in arce Minervee. — ^En. iii. 530. 

2 c 2 



580 



LUCA^'IA. 



Book IV. 



XIII. LrcA^iA. 

§ 7. Lucania was Ijoimcled on the X. by an irregular line crossing 
from tlie Silarns on tlie Tyrrhenian coast to the Bradanns on the 
Tarentine Bay ; in this direction it was contignoiis to Campania, 
Samniiim, and Aptilia ; on the S. it was separated from the land 
of the Brnttii by the rivers Bails and Crathis ; on the E. and AV. it 
was bordered by the sea. The province is traversed in its whole 
leni^th by the Apennines, which approach more nearly to the AV. than 
the E. coast, aixl descend on the furmer side in lofty and rugged chains 
alniu>t to the coast itself, while on the latter they slope gTadiially 
off, and leave a broad and remarkably fertile strip of phtin between 
the months of the Bradanns and the Siris. S. of the Siris the 
m':amtains approach the AV. coast, bnt again recede and leave a 
considerable j^'lain abottt the Crathis. The interior of Lucania was 
and still is one of the wildest rcLiions of Italy, most of it being 
covered with immense forests wliicli gave support to vast herds of 
swine, as v^ell as to wild boars and bears. The only mountain with 
wliose name Ave are acquainted is Alhmnus,^ ^lonfe Alhur/io, S. of 
tliC river Silarns. The rivers, tliougli numerous, are tmimportant : 

the E. coast we may notice, from X. to S., the Bradanus. Bra- 
'^•'jiO. oil the borders of Apulia ; the Casuentiis, Basienfo, which runs 
I'aralbd to it andjuinsthe sta at Metapontum ; the Aciris, Agri, and 
Siris. ^ >in'iO. vdhch join the sea at no great distance from each 
(.'ther : the Sybaris, ('oscile, a small stream floAving by the town of 
the same name ; and the Crathis^ on the S. frontier. On the W. 
c<jast the cliief stream is the Silanis, Sele, with its tributaries the 
Tanager, Tanagro^ and the Calor, CaJore. 

§ 8. The earliest inhabitants of this country were a Belasgic race, 
named (Enotrians : they seem to have been an unwarlike people, and 
were gradually driven into the interior by the Greeks, who settled 
un the coast and gave to it and the coast of the adjacent province 
nf Bruttium the title of Magna G-rsecia. The Lticanians Avere a 
branch of the Samnite nation, vdio pressed down southward |'ro- 
bably about B.C. 400, subdued the Greek cities, and spread over the 



3 It i? noticed by Virgil, Georg. iii. 147. 

^ The "beanty of the district about the Siris, called Siritis, is noticed by Archi- 
lochiis : — 

Ov yap Ti KaXog \copo?, ov5' edt/x^po? 

Ov(5' eparo?. olo? dfj.61 lifjio? pod?. Ap. Athen. xii. p. 525. 

5 The craters of the Crathis were reputed to turn the hair to a golden hue : — 

'0 Sai'9di' \aLrai' —vpcaLVLo:' 

Y-paOis. ErRiP. Troad. 229. 

Crathis et huic Sybaris, nostris conterminus arvis 
Electro similes faciunt auroque capiilos. Ov. Jlet. xt. 315. 



Chap. XXYIl. 



TOAYXS. 



581 




Coin of Metaponram. 



whole of the interior. The towns of Lucania may he divided into 
two classes : those on the coast, which were of Greek origin ; and 
those in the interior, which were either native Liicanian toAvns or 
Roman colonies of a later date. The former class comprises some 
of the most important towns of Magna Grajcia, such as Heraclea, 
Sybaris, Yelia, and Pa?stum. In the latter class we may specially 
notice Grumentum on the Aciris. AVe shall describe these toAvns in 
order, commencing with those on the E. coast, from X. to S. 

Metapontxim was situated on the coast between the rivers Bradauus 
and Casuentus, about 24 miles from Tarentum. It was founded by 

Achseans under Leucippus. ^ 

probably about 700-69<) B.C., 
on the site (as it was said, of 
an earlier town. The phi- 
losopher Pythagoras retired 
and died there. In 415 the 
Metapontines joined the 
Athenians in their Sicilian 
expedition. In 332 they 
aided Alexander of Epirus 
against the Lucanians. but 
in 303 they refused the alliance of Cleonymus, and suffered in con- 
sequence. In the Second Punic AVar Aletapontum was occupied by 
Hannibal in the years 212-2u7, and after his withdrawal it v.as 
forsaken by its inhabitants, and the place ceased to be of any imp ^rt- 
ance. The remains consist of the ruins of a Doric temple, of which 15 
columns are standing, and some portions of another temple : they lie 
near Torre di Marl. Heraclea was situated between the rivers Aciris 
and Siris. It was founded 
in B.C. 432 by a joint colony 
of Thmians and Tarentines. 
It soon rose to importance 
and became the place of 
congi-ess for the Italiot 
Greeks. It was taken by 
Alexander of Epirus, and 
was the scene of a battle 
between the Romans and 
Pyrrhus in 280. It was 
pai^tly destroyed in the Social War. Large heaps of ruins near a 
farm, named Policoro, mark its site ; in these have been foimd coins, 
bronzes, &c., and particularly two tables, known as the Tabular Hera- 
clienses, containing much information relating to municipal law. Zeuxis, 
the painter, was probably born at this Heraclea. Siris stood at the 
mouth of the river of the same name. It was a place of great anti' juity 
and was reputed a Trojan colony, but was more probably a city of the 
Chones. lonians from Colophon settled there bt^tween '590 and 660 B.C., 
and made it a flourishing Greek town. Of its history we kuovr nothing : 
it probably perished between 551^1 and 510, Sybaris Avas situated be- 
tween the rivers Crathis and Sybaris, its exact position being unknown. 
It was foimcled by Achfeans and Troezeniaus in B.C. 72(i. and soon rose 
to a state of the highest prosperity from the extensive trade it prose- 




Coin of Heraclea. 



582 LUCANIA. • Book IV. 

cnted with Asia Minor and other countries. The town itself was about 
6 miles in circumference ; its power was extended over 25 cities, and 
it could muster an army of 300-,000 men. The wealth and luxurious- 
ness of its inhabitants became proverbial. Internal dissensions proved 
its ruin ; the Trcezenians, having been ejected by the Achaeans, sought 
the aid of Croton, and in the war that ensued the Sybarites were de- 
feated in 510 on the banks of the Crathis, and their town was destroyed 
by a diversion of the stream against it. A desolate swamp now covers 
its site. The inhabitants took refuge in Laus and Scidrus; they re- 
turned 58 years after, and attempted to rebuild the town, but the op- 
position of the Crotoniats defeated this plan, and they ultimately joined 
a mixed body of Greeks, more especially of Athenians, in the founda- 
tion of Thurii, at a little distance from the site of the old town, and 

probably to the N. of the 
river Sybaris, though its 
site has not yet been 
identified. The founda- 
tion of Thurii is various- 
ly assigned to the years 
446 and 443 B.C.; Hero- 
dotus and the orator 
Lysias were in the 
number of the original 
colonists. The Sybarites 
were expelled, and fresh 
colonists introduced from Greece. The town rose to a state of the 
greatest prosperity, and carried on independent w^ars against the Luca- 
nians and Tarentines, from the former of whom the Thurians received 
a severe defeat in 390. The Romans subsequently aided them against 
these enemies about 286, and thenceforth the town became subject 
to Rome. In the Second Punic War it revolted to Hannibal, who never- 
theless plundered it and removed its inhabitants to Crotona on his 
withdrawal in 204. It was revived by a Roman colony in 194, under 
the name of Copije, and remained the most important town in these 
parts until a late period. 

Busentum, Pollcastro, the Pyxus of the Greeks, was situated on the 
W. coast, some distance N. of the Laus. Its foundation is attributed 
to the Rhegians under Micythus in B.C. 470, but there was certainly an 
earlier town, probably a colony from Siris, on the spot. The Romans 
sent colonies there in 194 and again in 186. Elea or Velia, Castell a 
Mare delta Brucca, stood midway between Buxentum and Passtum. 
It was founded by the fugitive Phocaeans about 540 B.C. Though it 
became undoubtedly a prosperous place, w^e know nothing of its history. 
Its chief celebrity is due to the philosopliical school planted there by 
Xenophanes of Colophon, and carried on by Parmenides and Zeno. 
Cicero frequently visited Velia, and it appears to have been noted for 
its healthiness. ^ It possessed a famous temple of Ceres. P^stum, 
Pesto, the Posidonia of the Geeeks, was situated about 5 miles S. of the 
Silarus. It was a colony from Sybaris, founded probably by the ex- 
pelled Troezenians of that place. We know nothing of its early his- 
tory ; it was captured by the Lucanians some time before B.C. 390, and 




Coin of Thurii. 



6 Horace refers to this wlien he writes — 

Quae sit hiems Veliae, quod coelum, Vala, Salerni. 



—J^p, i. 15, 1. 



Chap. XXVII. 



TOAVXS. 



583 




Plan of Pass turn. 



A. Temple of Neptune. 

B. Temple, commonly called 

Basilica. 

C. Smaller Temple of Ceres or 

Vesta. 



passed along with the rest of Lucania into the hands of the Romans, 
who sent a colony there in 273, and changed its name to Paestum, It 
remained a considerable 
place, though of no his- 
torical impoii:ance. Its 
chief celebrity in ancient 
times arose from its 
roses, ^ which flowered 
twice a year, a quality 
which they still retain. 
The ruins of Ptestum 
consist of the circuit of 
the walls and three 
temples, the finest of 
which (commonly known 
as the Temple of Xep- 
tune) is of the Doric 
order, 195 feet long by 
79 wide, and in a re- 
markably perfect state ; 
the second is 180 feet 
long by 80 vdde, and ap- 
pears from its construc- 
tion to have been two 
temples in one ; the 
third (kno^Ti as the Temple of Ceres or Vesta) is much smaller ; 
there are also remains of an ampitheatre and of an aqueduct. About 
5 miles from Psestum, at the mouth of the Silarus, was a famous 
temple of Juno. Gmmentiiin, Saponara, was situated in the interior 
on the Achis, and was a native Lucauian town. It is first mentioned 
in B.C. 215, when Hanno was defeated there by the Romans. In the 
Social War the Roman pr^tor Licinius Crassus took refuge there after 
his defeat by the Lucanians. It afterwards became a raunk-ipiura. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Blanda, 12 miles S.E. 
of Buxentum, noticed among the towns which revolted to Hannibal, 
and were recovered by Fabius in 214 ; Laus, on the borders of the 
Bruttian territory near Scalea, a colony of Sybaris, and the place 
whither the expatriated Sybarites retired in B.C. 510 ; the scene also of 
a great defeat • sustained by the Greeks from the Lucanians ; Nerulimi, 
to the S.E. of Blanda, captured by^milius Barbula in 317 ; Numistro, 
on the borders of Apulia, the scene of a battle between Hannibal and 
Marcellus in 210 ; Potentia, near Potenza, on the Casuentus, a consi- 
derable town, though historically unnoticed ; and Volceium or Volcen- 
tum, Buccino, W. of Potentia, the chief town of the Volcentes, who are 
noticed as revolting to Hannibal, but returning to their allegiance 
in 209. 

Roads. — The principal road in Lucania was the Via Popilia, which 
traversed the province in its whole length on its way between Capua 



D. Amphitheatre. 

E. Other ruins of Roman 

time. 

F F Gates of the City. 
G. River Sa'so. 



Forsitan et, pingues hortos quae cura colendi 
Ornaret, canerem, hiferique rosaria p£Esti. 
Yidi ego odorati victura rosaria Peesti 

Sub matutino cocta jacere noto. 
Leucosiamque petit, tepidique rosaria Peesti. 



Georg. iv. 118. 

Peopert. It. 5, 59. 
Ov. 2Iet. XV. 70S. 



584 



THE BRUTTII. 



Book IV. 



and Rhegiiim ; it followed the valley of tlie Tanager. Roads followed 
the coasts between Psestum, Velia, and Buxentum on the W., and be- 
t\^'een Thnrii and Metapontum on the E. 

History. — The history of Lucania, as distinct from that of the Greek 
cities on its coasts, commences with the entrance of the Lucanians to- 
wards the end of the 5th century B.C. In 393 a league was formed 
against them by the Greeks, but this was crushed by the defeat sus- 
tained by the latter near Laiis in 390. The Lucanians then became 
masters of the whole country, and were at the height of their power 
about 350. The wars which they subsequently waged against the Tar- 
entines and their allies, Archidamus and Alexander, appear to have 
shaken their power by the end of the 4th century. In 326 the 
Lucanians entered into an alliance with Rome, w^hich they shortly after 
gave up, and were severely handled in 317 in consequence. In 286 
their attack on Thurii again drew on them the vengeance of Rome. 
In 281 they joined Pyrrhus, and in 272 were again reduced to sub- 
mission. In 216 they declared in favour of Hannibal, and in 209 they 
returned to their allegiance. In the Social War they again revolted, 
and in the Civil War between Sulla and Marius they joined the latter, 
and suffered severely at the hands of Sulla. 

XTY. The Bruttii. 

§ 9. The land of the Bruttii^ occupied the S. extremity of the 
Italian peninsula from the borders of Lucania. This region is cor- 
rectly described by Strabo 
as a peninsula including a 
peninsula within it." The 
first or larger peninsula is 
formed by the approach of 
the Tarentine and Terinsean 
gulls on the borders of 
Lucania; the second or in- 
cluded peninsula by the approach of the Scyllacian and Hipponian 
gulfs, more to the S. The general configuration of the country 
thus resembles a boot, of which the heel is formed by the Lacinian 
promontory, and the toe by Leucopetra. It is traversed through 
its whole length by the Apennines, which in the IST. district ap- 
proach very close to the Tyrrhenian Sea, leaving room on the E, 
for the extensive outlying mass now named Sila ; the range sinks at 
the point where the Hipponian and Scyllacian bays apj^roach, and 
rises again more to the S. in the rugged masses anciently named 
Sila,^ and now Aspromonte. These mountains have been always 
covered with dense forests, which supplied the Romans with timber 



^ The name " Bruttium," given to the country by modern writers on ancient 
geography, is not found in any classical author. 

^ Ac velut ingenti Sila, summove Taburno 
Cum duo conversis inimica in proelia tauri 
Frontibus incurrunt, pavidi cessere magistri. — ^n, xii. 715. 




Coin of the Bruttii. 



Chap. XXVII. IXHABITAXTS — TOWXS. 



585 



and pitcli. Along the coasts tliere are alluvial plains of great 
fertility but small in extent, skirting the bays. The rivers are 
numerous, but unimportant : we may notice, on the E. coast, the 
Crathis, on the borders of Lucania ; the Neaethus, Neto, the largest 
of them all, joining the sea about 10 miles N. of Crotona ; and, on 
the W. coast, the Medina, Mesima. 

§ 10. The province we are describing was originally occupied by 
the CEnotrians, who were divided into two tribes named Chones and 
Morgetes. The Greeks subsequently became the virtual owners of 
the land, occupying the whole of the valuable sea-coast, and leaving 
the interior to the CEnotrians. The period of their supremacy lasted 
from about 700 b.c. to 390, when the Lucanians overran the country, 
and established their dominion over the interior. These were sue- 
ceeded, in 356, by the people called Bruttii, who are represented 
as having been an heterogeneous collection of revolted slaves and 
bandits, but who nevertheless were strong enough to dispossess the 
Lucanians of their supremacy, and to enter upon war with the Greek 
cities. The towns may be divided into two classes : — (1.) The Greek 
colonies on the coast, of which the most important Avere Crotona, 
Caulonia, Locri, Ehegium, Medma, Hipponium, and Terlna ; and 
(2.) the proper Bruttian cities, of which the most considerable were 
Clampetia and Tempsa on the coast, and Consentia in the interior. 
We shall commence with those on the E. coast, from X. to S. 

Croton or Crotona, Cotrone, was situated about 6 miles N. of Prom. 
Lacinium, at the mouth of the little river iEsarus, It was founded 
by Achseans under Myscellus 
in B.C. 710, aud at an early 
period of its existence at- 
tained a high pitch of power. 
Its walls were 12 miles in 
circumference, its authority 
extended to the other side 
of the peninsula, and it 
could bring into the field 
100,000 men. Pythagoras 
established himself there about 540, and introduced great changes of a 
political and social character. War occurred between Croton and 
Sybaris in 510, and terminated in the destruction of the latter city. 
The battle of the Sagras, in which the Crotoniats were defeated with 
heavy loss by the Locrians and Rhegia^ns, took place probably after -.5 Id. 
It suffered severely in the wars waged by the Syracusan tyrants, being 
captured by Dionysius in 389, and by Agathocles in 299. It became 
subject to Rome in 277, while it was under the power of Pyrrhus. Its ruin 
was completed in the Second Punic War, when it was held for three years 
by Hannibal, and, in spite of a Roman colony sent there in 194, it sank 
into insignificance. The healthiness of ^Jrotona and the fertility of the 
pastures about the ^Esarus are much praised. Scylacium or Scylletium, 
SiiUllace, stood near the inmost recess of the bay named after it. There 
are traditions as to its being a Greek city, but they are not trustworthv. 




586 



THE BEUTTII. 



Book IV. 




Coin of Caulonia. 



We first hear of it as a dependency of Crotona. In B.C. 124 the Eomans 
sent a colony there, and from this time it became a considerable town, 
and remained such under the empire. Caulon or Caulonia was a colony 

of Achsean origin, its 
founders being partly 
natives of Crotona, and 
:\ partly from the mother 
P| country. Its early history 
is lost to us. It was de- 
stroyed by Dionysius of 
Syracuse in 389, and 
again, during the war with 
Pyrrhus, by some Cam- 
panian mercenaries. On 
each occasion it was re- 
built, and it is again noticed in the Second Punic War as revolt- 
ing to Hannibal, after which it probably fell into decay. Its site is 
still unknown. ^ Locri, surnamed Epizephyrii, to distinguish it from 
the cities of the same name in Greece, was situated 15 miles X. of 
Prom. Zephyrium, from which its surname w^as derived. It was 
founded by Locrians^ in B.C. 683, or even earlier, and was originally 
built on the promontory itself. Its early history is imknown, and its 
chief celebrity is due to the excellence of its laws, which were drawn 
up by Zaleucus^ probably about B.C. 060. It took part in the battle 
against Crotona at the Sagras. It maintained a close alliance with Syra- 
cuse, and an enmity against Ehegium. In the Second Punic War it re- 
volted to Hannibal in 216, and was not recovered by the Romans until 
205, after which we hear little of it. The ruins of Locri are about 5 
miles from Gerace, and consist of the circuit of the walls and the base- 
ment of a Doric temple. A celebrated temple of Persephone belonged 
to it. Eh.egium,'^ Beggio, was situated on the E. side of the Sicilian 



^n. hi. 399. 
Georg. ii. 438 



Glymp. X, 17. 



1 It appears to have stood on an elevation : — 
Attollit se diva Lacinia contra 

Caulonisque arces, et navifragum Scylaceuin. ^n. iii. 552. 
- They were supposed to be of the Opuntian branch ; whence the epithet 
" Narycian " is applied to them : — 

Hinc et Narycii posuerunt mcenia Locri. 

Naryciseque picis lucos. 
3 Pindar eulogizes the character of the Locrians : — 

Ne'jaet yap 'Arpe/ceta ttoKlv AoKpdv 

Ze(f)vpL(ji)V' ju.eA.et re' cr^tcrt KaAAtoTra 

Kal x^^i^^*^^ 'Aprj?. 

^ The name Rhegium was commonly derived from pY,(T<joi, " to break," in 
allusion to the idea that the shores of Italy and Sicily were broken asunder by an ' 
earthquake : — 

Heec loca, vi quondam, et vasta convulsa riiina 

(Tantuni tevi longinqua valet mutare vetustas) 

Dissiluisse ferunt : cum protinus utraque tellus 

Una foret ; venit medio vi pontus, et undis 

Hesperium Siculo latus abscidit, arvaque et urbes 

Littore diductas angusto interluit eestu. yEn. iii. 414. 

Z ancle quoque juncta fuisse 

Dicitur Italias : donee confinia pontus 

Abstulit ; et media tellurem reppulit unda. ' Ov. Met. xv. 290. 



Chap. XXVIL 



TOTTXS. 



587 



Straits, almost dii'ectly opposite to Mes-.ana in Sicily. It was founded 
probably about 740 by a joint colony of Chalcidians and ^Lessenians, 
the latter having left their country after the Fh^st Messenian War. A 
fresh band of Messenians was added in 663 at the close of the Second 
Messenian War. Its government was originally oligarchical, but in 
494 Ana.xilau3 made himself tyrant, and was succeeded in 476 by his 
sons, who, however, were expelled in 466. Dionysius the elder carried 



on a series of wars with Rhe^^ium 
Augustus, and was named 
Julium. Its position, at 
the termination of the 
great line of communica- 
tion with Sicily, secured 
its prosperity imder the 
emphe ; the point where 
the transit was effected 
was, however, not at Rhe- 
gium itself, but 9 miles 
X. of it, at Columna 
Rhegina. Rhegium gave 
birth to the poet Ibycus, 
Pvthagroras. Medma or 



It received a colony in the time of 




Lull! of Rhegium. 



the historia^n Lycus, and the sculptor 
Mesma stood on the W. coast between Hip- 
ponium and the mouth of the jLetaurus, its exact position being un- 
known. It was a colony of the Epizephyrian Locrians, and is always 
noticed among the Greek cities of Italy, but its history is wholly lost 
to us. Hipponium or Hippo, otherwise known by its Latin names of 
VibO'^ and Vibo Valentia, Bivona, was situated on the shore of the bay 
named after it, now the Gulf of St. EufeYiiia. It was also a colony of 
Locri, and is historically unknown until the time of its capture and 
destruction by Dionysius of Syracuse in B.C. 389. In 192 it received 
a Roman colony with the name of Valentia, and became important as 
the place where timber was exported and ships were built. The plains 
about it were celebrated for beautiful flovN-ers, and a temple of Proser- 
pine was appropriately erected there. Temesa or Tempsa was situated 
a little X. of the Gulf of Hipponium. It is said to have been an Au- 
sonian town, and it subsequently became hellenised, though no Greek 
colony is known to have been planted there. Between 48 and 46 'J it v%-as 
under the power of the Locrians, from whom it passed to the Bruttians, 
and ultimately to the Romans. v\'ho sent a colony there in 194. Its 
copper mines are frequently noticed.^ In the Servile AVar it was seized 
and held by a body of the slaves. It afterwards disappeared, and 
even its site is unknown. Clampetia or Lampetia stood more to the X.. 
probably at Amantea. The only notice of it is its recovery by the Ro- 
mans during the Second Punic War. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — Terina on the Terinoeus 
Sinus, a colony of Crotona, and. as we may conjecttire from the cha- 
racter of its coinage, a place of wealth and importance ; Petelia or 
Petilia, Strongoll, about 12 miles X. of Crotona, and 3 miles from 
the coast, the metropolis of the Lucanians, and otherwise famous for 



5 Yibo is the Bruttian or Oscan form of Hippo, and was probably the original 
name of the town. 

6 Et cui se toties Temese declit haiista metallis, — Stat. *S7/r. i. 1, 42. 
Evincitque fretum, Siculique angiista Pelori 

Hippotadeeque domos regis Temesesque metalla. — Ov. 2Iet. xv. 706. 



588 



BATTLE OF CAXX^. 



Book IV, 



the long siege it sustained from the Carthaginians and Bruttians in 
B.C. 216 ; Pandosia, an old (Enotrian town, somewhere between Thurii 
and Consentia, afterwards a colony of Crotona, famous as being the 
place near which Alexander of Epiriis was slain in 326 : and, lastly, 
Consentia, Coseuza, in the mountains near the som-ces of the Crathis, 
the metropolis of the Bruttians, noticed in the Second Punic War as 
being taken by Himilco in 216, and by the Eomans in 204, and in the 
Servile War as being besieged by Sextus Pompeius wirhout success. 

Eoads. — This province was traversed by the Via PopiUa, which passed 
up the valley of the Crathis to Consentia, thence descended to the 
shores of the Gulf of Hipponium, and followed the line of coast to 
Ehegium. A second road, constructed by Trajan, followed the E. 
coast, and a third followed the W. coast from Blanda to Hipponium 
where it fell into the Via Popilia. 

History. — The rise of the Bruttiihas been already traced. They ap- 
pear to have attained their highest prosperity about 300 B.C., after their 
wars with Alexander of Epirus and Agathocles were concluded, and 
before the contest vdth. Eome began. In 282 they joined the Lucanians 
against Eome ; they are again numbered among the allies of PyiThus, 
after whose defeat they were attacked and subdued by C. Fabricius and 
L. Papirius. In the Second Punic War the cities in some cases revolted 
to Hannibal, in other cases Avere subdued by him, and for four succes- 
sive years he maintained himself in this province. After his retreat 
the Eomans effectually subdued the Bruttians, and they disappear, as a 
people, from history. 



BATTLE OF CAXXJE. 

The scene of the battle of Camice has been controverted, some writers assuming 

The following observations, 
bearing upon the point, lead 
to the opposite conclusion. 
Tvro days before the battle 
the Eomans had established 
themselves at a camp about 
50 stadia distant from the 
enemy Plan, a\ The next 
day they advanced, and 
formed t^vo camps ; the 
larger one on the S. side of 
the river ^b^, and the 
smaller one on the X. side 
(c} ; Hannibal vras also 
encamped on the S. side 
(d). On the day of the 
battle Yarro crossed the 
river {k e ) from the larger 
camp and drew up his 
forces in a line facing the 
S. Hiinnibal also crossed, 
and dre^i- up opposite him. 
The battle was fought at a 
spot 'e) where the Aufidus 
takes a sudden bend ; and hence we can understand how the Roman army had its 
left wing on the bank of the river, and still faced the S. The town of Cannae 
was on the S. side, at f ; Canusium, at g ; and the bridge of Canusium. at h. 




Xuraglie in Sardinia. 



CHAPTEE XXYIII. 

SICILY, SAEDINIA, COESICA, AXD THE ADJACENT ISLANDS. 

I. Sicily. § 1. General description. § 2. Mountains and rivers. 
§ 3. Inhabitants; towns; lesser islands; history. § 4. Melita. II. 
Sardinia. § 5. General description; mountains and rivers. § 6. 
Inhabitants; towns; history. III. Corsica. §7. General descrip- 
tion; to^^Tis; history. 

I. SiCILlA. 

§ 1. The important island of Sicilia lies off the southern extremity 
of the peninsula of Italy, from which it is divided by a narrow strait 
formerlv called Fretiim Siculum, and now the Stixnts oj Jltssc/ici. 
At its AV. extremity it approaches within 80 geographical miles of 
the continent of Africa near Carthage, and it forms the great barrier 
between the eastern and western basins of the Mediterranean. Its 
form is triangular,^ the E. side representing the base, and the AV. angle 
the apex. It is for the most part mountainous, being traversed through 
its whole length by a range which may be regarded as a continuation 
of the Apennines, and which sends out an important offshoot to the 



1 The names "'Trinacria" and '■ Triquetra" have direct reference to its 
shape : — 

Terra tribus scopulis vastnni prociirrit in eequor 
Trinacris, a positu nomen adepta loci. Ov. Fast. iv. 419. 

Insula queni Triquetris terranmi gessit in oris : 
Quam fluitans circum. magnis anfractibus sequor 
Ionium glaucis aspergit vh'us ab undis : 
Angustoque fretu rapidum mare di^i.dit undis 
' Italise terrai oras a finibus ejus. Lucret. i. 718. 

Militibus promissa Triquetra 
Prsedia Cfesar ; an est Itala tellure daturus ? Hon. Sat. ii. 6, 5.5. 



590 



SICILIA. 



Book IV. 



S.E. angle of the island, commTinicating to it its peculiar confi- 
guration. Tlie space between these limbs is filled up on tlie E. coast 
by the volcanic mountain of ^tna, and on the S. W. coast by a range 
of inferior height. The fertility of the soil of Sicily has been in all 
ages the theme of admiration ;2 though it possesses few plains, its 
well-watered valleys and the slopes of the mountains admit of the 
most perfect cultivation. It was believed to be the native country 
of wheat ; and it was celebrated for its honey and saffron, its sheep 
and cattle, and particularly for its horses, those of Agrigentum^ being 
the most famous. The climate appears to have been more healthy 
in ancient than in modern times : the temperature varies considerably 
in different parts of the island, on the N. coast resembling that of 
Italy, on the S. that of Africa. 

§ 2. The general name for the range, which runs parallel to the 
N. shore, appears to have been Nebrodes Mons,^ though this may 
have been also more particularly applied to the central and highest 
portion of the chain, now named Monte Madonia. Distinct names 
were given to portions of the chain, among which we may notice 
Neptunius Ms., in the immediate vicinity of Messana ; Heraei Mts. 
near Enna, and Cratas to the S. of Panormus, in the W. portion of 
the island. This range is, however, far inferior in height to -Etna, 
which attains an elevation of nearly 11,000 feet, and covers with its 
base a space not less than 90 miles in circumference. The volcanic 
character^ of this mountain was known to the Greeks at an early 

2 Multa solo Yirtus : jam reddere foeniis aratris 
Jam monies umbrare olea, dare nomiiia Baccho 
CornipedemQiie citmn lituis generasse ferendis, 

Nectare Cecropias Hyblseo accedere ceras. Sil. Ital. :siv. 23. 

2 Arduus inde Acragas ostentat maxima longe 
Moenia, magnanimum quondam generator equormn. — .En. iii. 703. 
Nebrodes gemini nutrit divortia fontis 

Quo mons Sicania non surgit ditior umbrae. Sil. Ital. xiv. 236. 
5 The eruptions were ascribed by the poets to the struggles of the giant 
Typhoeus, or (according to Virgil) of Enceladus, who was buried under the 
mountain by Zeus after the defeat of the giants : — 
Kal vvv axpelov Kol irapyjopov fie/xa? 
Ketrat <jr€v<x>~ov irX-qaiov OaXaaaCov 
'lTrov[xevo? pl^aiacv AtTJ-'atat? vrro' 
Kopv^ats 6' ev a/cpat? rjfjievog javSpoK-rvrret 
"Hc^atCTTog, evBev eKpayrja-ovral TroTe 
IIoTajaot TTvpbs 8a.~rovre<; aypi(xi<i yva.Ooi<i 
KaWiK-ap-iTov St/ceAta? kevpov? yva<;- 
ToLovSe Ty^cb? i^ava^ecrei x^Xov 
©epjuotg aTrXijcrTOV ^eAecrt TrvpirvoGV Cdkt]^, 
KatVep K€pavv(Z Zrjvo<; ■qvOpoLKo^jxivo';. .EscK. Prom. 363. 

Fama est, Enceladi semiustum fulmine corpus 
Urgeri mole hac, ingentemque insuper .Etnam 
Impositam, ruptis fiaimnam exspirare caminis ; 
Et, fessum quoties mutet latus, intremere omnem 
Murmure Trinacriam, et coelum subtexere fumo. — .En. iii. 5 7 8. 



Chap. XXVIII. 



MOUXTAIXS. 



591 



period : the date of the first eruption ayMcIi they ^vitnessed is not 
known ; the second occurred in B.C. 475, and is noticed by Pindar 
and ^Esch^dus ; the third in 425 : many eruptions are subsequently 
recorded. At the other extremity of the island lies a nioimtain of 
considerable fame in antiquity, named Eiyx, Monte S. GMiano, an 
isolated peak, rising out of a lov\' tract, and hence apparently higher 
than it really is.^ Its summit was crowned with a famous temple of 
Venus,'" said to have been founded by ^Eneas. The three promon- 
tories,^ which form the salient points of the island, are Pelorus, Capo 



The snow-clad summit of the mountain is frequently referred to, as Avell as the 
contrast exhibited between the perpetual fire and the perpetual snow : — 

Xioi/o? o^eCa<; ri6r}V(x' 

Ta9 epevyoi'Tat ixh' a-Xa.- 
TOV TTt'pb? ayvoTarat 

"Ek ju-vxwi' -aycLL. PlXD. Pyth. i. 33. 

Ast ^tna eructat tremefactis cautibus ignis 
Inclusi g-emitus, pelagique imitata furorem 
Mui'mure per caecos tonat irrequieta fragores 
Xocte dieque simul : fonte e Phlegethontis ut atro 
Flammarum exundat torrens, piceaque procella 
Semiambusta rotat liquefactis saxa cavernis. 
Sed quanquam largo flammarimi exststuet intus 
Turbine, et assidue subnascens profluat ignis, 
Summo cana jugo cohibet 'niirabile dictu'^ 
Yicinam flammis glaciem, eeternoque rigore 
Ardentes horrent scopiili : stat vertice celsi 

Collis hiems, calidaque nivem tegit atra favilla. — Sil. Ital. xiv. 58. 
Virgil's vrell-kno^n description of an eruption supplied Silius Italicus ^vith 
many of his ideas : — 

Portus ab accessu ventorum immotus, et ingens 

Ipse ; sed horrificis juxta tonat ^Etna minis, 

luterdumque atram prorumpit ad eethera nubem. 

Turbine fumantem piceo et candente favilla ; 

AttoUitque globos flammarrmi, et sidera lambit : 

Interdum scopulos avulsaque \iscera montis 

Erigit eructans, liquefactaque saxa sub auras 

Cum gemitu glomerat, fundoque exsestuat imo. — ^En. iii. 5 70. 
^ Hence the poets class it with the loftiest mountains in the' world : — 

Quantus Athos, aut quantus Eryx aut ip^-e coruscis 

Cum fremit ilicibus, quantus, gaudetque nivaii 

Vertice se attollens pater Apenninus ad aura-. — ^En. xii. 701, 

Magnus Eryx, deferre velint quem vallibus imbres. 

Val. Flacc. ii. 523. 

" Tum Ticina astris Erycino in vertice sedes 
Fundatur Veneri Idaliae. .En. v. 759. 

Hence Venus is termed Erycina : — 

Sive tu maTis, Erycina ridens. Hoe. Carm. i. 2, 33. 

Tu quoque, quse montes celebras, Erycina, Sicanos. 

Ov. Heroid. xv. 57. 

8 The position of these is well described by Ovid : — 

Tribus htec excurrit in ^equora Unguis. 
E quibus imbriferos obversa Pachynos ad Austros : 



592 



SICILIA. 



Book IV, 



di Farof in the X.E., immediately opposite the Italian coast, and 
hence important as a naval station ; Pachynus,^ C. Passaro^ in the 
S.E., and the most southerly point of the island; and Lilybseum, 
C. Boeo, in the W., a low, rocky point with reefs ahont it, which 
rendered navigation dangerous. The rivers of Sicily are generally 
little more than mountain torrents, swollen in winter, and nearl}' 
dry in summer. The most important are — the Symsetlius,^ Giaretta, 
which flows by the roots of ^tna, and falls into the sea S. of Catana, 
receiving in its course the Chrysas, Bittaino, and the Cyamosorus, 
Fiume Salso; the Himera, Fiume Salso, which rises on the S. side 
of Xebrocles, only about 15 miles from the X. coast, and traverses the 
whole breadth of Sicily, falling into the sea W. of Gela ; the 
Halycus, Platani, which rises not far from the Himera and enters 
the sea at Heraclea Minoa; and the Hypsas, Belici, also on the S. 
coast, a few miles E. of Selinus. The lakes of Sicily are unim- 
portant ; we may notice, however, Falicorum Lacus, a deep pool of 
volcanic origin, about 15 miles AV. of Leontini, the waters of which 
were set in commotion by jets of volcanic gas ;^ and Fergus, near 
Enna, which is also still in existence. 

§ 3. The most ancient inhabitants of Sicily of whom we hear are 
the Sicani, who claimed to be autochthons, and who, in historical 
times, occupied the W. and X.AV. of the island. A second and 
more Avidely-spread race were the Siculi or Siceli, after whom the 
island was named, and who occupied the greater part of the interior: 



MoUibns expositmn Zephyi'is Lilybaeon : at Arcton 

^quoris expertem spectat Boreanque Peloros. Jlef. xiii. 724. 

Jamque Peloriaden, Lilybeeaque, jamqiie Pachynon 

Lustrarat, terrse cornua prima suae. Fast. iv. 47 9r 

9 The modern name is derived from a lightlioiise (Pharos} which once stood on 
it, as also did a temple of Neptune. The position of this promontory in the 
Sicilian straits is well described by Virgil's expression, " angusti claustra Pelori " 
iii. 411). 

^ It is correctly described by Virgil as formed by bold projecting rocks : — 
Hinc altas cautes projectaque sax a Pachyni 
Radimus. ' .T.n. iii. 699. 

- Eapidique colunt vada flara Symeethi. Sil. Ital. xiv, 231. 

Quaque Symethseas accipit seqiior aquas. Ov. Fast. iv. 472. 

3 The pool is now called Lago di Xaftia from the naphtha with which it is 
impregnated. Formerly there appear to have been two separate pools or craters : 
there is now but one. The spot was consecrated to the indigenous deities, called 
Palici ; hence Yirgil speaks of the son of Arcens as — 
Eductum matris luco, Symtethia circum 

Flumina : pinguis ubi et placabilis ora Palici. .Fji. ix. -584. 
The pool is described by Ovid : — 

Perque lacus altos, et olentia sulfure fertur 
Stagna Palicorum, rupta ferventia terra. 2Iet. v. 405. 

* Haud procul Hennaeis lacus est a niocnibus altse, 
Nomine Fergus, aquEe, &c. Ov, 2Iet. v. 385. 



Chap. XXVIII. 



IXHABITAXTS 



— Tovrxs. 



593 



they were a Pelasgic race, and crossed over into Sicily from Italy 
within historical times. The Elymi, in the X.W. corner of the 
island, Avere a distinct people of no great importance. In addition to 
these, which we may term the indigenous races of Sicily, numerous 
foreign settlements were made on the coasts by the Phoenicians and 
Greeks, by the former merely for trading purposes, by the latter as 
permanent colonies. The most important towns of Sicily were 
founded by the Greeks between 750 and 600 B.C. : Xaxos was the 
first in point of time, in 735 ; then followed in rapid succession 
Syracuse in 734, Messana, of uncertain date, Leontini and Catana 
about 730, Megara Hybla^a about 726, Gela in 690, Selinus in 626, 
and Agrigentum in 580, all of which rose to eminence, and some 
became the parents of fresh colonies. Xaxus, Leontini, and Catana, 
were of Ionian origin ; the rest were Dorian. The Phoenicians were 
gradually driven to the AV. by the Greeks, and were at last confined 
to three towns at the X.W. corner of the island, viz., Motya, 
Panomius, and Soloeis. These fell under the dominion of Carthage, 
probably about the time when Phoenicia itself became subject to 
the Persian empire. The Carthaginians themselves founded several 
important towns about the W. extremity of the island, particu- 
larly LilybaBum and Drepanum. Several important towns owed 
their origin to the elder Dionysius, 405-368, as Tauromenium, 
which arose in the place of Xaxos, Tyndaris, and Ala?sa on the X. 
coast. The flourishing period of the Greek towns lasted until the 
time of the Roman conquest of Sicily in 241. A long series of 
wars, and still more the exactions of Eoman governors, proved fatal 
to them, and in Strabo's time many were in actual ruins, and others 
in a declining state. We shall describe them in order, commencing 
with, the E. coast. 

(1.) Towns on the E. coast from N. to S. — Messana, Messina, stood 
on the Sicilian straits opposite Rhegium ; ^ it owed its chief importance 
partly to its position iu reference to Italy, and pa^rtly to the excellence 
of its port, formed by a projecting spit of sand, which curves round in 
the shape of a sickle ^ (whence its older name of Zancle), and which 
constitutes a natural mole. Immediately behind the town, which 
encircles the harbour, rises the range of Xeptunius. Messana was first 
colonized by Chalcidians of Eretria, having been previously occupied by 
the native Siceli. In 494 it was seized by Samians and Milesians, who 
had emigrated from Asia Minor after the fall of Miletus. These were 
di^ven out by Anaxilas, a Messenian, who crossed with a body of his 
countrymen from Phegium, and changed the name from Zancle to 



^ Liquerat et Zauclen, adversaqiie moenia Rhegi. — Ov. Jlef. xiv. 5. 
Incumbens Messana freto miniimnnque revulsa 

Discreta Italia atque Osco memorabilis ortu. Sil. Ital. xiv. 194. 
6 Quique locus curvse iiomina falcis liabet. Ov. Fast. iv. -±7 4. 



594 



SICILIA. 



Book IV. 




Coin of Messana. 



Messana. At the commencement of the fourth century B.C., it was one of 
the most important cities in Sicily. Having been destroyed in 396 by the 

Cai^thaginians, it was restored 
by Dionysius. and regained its 
prosperity. It fell from time 
to time under the dominion 
of tyi^ants, and was conquered 
by Agathocles of Syracuse in 
312, who introduced into it 
the Mamertini from Campa- 
nia. After the death of Aga- 
thocles in 282, these Mam- 
ertini seized the town and 
massacred all the males : thenceforth it was named Mamertina. These 
bandits were attacked in 271 by Hiero of Syracuse, against whom they 
called in the aid, first of the Carthaginians, and afterwards of the 
Romans, who entered Sicily as the allies of Messana in 264, and were 
immediately engaged in the First Punic War. Messana was constituted 
a fcederata civitas, and it became one of the finest and wealthiest of the 
Sicilian cities. Xear it was the famous, and, in early times, much 
dreaded whirlpool named Cliarybdis." Naxos was situated on a low 
rocky headland at the mouth of the river Acesines; it ranked as the 

oldest of all the Greek cities 
in Sicily, having been founded 
b}' Chalcidians in B.C. 735. 
Its early history is not known 
I to us ; it was taken by Hip- 
pocrates of Gela, about 495, 
was depopulated by Hieron 
in 476, and was restored about 
461. It fell under the enmity 
of Syi'acuse, in consequence 
of its having espoused the 
cause of Athens in 415; and 
in 403 it was utterly destroyed by Dionysius, and its inhabitants 
expatriated. The Siculi, to whom the territory was then given, erected 




Coin of Xaxos. 



' The earliest notice of this occurs in Homer, who describes it as opposite to 
Scylla, though it is really some ten miles distant. Scylla offers no particular 
risks to the navigator : Charvhdis, on the other hand, might \rell be dreaded by 
the ancients, vhose vessels were small and undecked ; even at the present day 
larger vessels are sometimes endangered by it. It is formed by the meeting of 
opposite currents, which are much affected by certain winds. The following 
passages illustrate the above remarks : — 

Ta> 5' VTTO Sla Xap-u/SSt? oLvappoi^Sel jU.eA.av vSojp' 

Tpls jW-ev yap r avLTjcnv ctt' rj/xart., rptg 6' avapoL^Sel 

Aetvov. Ho:*:. Cel. xii, lO-i. 

Dextrum Scylla latus, leevum implacata Cliarybdis 

Obsidet : ato^^ue imo barathri ter gurgite vastos 

Sorbet in abruptum fluctus, rursusque sub auras 

Erigit alternos, et sidera verberat unda. ^En. iii. 420. 

Scylla latus dextrum, Isevum irrequieta Charybdis 

Infestant. ' Ov. ITef. xiii. 7 30. 

Xec Scyllee seevo conterruit impetus ore 

Xec violenta suo consumsit in orbe Charvbdis. — Tibull. iv. 1, 71. 



Chap. XXVIII. 



Tovrxs. 



595 



a new town about tbi'ee miles ^from Xaxos^. on the slope of Taurus,^ 
which they named Ta'aromenium, and which is still called To.ormlna. 
To this place the old Xaxian exiles were brought back in 358 by An- 
dromachus, and it was henceforth regarded as the representative of 
the old town. It appears subsequently to have fallen under the power 
of Syracuse, and ultimately passed with the rest into the hands of 
the Romans, who made it a nederata civitas, and afterwards a colony. 
The remains of Tauromenium are numerous, and consist of a theatre 
in a very perfect state, and, in point of size, second only to that of 
Syracuse, a building styled a naumachia, parts of the ancient walls, 
reservoirs, sepulchres, tesselated pavements, &c. The position of this 
town was remarkably strong ; it stood on a projecting ridge some 
900 feet above the sea, and was backed by an inaccessible rock some 
500 feet higher, on which its citadel was posted. Catana or Catina, 
Catania, was situated midway between Tauromenium and Syracuse, 
and almost immediately at the foot of ^Etna. It was founded about 
B.C. 730 by Xaxos, and it remained independent until 470, when it was 
taken by Hiero I., its inhabitants removed to Leontini, and fresh settlei-s 
from Syracuse and Peloponnesus introduced in their stead. In 401 
the old inhabitants returned, and the place subsequently attained a high 
degree of prosperity. In the Athenian invasion, Catana was seized and 
occupied by the Athenians. In 403 it was conquered by DiLmysius of 
Syracuse, and was held by a body of Campanian mercenaries until 306. 
It was afterwards governed by tyrants. In 203 it yielded to Rome, and 
was prosperous until the time of Sextus Pompeius, from whom it 
suffered much : it was colonized by Augustus. It was the birth-place of 
the philosopher Charondas, and the residence of the poet Stesichorus. 
From its proximity to ^Etna,^ it suffered from the eruptions, especially 
in B.C. 121, when much of its territory was overwhelmed. The remains 
of Catana belong to the Roman period, and consist of the ruins of a 
theatre, of an odeum, of baths, and of an aqueduct. Leontini. Lerdini, 
was situated on the small river Lissus, about eight miles from the sea. 
It stood on a hill, which 
divides into two summits 
with an intervening valley, 
and was sm^rounded by a 
district of extraordinary 
fertility. It was fotmded 
by Xaxians in B.C. 730. and 
retained its independence 
until 498, when it fell 
under the yoke of Hippo- 
crates of Gela. In 470 it 
was subject to Hiero of Sy- 
I'acuse, but in 460 it was again independent, and at its highest prosperity. 
Subsequently it became entangled in disputes with its powerful neio-h- 
bour Syracuse, and from 427 down to the time of the Roman conquest, 
it was either subject to or at war with th?a state. Under the Romans 
it sunk into a state of decay. It was the birth-place of the orator 
Gorgias. Megara, surnamed Hyblaea, to chstinguish it from the town 



Its elevated position is implied in the follovring line : — 

Tauromenitana cernunt de sede Ciiarybdim. Sil. Ital. xiv. 256. 
^ Turn Catane, niiniiini ardent! vicina Typliceo. Id. xir. 196. 




Coin of Leontini. 



596 



SICILIA. 



Book IV. 



in Greece, was situated on a deep bay ^between Catana and Syracuse, 
probably at Agosta. It was founded by colonists from Megara in 
Greece, on the site of an older town named Hybla, about B.C. 726, 
and it became the parent of Selinus. In 481 it was destroyed by 
Gelon, and it was not rebuilt until 415, when a new town arose at 
the mouth of the river Alabus, Cantaro, sometimes called ^legara, 
and sometimes Hybla. which was held by the Syracusans, and vras 
captured by Marcellus in 214. The neighbouring hills produced ex- 
cellent honey. 1 Syracusae, the most powerful of all the Sicilian cities, 
was situated on a triangular plateau, which projects into the sea between 
two bays, that on the S. being small, and forming the great harbour of 
Syracuse, while that on the X. stretches out as far as Thapsus. The 
extremity of the hill is about 2^ miles broad ; inland it narrows 
gi'adually till it terminates in a ridge whicli connects with the table- 
land of the interior. The plateau is divided into two portions by a 
depression running X. and S.. about a mile from the sea. Opposite the 
S.E. angle of the plateau is the island of Ortygia, between which and 
the plateau itself a low level tract intervenes. S. of the great harbour 
rises a peninsular promontory named Plemmyrium. The town, which 
was founded in B.C. 734 by Corinthians and other Dorians under the 
guidance of Archias, was originally built on Ortygia : subsequently, by 
the time of the Peloponnesian War, it had been extended to the main- 
land, and the extremity of the hill, as far back as the depression already 
noticed, was built over and described as the outer city " in contra- 
distinction to the inner city," or acropolis on Ortygia. At this period 
there appears to have been no suburb outside the walls with the excep- 
tion of Temenitis on the S. side of the plateau: the whole of the 
triangular sj^ace at the back of the outer city" was then named 
Epipolfe. Subsequently, however, to this period, an extensive suburb, 
named Tyche, grew up immediately W. of the outer city," or as it 
was afterwards called Achradina : Temenitis was also enlarged, and its 
name changed to Xeapolis : the low gTOund between the outer" and 
inner " cities was built over : and finally the whole of the triangular 
space was enclosed within walls by Dionysius I. The city was thus 
composed of five tovms, viz. Ortygia, Achradina, Tyche, Epipolte, and 
Xeapolis. 1. Ortygia^ was an island of oblong shape, about a mile 
in length, stretching across the mouth of the great harbour. It was 
joined to the mainland in the first instance by a causeway, but in the 
Eoman period by a bridge. It contained the famous fountain of 
Arethusa,^ the citadel, a magnificent temple of Minerva, of which there 



1 Florida quam miiltas Hybla tuetur apes. Ov. T}'i$f. v. 6, 38. 

Hyblseis apibus ilorera depasta salicti. Yieg. EcI. i. 55. 

2 Ortygia was held sacred to Diana, and is licnce desribed by Pindar as "the 
couch of Artemis," and the " sister of Deles " : — 

Ajj-TTvevixa cre,ai.'Ci^ 'X\(^eov, 

KkeLVC-v Ivpo-Korcrav 6d\o<s, 'OpTvyCa, 

Ae/J-i-'toi' "Apre'/^tSo?, 

AaAov KO-cnyinjra. 3't/?Z. i. 1. 

3 Arethusa T^-as supposed to be connected by a submarine current with the 
Alpheus in Elis : — 

Alplieum fama est hue, Elidis amnem, 
Occultas egisse vias subter mare ; qui nunc 
Ore, Arethusa, tuo Siculis confunditur undis. ^'En. iii. 694. 



Chap. XXVIIl. 



TOWXS. 



597 



are considerable remains built into the cliurcli of Santa Maria deUe 
Colon !'€. a temple of Diana, the palace of Hiero. and other edifices. 
•J. Aciiradina, '' the outer city " of Thucvdides, contained the forum, 
the temple of Jupiter Olympius, a theatre, and the catacombs. 3. 
Tyche, so named after an ancient temple of Fortune, became one of the 
most populous parts of Syracuse, subsequently to the time of the 
Athenian expedition. 4. Neapolis, ^'the new city," contained the 
theatre, capable of holding 'iiJU iO spectators, an amphitheatre, several 
temples, and the Lautumiee, or cj^uarries. 5. Epipolae, which, in the 
time of Thucydides, was applied to the whole of the plateau AV. of 
Achradina, was afterwards restricted to the most inland and hi^rhest 
portion of it. This contained the fort of Euryalus, now called Mongi- 
hellisi, erected probably by Dionysius, and enlarged by Hiero II. 




IMap of Syracuse at the time of the Pelopomiesian War. 



Syracuse possessed two ports, the great harbour, the entrance to which 
was on the S. side of Ortygia, a land-locked bay, 15 miles in circum- 
ference, and the small harbour between Ortygia and Achradina. A fine 



Estremimi liunc, Aretliusa, milii concede laborem. 
Paiica meo Gallo, sed quee legat ipsa Lycoris, 
Carmina suut dicenda : iieget quis carniina Gallo ? 
Sic tibi, cum fluctus subterlabere Sicanos, 

Doris amara suani noii intermisceat undam. Yirg. I^cI. x. 1. 



598 



SICILIA. 



Book IY 



aqueduct, constructed by Gelon. and improved by Hiero^ supplied the 
town witli water. About 1 J miles from Xeapolis. and on tlie S. side of 
the Anapu?. stood the Olympieum, or temple of Olympian Jove, about 
which a village named Polichne grew up, and which was important as a 
military post ^. commanding the bridge over the Anapus. which discharges 
itself into the great harbour. Syracuse was originally governed by an 
aristocracy : this was superseded by a democracy in about 486, and 
this by a tyranny iu the person of Gelon in 485. Under the reigns of 
Gelon (485-478 , and Hiero (478-467 \. Syracuse became wealthy and 
prosperous : Hiero' s successor. Thrasybulus, was expelled after a brief 
reign on account of his cruelty, and a democracy was established. In 
415 the Athenians appeared before Syracuse ; in 414 the siege of the 
town was commenced, and ended in the following year in the total 
defeat of the Athenians. In 405 the democracy was succeeded by a 
tyi^anny in the person of the elder Dionysins, who had a long and 
prosperous reign, and was followed, in 367, by his son, Dionysius the 
younger, whose reign was quite of a different character, and who was 

expelled by Timoleon in 
343. For about 26 years 
a republic prevailed : but, 
in 317, Agathocles re-es- 
tablished the tyranny. He 
reigned until 289. and then 
followed an interval of 
anarchy and dissension 
until 270, when the Syra- 
cusans elected Hiero II. 
as their king. During his reign the town was peaceable and prosperous, 
mainly through the wise policy which he adopted towards Rome. His 
successor. Hieronymus. adopted another line, and joined the Cartha- 
ginians : this resulted in the siege of the town by Marcellus, prolonged 
through the skill of Archimedes for two years, but ending in its captiu'e 
in 212. The modern Syracuse is a comparatively small town confined 
to the island of Ortygia. 

''2\ On tlie S, Coast. — Camarina, Camarana, was situated at the 
mouth of the little river Hipparis, about 4u miles W. of Prom. Pachy- 
nus. It was founded by Syracuse in B.C. 599, and in 46 years it was 
strong enough to attempt a revolt against its parent city, which, how- 
ever, proved unsuccessful, and resulted in the destruction of the 
town in 552. In 495 it was rebuilt by Hippocrates of Gela, and in 
485 was again destroyed by the removal of its inhabitants. In 461 
it was for a third time rebuilt, and for the next 50 years reached a 
his'h degree of prosperity, which was terminated in 405 by the invasion 
of its territory by the Carthaginians, and the temporary withdrawal of 
its inhabitants. In 258 it was betrayed to the Carthaginians, but was 
speedily recovered by the Romans. In 255 the Roman fleet was wrecked 
near it. Adjacent to the town was a marsh, which rendered the air un- 
healthy : the citizens drained this, in opposition to the warning of an 
oracle, and, in so doing, they exposed their walls to their enemies : hence 
arose a proverbial saying.'* Gela, Terranova was situated at the mouth 




Coin of Syracuse. 



^ ^Mt] KLvei 'Kafxapwav' aKun-jro? yap ajxeiviov. 

Xmiquam coneessa inoveri 

Apparet Camarina procnl. jEn. iii. 700. 

Et cui non licituin fatis, Camarina, moveri. Sil. Ital. xiv. 198. 



Chap. XXVIII. 



TOWNS. 



599 



of a river of the same name/ between Camarina and Agrigentum. It 
was foimded by a joint colony of Rhodians and Cretans in B.C. 690, and 
in 582 it was sufficiently strong to found Agrigentum. Its consti- 
tution was originally oligarchical ; but in 505 Cleander established a 
tyranny, and was succeeded in it by Hippocrates in 498^ under whom 
it attained a very high pitch of power, and by Gelon, in 491, who 
succeeded in making himself master of Syracuse itself, and removed 
much of the population thither. These returned to their native city 
in 466, and a period of prosperity followed until 406, when the town 
was besieged, and in the next year taken by the Carthaginians. After 
various fortunes, its final ruin was effected by the removal of its 
inhabitants to Phintias, the city founded by the tyrant of Agri- 
gentum. To the W. of the town are the broad plains named Campi 
Geloi, celebrated for their extreme fertility. Gela was the birth- 
place of Apollodorus, a comic poet, and the place to which ^schylus 
retired, and where he ended his days. Agrigentum, Girgenti, the 
Acragas^ of the Greeks and of the Latin poets, was situated about 
midway between Gela and 
Selinus. It stood on a 
hill between 2 and 3 miles 
from the sea. at the base 
of which flovv'ed the small 
river Acragas. It was jl 
founded b}' Gela in e,c. \\ 
582. It soon fell under the 
power of despots, of whom 
Phalaris (about 570) was 
the first, and who was suc- 
ceeded by Alcamenes, Al- 
cander, Theron, who de- 
feated the Carthaginians in 480, and Thrasydseus in 472. A democracy 
followed, and under it Agrigentum spent 60 years of the greatest pro- 
sperity, during which its population is computed to have amoimted to 
200,000. This happy period was terminated by the destruction of the 
city in 405, by the Carthaginians. It was rebuilt by Timoleon in 340, 
and again attained a high pitch of power. In 309 it took the lead in the 
war against Agathocles, but without success. After his death Phintias 
became despot of the city. In the First Punic War it was held by the 
Carthaginians, and was consequently besieged by the Romans, who took 
it after 7 months, in 262. It was again taken and destroyed by the 
Carthaginians in 255, retaken aiid held by them in the Second Punic 
War, and finally recovered by Rome in 210. Under the Romans it 
still flourished, though not again historically famous. Its ruins are 
exteussive and beautiful : ' among them we may notice the so-called 




Coin of Agrigentum. 



5 Immanisque Gela, fluvii cognomine dicta. ^n. hi. 702. 

The river Gela is at times an impetuous torrent ; hence Ovid — 

Et te, Torticibus non adeunde Gela. Fast. iv. 470. 

6 Ovid adopts the Greek form in the line, — 

Himeraque et Didymen, Acrag-antaque Tauromenonque. — Fast. iv. 475. 
^ These justify the encomium which Pindar passes on it as " the fairest of 
mortal cities :" — 

Atreoj ere, (^ikaykae, Ka\- 



600 



SICILIA. 



Book IV. 



temples of Juno Lacinia and of Concord^ both of the Doric order, the 
basement and some fragments of the great temple of Olympian Jove, 
and the foundation -vralls of several other temples. Agrigentum was 
the birth-place of Empedocles and. other famous men : it was celebrated 
for the luxnrY, the hospitality, and the lavish expenditure of its 
citizens, the last of which qualities was specially manifested in their 
sepulchral monuments. Heraciea, snrnamed Minoa, stood at the mouth 
of the river Halycus, between Agrigenttun and Selinus. Its surname 
was attributed traditionally to its having been founded by Minos, king 
of Crete. In historical times it appears first as a colony of Selinus ; it 
was subsequently, in B.C. 510. seized by Spartans, who gave it the name 
of Heraciea. It was soon after destroyed by the Carthaginians, but 
was rebuilt, and remained in their hands, with but few intervals, until 
the time of the Roman conc[uest. During this period it derived impor- 
tance from the cu^cumstance that the Halycus formed the boundary 
between the Carthaginian and Greek districts. Selinus was situated at 
the mouth of the river of the same name, in the S.AV. part of the island. 
It was founded by the Sicilian Megara about B.C. 628, and probably 
derived its name from the abimdance of parsley ((T€\lu6s) found there. ^ 
It was the most westerly of the Greek cities, and was consequently 
exposed to the attacks of the Carthaginians, who destroyed it on two 
occasions, viz. in 409, when no less than 16,000 of its citizens were 
killed, and 5000 taken captive, and in 250 when its inhabitants were 
removed to Lilybaeum. Xear it were some sulphiu^eous springs, called 
Thermge Selinuntiae, which were much frequented by the Romans. 
The circuit of the walls, the remains of 3 large and 1 small Doric 
temples within the walls, and 3 temples of yet larger dimensions outside 
the walls, of the largest of which 3 columns are still standing, mark the 
site of the town at Torre del Pulci. Lilyhaeum, 2[arsala, was situated 
on the promontory of the same name in the extreme W. of the island. 
It was founded by Carthaginians about B.C. 397, and became their 
stronghold in Sicily, being the nearest point to the African continent.^ 
In 250 it was increased by the addition of the population of Selinus, 
and in the same year commenced the siege of it by the Romans, which 
lasted for 10 years, and was brought to a close by the peace at the 
conclusion of the First Punic War. Thenceforth it remained in the 
hands of the Romans, under whom it became the chief port for African 
commerce, and the residence of one of the 2 quaestors of Sicily. Nu- 
merous vases, sculptures, and coins, have been found on its site : the 
latter are of a Greek character, a circumstance which shows the 
predominating influence of the Greeks in Sicily. 

(3\ On tlieX. Coast. — Eryx. S. Ghdiano, was situated on the W. slope 
of the hill of the same name/ about 2 miles from the sea-coast. Both 



6x0at9 e-(, /aaAo/SoTOV 
^N'atetg 'A/cpayavrog ev- 

Suarov KoAcorar. Pyth. xii, 1. 

8 It seems to have been yet more famous for its palm-trees : — 

Teqiie datis linquo ventis. palmosa Selimis. ^En. iii. 705. 

Audax Hybla favis, palmisque arbiista Sehnus. — Sil. Ital. xiv. 200. 
^ The entrance to the harbour was dangerous from shoals and reefs : — 

Et vada dura lego saxis Libybeia ceecis. ^En. iii. 706. 

1 See note 7, p. 591. 



Chap. XXVIII. 



TOWXS. 



601 



the town and the famous temple of Venus appear to have been of 
Pelasgic origin, nor do the Greeks ever appear to have settled here. It 
passed into the hands of the Carthaginians, and remained under them 
imtil its capture by Pyrrhus in B.C. 278. It was destroyed by the 
Carthaginians in 260, and its inhabitants removed to Drepanum. It 
appears to have been partly rebuilt, and it was again the scene of opera- 
tions between the Romans and the Carthaginians in the Fnst Punic 
War. Drepanum, or Brepana, rraj;a«/, was situated about 6 miles 
from Eryx, immediately opposite to the ^^]gates. It derived its name 
from the promontory on which it stood, which resembled a sickle 
(dpeTrdj/T}) in shape. ^ It was founded by the Carthaginian general 
Hamilcar in B.C. 260, and was peopled with the inhabitants of Eryx; 
it was retained by Carthage until the end of the First Punic War, 
when it was besieged by Lutatius Catulus, and taken after the battle 
of the Agates in 2-4-1. Segesta, tlie Egesta or ^gesta of the Greeks, 
was situated on a hill about 6 miles from the sea-coast, and 3 miles • 
K.W. of Calatafimi. Ita origin was mythically ascribed to the Tro- 
jans,^ and it appears to have been neither a Greek nor a native Sicanian 
town. It was engaged in perpetual hostilities with the neighbouring 
tor\Ti of Selinus, and is historically famous as having given occasion to 
the Athenian expedition against Sicily. In 409 it was taken and des- 
troyed by the Carthaginians, was rebuilt, and captured in 307 by 
Agath: cles, who destroyed its citizens, changed its name to DicEeopolis, 
and peopled it vdth fugitives from all quarters. It was, ho^'ever, 
reoccupied by its old inhabitants, and fell under the power of the 
Carthaginians until 264, when it was taken by the Romans. Its site is 
marked by the ruins of a temple and theatre, the former of which is in 
a very perfect state, and is one of the most striking ruins in Sicily : it is 
of the Doric order, and has 6 columns in front and 14 on each side. 
Panomius, Palermo, stood on an extensive bay, now named the Gulf of 
Palerrno, about 50 miles 
from the W. extremity of 
the island. It was of Phoe- 
nician origin, and was origi- 
nally called Machanath '^a 

camp," but received its \W ^ 'E'^^^J I \ 
historical name from the 
Greeks, who named it from 
its spacious bay, Panormus, 
or '^all-port." The Car- 
thaginians made it one of Coin of Panormus. 
their chief naval stations, 

and, with the exception of a short time when Pyrrhus became master of 
it in 276, they held it until 254, when it was taken by the Romans. 
Under its walls the Carthaginians were defeated by C. Metellus in 
250. Under the Romans it became a flourishing town, and received 




2 Virgil makes it the scene of the death of Anchises : — 

Hinc Drepani me portus et illsetabilis ora 

Accipit. Hie, pelagi tot tempestatibus actus, 

Heu genitorem, omnis curte casiisque levamen, 

Amitto Anchisen. ^n- iii. 707. 

3 Tirgil attributes its foundation to Acestes and calls the town Acesta : — 

Urbem appellabunt permisso nomine Acestam. — ^T^n. v. 718. 
SiUus Italicus (xiv. 220) describes it as Trojana Acesta. 
ANC. GEOG. 2 D 



602 



SICILIA. 



Book n'. 



several special privileges. It also received colonies under Augustus, 
Vespasian, and Hadrian. The town consisted of an inner and outer 
city, each, with its separate inclosure of walls. Xumerous inscriptions 



and coins have been found on its site, 
distance E. -of Panormus, near Termini, 




Coin of Himera, 



Kim era was situated some 
It was founded by Chalcidians 
of Zancle, mixed with Sy- 
racusans, in B.C. 648. The 
earliest notice of it is in 
560, when it was under 
the power of Phalaris of 
Agrigentum. In 490 it re- 
ceived Scythes, the tyi^ant 
of Zancle, and shortly after 
itself became subject to a 
tyrant named Terillus, and 
it was at his invitation that 
the Carthaginians made 
their first great expedition into Sicily, which ended in their total defeat 
by Theron of Agrigentum and Gelon of Syracuse in 480. The town then 
became subject to Theron, who placed his son Thrasydseus in charge of 
it. In 476 a large number of disaffected citizens were put to death and 
exiled, and the town was replenished with Dorian settlers. On the 
death of Theron in 472 Himera became independent, and enjoyed a 
high state of prosperity until 408, when it was taken and destroyed by 
the Carthaginians. In 405 the surviving inhabitants founded a new 
town, named Thermae, from some hot springs ; this appears to have 
become an important town, and a Koman colony under Augustus. The 
baths were much frequented by the Piomans, and still exist under the 
name of Bagni di S. CaJogero. The old town was probably situated 
about 8 miles to the AV. at Torre di BonforneUo, where vases, bronzes, 
&c., have been foimd. Himera was the birth-place of the poet Stesi- 
chorus,^ and Thermae of the tyrant Agathocles. Mylae, Milazzo, was 
situated on a promontory, opposite to the Liparsean Islands. It was 
founded by Zanclaeans some time before B.C. 648, and always remained 
a dependency of Messana. In 427 it was attacked by the Athenians 
under Laches ; in 315 it was captured by Agathocles ; and in 270 it 
was the scene of the defeat of the ]\Iamertines by Hiero of Syracuse. 
It sank into insignificance under the Romans.^ The bay, which lies 
E. of the promontory, was the scene of the defeats of the Carthaginian 
fleet by Duilius in 260, and of the fleet of Sextus Pompeius by Agrippa 
in 36. Near Mylse stood a famous temple of Diana. ^ 

(4). Tn the J?i^er /or.— Centuripa, Centorhi, stood on a lofty hill, S.W. 
of Mount ^Etna, and appears in the first instance as a stronghold of the 
Siculi, and as generally preserving its independence, though occasioually 
under tyrants, and at one time subject to Agathocles. In the First 
Punic War it was taken by the Romans, and it became subsequently 
one of the most important cities of Sicily, being situated in the midst 
of a remarkably fertile corn-producing district. Hybla, surnamed 



Littora Thermarum, prisca dotata Camoena, 
Armavere suos, qua mcrgitur Kim era ponto 
^olio. 

^ Et justi quondam portus, nunc littore solo 

Subsidium infidmn fugientibus aeqaora, Mylee. 
^ Mille Thoantese sedes Phacelina Dianee, 



SiL. Ital. xiv. 232. 



Id. xiv. 201. 
Id. xiv. 260. 



Chap. XXVI 11. 



TO^XS. 



603 



Major, was situated S. of ^Etna^ and near the Svmsetlius, probably at 
Faterno. It was a city of the Siculi, and became in later times depen- 
dent on Catana. Its history is unimportant, and much confusion exists 
in the notices of this and of the other Hybla. Enna, or Henna, Castro 
Giovanni, was situated nearly in the centre of the island^ where it 
occupied a position of re- 
markable strength, on the 
level summit of a gigantic 
hill, the sides of which 
are precipitous. It was a 
Siculian town, and retained 
it-s independence until the 
time of Dionysius of Sy- 
racuse, who gained posses- 
sion of it by treachery. 
In 214 its citizens were 
massacred by the Komans, 
and in the Servile AVar in 13-i:-1.32 it became the head-quarters of the 
insurgents. Enna was celebrated in mythology as the place where Pluto 
carried off Proserpine it possessed a very famous temple of Ceres. 

Of the less important towns we may notice — (1 On the E. Coast — 
Callipolis, a colony of Xaxos, X, of Tauromenium, destroyed at an early 
period, probably by Hippocrates of Gela ; and Hel5runi, or Kelorus, at 
the mouth of a river of the same name,^ about 25 miles S. of Syracuse, of 
which it was a dependency, and probably a colony. Oji tlit S. Coast — 
Motya, between Lilybeeum and Drepanum, a Phoenician colony, captured 
by Dionysius of Syracuse in 397, after a desperate defence, but recovered 
by Himilco in 3 9 '3, who. however, removed its inhabitants to Lilybseum 
— Solus, or Soluntum, Solanto. about 12 miles east of Panormus, a 
Phoenician colony, and one of their last positions in the island, subse- 
quently in the hands of the Carthaginians, with whom it remained 
until the First Punic AVar — Ceplialoedium,^ Cefalu, E. of Himera^ origi- 



' This event is said to have taken place at a small lake, fringed with flowery 
meadows, and surroimded by lofty mountains, with a cavern near it, whence Pluto 
issued. The place is still shown, but the flowers hare disappeared. Ovid calls 
the lake Fergus ^see p. 592 . The myth is told at length in Jlet. v. 385-408, and 
more briefly by Silius Italicus : — 

Enna deum lucis sacras dedit ardua dextras. 

Hie specus, ingentem laxans telluris hiatum, 

Csecum iter ad manes tenebroso limite pandit. 

Qua novus ignotas Hymenteus venit in oras. 

Hac Stygius quondam, stimulante Cupidine, rector 

Ausus adire diem, mtestoque Acheronte relicto 

Egit in illicitas currum per inania terras. 

Tum rapta praeceps Enntea virgine fiexit 

Attonitos coE-li tIsu lucemque parentes 

In Styga rursus equos, et pr-aedam condidit umbris. — xiv. 233. 
^ This river, now the Abisso, stagnates about its mouth, but in its upper 
course is a brawling impetuous torrent : the following descriptions are equally 
correct of its different parts : — 

Exsupero preepingue solum stagnantis Helori. — iii- 698. 
"Cndce clamosus Helorus. Sil. Ital. xiv. 269. 

9 Queeque procelloso Cephaloedias ora profundo 
Caeruleis horret campis pascentia cete. In. xiv. 252. 

2 D 2 




Coin of Enna. 



604 



SICILIA. 



Book 1Y. 



nallv only a fortress on a lofty rock belonging to the Himerfeans. but 
afterwards a town, first noticed in 396, and captured by treachery by 
the Eomans in 254 — Halesa, or Alsesa, near Tusa, on the X. coast, a 
Siculian town, founded in B.C. 403 by citizens of Herbita and others, 
and under the Romans one of the chief towns of Sicily, until ruined 
by the exactions of Torres — Calacte,^ Caro/u'a, situated E. of Halesa, on 
a portion of the coast which, for its beauty and fertility, was named 
the fair coast," a name which was subsequently affixed to a town 
founded by Sicilians and others about B.C. 400 — Aluntium, San Marco, 
E. of Calacte, a place which suffered severely from the exactions of 
Yerres — Tyndaris, Tindaro. W. of ^lylee, founded by the elder Diony- 
sius in B.C. 395, and peopled with Messenians, the he ad- quarters of 
Agrippa in the war against Sextus Pompeius — and Abacaenum, between 
Tynclaris and Mylse, about 4 miles from the X. coast, a city of the 
Siculi, and at one time a place of importance, but from the time of 
Hiero insignificant. 

(2). In the Interior. — ^tna, at the S. foot of the mountain of the 
same name, originally a Siculian town with the name of Inessa, but 
aftei^ards occupied by the colonists whom Hiero had sent to Catana, 
and who changed its name to ^Etna ; it was a strongly situated place, 
vainly attacked by Laches in 426, seized by Dionysius in 403. and 
peopled by him with Campanian mercenaries, who held it till 339. 
Agyi'lum, S. Filippo cV Argiro, on the summit of a lofty hill, between 
Ceuturipa and Enna, a Siculian town, first noticed in B.C. 4^4 as the 
residence of a powerful prince, named Ag^-ris, under the Romans a 
place of wealth and importance from the fertility of its territory in 
corn, also known as the birth-place of the historian Diodorus Siciilus. 
Eng3riuii, Gangi Vdere, S. of Halesa, celebrated for its temple of the 
Magna Mater, which was plundered by Yerres. Halicyse, Salerai. 10 
miles S. of Segesta, a town which, in the First Punic War, joined the 
Romans at an early period, and was rewarded with immunity from 
taxes and otlier privileges. Entella, Bocca cVEntella, on the left bank 
of the Hypsas, said to have been founded by Acestes, first noticed in 
B.C. 404 as being seized by the Campanian mercenaries, and held by 
them until about 345, when the Carthaginians obtained jDosse^sion of 
it. Herbita, Xicosia, 10 miles X.W. of Agyrium, first noticed in b.c. 
445, as imder the rule of a tyrant named Archonides, who held out 
against Dionysius of Syracuse ; it is better known in connexion with 
the exactions of Yerres. Morgantia, S.^Y. of Catana, a Siculian town, 
first noticed in B.C. 459, as being taken by Ducetius, and repeatedly 
mentioned during the Second Punic AYar. Menaenum, Mineo. about 18 
miles W. of Leontini, a Siculian city, founded by Ducetius in B.C. 459, 
conquered by Dionysius in 396, and mentioned by Cicero as one of the 
floiu-ishing towns of Sicily at that time. Acrae, FaJazzoJo, on a lofty 
hill, 24 miles ^Y. of Syracuse, of which it was a colony, planted in b.c. 
t^63, and to which it was valuable as a military post. Casmenae, 
founded by Syracusans in b.c. 643. and noticed by HerodotiLS as the 
place whither the exiled Gamori retired. 

Off" the coast of Sicily lie two groups of islands— the Agates Tnsulae, 
off" the Yr. angle, containing three islands, named Hiera, -Egusa, and 
Pliorbantia, and historically famous for the victory obtained by Luta- 
tius Catulus over the Carthaginians in B.C. 241, which -put an end to 



1 Littu$ piscosa Calacte. 



SiL. Ital. xiv. 251. 



Chap. XXVIII. 



ISL^iXDS — HISTOEY. 



605 



the first Punic War.- : and tlie volcanic group Yariously named iEoliae. 
from the Homeric island .Eolus,^ Vulcamae or Hephsestiae, from their 
volcanic character/ and Lipareae, after Lipara, the largest of the group, 
a name which they still retain as the Lipari Isla/ids. There are 7 
larger and several smaller islands : of these, Eiera, VuJcano, the most 
southerly^ and Strongyle, StromhoU, the most northerly^ were active 
volcanoes : Lipara was the only one that possessed any considerable 
population, together with a town, founded by Dorians from Cnidus in 
B.C. 627, and a place of some historical importance : Didyme. Sidinaj 
derived its name from the tirin conical mountains on it : Phcenicusa, 
Fdisudi, from its palms {(poLuTKes) ; Ericiisa, Alicudi, from its heath 
{epeiKri), and Euonymus, Panaria, from the circumstance of its lying 
on the left TiO.nd, as one sailed from Li^^ara to Sicily. 

History. — The history of Sicily resolves itsc-lf very much into those 
of its several towns. These have been already related, but it may be 
useful to give a connected statement of the states v^hich held the pre- 
dominant power at different periods. During the 6th cent. B.C. Gela 
and Agrigentum were the most powerful cities. Syracuse first rose 
under Gelon in 485. and attained the ascendency over the Greek tov.-ns, 
both under him and under his successor Hiero. On the expulsion of 
Thrasybulus in 467, most of the towns adopted a democratic govern- 
ment, and from 461 to 4'j9 they retained their independence of Syracuse, 
and enjoyed the highest degree of prospericy. The Caithaginians, who 
had failed in their first endeavour to obtain a footin_^ in Sicily in B.C. 
480, were more successful in 409, when they took :Seiinus, Himera, 
and Agi'igentum, and estabhshed themselves firmly in the AY. of the 
island. To counteract this power, the Greek cities threw themselves 
more under the authority of Syracuse, which was raised t: y Dionysiur? I, 
to the sovereignty of all eastern Sicily. Internal di-sensious fallowed, 
and at length, by the aid of Timoleon in 343, the cities were restored to 
liberty. Again Syi'acuse became predominant under Agathocles from 
317 to 289. Agrigentum had now revived, and was the second town in 
Sicily. Under Hiero II. Syracuse was flourishing, and the other cities. 



2 His super, £evi 

Flore virens, avct Agates abolere, parentum 

Dedecus, ac Siculo demergere foedera ponto. Sil. Ital. i. 60. 
3 It was the fabled residence of ^olus, the god of the ^inds : — 

>'iniboriini in patriam, loca foeta furentibus Austris, 

^oliam venit. Hie vasto rex .Eolns antro 

Luctantes ventos tempestatesque sonoras 

Imperio premit, ac ^-inclis et carcere frsenat. 

Hli indignantes, magno cam murmure mentis, 

Circum claustra fremimt. Celsa sedet .Eolus arce, 

Sceptra tenens ; mollitque animos, et temperat iras. — ^En. i. 51. 
■* Or as being (according to the mythical account) the workshop of Vulcan : — 
Jam siccato nectare turgens 

Brachia A'ulcanus Lipartea nigra taber/ia. Jlw. xiii. 44. 

Insula Sicanium juxta latus .Eoliamque 

Erigitur Liparen, fumantibus ardua saxis : 

Qnam subter specus et Cyclopum exesa caminis 

Antra JEtnaea tonant, validique incudibu- ictus 

Auditi referunt gemitum, striduntque caverni- 

Stricturae Chalybum, et fornacibLis ignis anhelat ; 

Yulcani domus, et Yulcania nomine tellus. .E/i. viii. 416. 



606 



MELITA. 



Book IV. 



whicli adopted tlie side of Carthage in the First Punic War. were reduced 
by the Romans. In the Second Punic War, Svi'acuse fell in -12, and 
the whole island was reduced to the condition of a Roman province. 
It suffered severely from the Servile wars in l35-lo-2, and 103-100, 
from the exactions of Yerres, and subsequently from those of Sextus 
Pompeius. It was originally governed by a prtetor and two quaestors^ 
but it was placed by Augustus under a proconsul. 

§ 4. Melita, Malta^ lies about 50 miles S. of Sicily: it is about 
17 miles long, and 9i broad, and is separated only by a narrow 

channel from the island 
of Gaulos, Gozo. Melita 
was conveniently situated 
as a trading station, and 
was from an early period 
occupied by a Phoenician 
settlement. It passed into 
the hands of the Cartha- 
ginians, who held it until 
the Second Punic War, 
when it was taken by Tib. Sempronius, in B.C. 218. It was famous 
for its wool,^ and for the manufacture of a fine cotton fabric, 
known at Pome as " vestis ^Melitensis." It derives its chief interest 
from the shipwreck of St. Paul on its coasts (Acts, xxviii.) : the 
memory of this event is preserved in the title of St. PauTs Bo.y^ on 
the X.E. coast of the island. W^. of Melita lies the small and barren 
isle of Cosyra,^ Faniello/ria. 

§ 5. The large island of Sardinia, the Sardo of the Greeks, lies S. 
of Corsica, and X.W. of Sicily, and is distant only 120 geographical 
miles from the coast of Africa. Its form resembles an oblong paral- 
lelogram:' its length is above 1-iO geographical miles, and its 
avera2;e breadth about 60. It is traversed bv a chain of moimtains 




Coiu of Melita, 



5 Telaque superba 

Lanigera M elite. Sil. Ital. xir. 250. 

6 Ovid contrasts tlie barrenness of Cos^Ta vrith tlie fertility of Malta : the 
contrast does not hold good as regards the latter island, Aviiich is rocky and 
dry :— ^ ^ 

Fertilis est Melite, sterili vicina CosyrcB 

Insula, quam Libyci verberat imda freti. Fast. iii. 567. 

' It resembles somevrhat the print of a man's foot, and hence was named 
Ichnusa by the Greeks : — 

Insula, fluctisono circnmvallata profuudo, 
Castigatur aquis, compressaqiie gurgite terras 
Enormes cohibet niido? sub imagine planter. 
Inde Ichnusa prius Grails memorata colonis, 
INIox Libyci Sardus generoso sanguine Mens 
Herculis, ex sese mutavit nomina ternp. 
Affluxere etiam, et sedes posuere coactas 

Dispersi pelago, post eruta Pergama, Teucri. Sil. Ital. xii. 35 5. 



Chap. XXYIII. 



SAEDIXIA. 



607 



fromX. to S., a xjortionof whicli in the X. vras named Insani Montes, 
from the violent storms which sailors encountered off that part of 
the island. There are several plains of considerahle extent in the 
S. and parts. The rivers are small, bnt numerous : the chief are 
the Tnyrsus, Tirso, and the Sacer Fluvius, B, di Paljillonis, on the W. 
coast; the Termus, Temo, on the X.; and the Ceedrius, Fiume del 
Grosei, on the E. coast. The climate of Sardinia has been in all 
ages unhealthy :^ the soil vas fertile,^ and yielded large quantities of 
coru, and among the s^jecial productions of the island may he 
noticed a poisonous plant of extreme bitterness,^ which, from the 
contortions it produced in the countenance, gave rise to the expres- 
sion " Sardonicus risus." Wool vas abimdantj and Sardinia also 
possessed mines of silver and iron. 

J 6. The population of Sardinia vras of a very mixed character : 
three native tribes are noticed — the lolai or lolaenses, who (ac- 
cording to tradition) were of Trojan origin,^ but more probably 
were Tyrrhenians ; the Balari, probably of Iberian extraction ; and 
the Corsi, from the neighbouring island of Corsica. The Greeks were 
acquainted with the island, and some of the towns have Greek 
names, but we have no record of their ever having settled on it. 
The Phcenicians, and in later times the Carthaginians, had stations 
on it. The Sardinians enjoyed an ill fame for general worthlessness 
of character. The towns were but few : the most important wei-e 
foimded b}^ the Phoenicians, viz. Caralis, Xora, and Sulci, Of the 
antiquities of the country we may notice the peculiar towers named 
Xuraglie, built very massively, and containing one or two vaulted 
chambers. The number of these is very great, but both their use 
and their origin is unknown. 

Caralis, Cagliari, was situated on the S. coast, and was said to have 
been founded by the Carthaginians. From the time of the Second 
Punic "War, it became the chief naval station of the Romans, and the 
residence of the praetor. There are remains of an amphitheatre and of 
an aqueduct. Sulci was situated on a small island in the S.W. corner 
of the island. It was undoubtedly founded by the Carthaginians, and 
it reached a high degi^ee of prosperity^ both under them and under the 
Romans. NeapoKs, Xahui, on the W. coast, would seem, from its name, 
to have been founded by the Greeks. Olbia, Terranova. was situated 
near the X.E. extremity of the island. Its name also is Greek, and 
tradition assigned to it a Greek origin. It was the ordmary place of 
communication with Italy, and hence rose to importance under the 
Romans. In 259 it was the scene of warlike operations between the 

8 Silius Italicus describes it as — 



Tristis ccelo et multa vitiata paliide. 



xii. 371. 



Opimas 



Sardinise segetes feraeis. 
Immo ego Sardois videar tibi amarior herbis. 



HoR, Carfn. i. 31, 3. 
ViEG. Fcl. rii. 41. 



2 See note ' above. 



608 



COESICxl, 



BOOE" IV. 



Romans under Cornelius and the Carthaginians. We may further 
notice as considerable tovnis — Nora, on a promontory, about 20 miles S. 
of Caralis, now named Capo di Pula, where are remains of a theatre, 
an aqueduct, and quays — Tharras, on a promontory on the W. coast 
now named Capo del Sevo. a Phoenician settlement— Comus, on the W. 
coast, about 16 miles X. of Tharras, the head-quarters of the revolted 
Sardinian tribes in the Second Punic War — Bosa, Bosa, at the mouth of 
the Temus— Turris Libyssonis, Podo Torres, a Roman colony on the 
X. coast — and Tibula, near the extreme X. point, the port of com- 
munication with Corsica. 

History. — The Carthaginians conquered Sardinia about 500-480 B.C., 
and it was held by them until 233, when the Romans got possession of 
it. In 215 the natives rose in rebellion, and again a portion of them in 
181 and in 114; but on all these occasions they were easily put down, 
Sardinia was united with Corsica as a province under a proconsul. It 
became a place of exile for political offenders under the Empire. 

§ 7. Corsica (the Cyrnus of the Greeks) lies N. of Sardinia, from 
which it is separated only by a narrow strait. Its size was unduly 
magnified by the ancients : its length is really 126 miles, and its 
greatest breadth about 51. Almost the whole of it is occupied by 
lofty and rugged mountains, whose sides were clothed with the 
finest timber. The central mass was named Aureus Mons, now 
Jdonfe jRofondo. The principal rivers are the Rhotanus, Tavignano, 
and the Tuola, Golo, which enter the sea on the E. coast. Honey 
and wax^ are noted among the productions of the island, but the 
former had a very bitter flavour,^ from the number of yew trees 
on the island. The earliest inhabitants were probably Ligurians : 
Greeks settled at Alalia, in B.C. 564 ; and subsequently Tyrrhenians 
and Carthaginians. The Corsi were reputed a wild and barbarous 
race ; they lived chiefly on the produce of their herds. The most 
important towns were ]\rariana and Aleria. 

Mariana stood on the E. coast, and was founded by and named after 
C. Marius : it probably occupied the site of an earlier town Xicaea, 
whose name bespeaks a Greek origin. Aleria (the Alalia of the 
Greeks) also stood on the E. coast, near the mouth of the Rhotanus. 
It was founded by Phocgeans, in 564, but was abandoned by them about 
540, in consequence of a severe defeat they sustained from the Tyrrhe- 
nians and Carthaginians. It was captm^ed by the Romans under 
L. Scipio, in 259, and subsequently received a colony under Sulla. 

History. — Corsica, like Sardinia, was under the power of Carthage at 
the time of the First Punic "War. The capture of Aleria was followed 
by the nominal subjection of the island to Rome. It was not, however, 
until the time of Sulla that it was really brought into a state of peace- 
able submission. It was made a place of banishment by the Romans, 
and, among others, Seneca spent some time there. 



3 Ite Mnc dilficiles, funebria lig-na, tabellcE : 

Tuque negaturis cera refeita iiotis. 
Quam, puto, de longte collectam flore cicutJE 

IMelle sub infami Corsica misit apis. Or. A?n. i. 12, 7. 

Sic tua Cynieas fu giant examiua taxos. Yirg. Hcl. ix. 30. 



Eemains of the Great Theatre, Sagnntum, Spain. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

HISPAXIA. 

§ 1. Boundaries. § 2. Mountains. § 3. Rivers. § 4. Bays and Pro- 
montories. § 5. Climate and Productions. § 6, Inhabitants. § 7. 
Divisions. I. Bxtica. § 8. Boundaries, &c. § 9. Inhabitants, Towns, 
&c. II. LusiTANiA. §10. Boundaries; Rivers. §11. Inhabitants; 
To\vns. III. Tarraconensis. §1-. Boundaries ; Rivers. § 13. 
Tribes and To^^'ns on the ^lediterranean. § 14. Tribes and Towns 
near the Pyrenees. § 15. Tribes on the X. Coast. § 16. Tribes and 
Towns of the Interior ; Islands ; History. 

§ 1. Hispania, Spain, has been already noticed as the most 
westerly of the three southern peninsulas of the continent of 
Europe. It is bounded on the E. and S.E. by the Mare Internum, 
on the S.W. and W. by that portion of the Atlantic Ocean wdrich 
was called Oceanus Gaditanus, and on the X. by the Mare Can- 
tabricum, Bay of Biscay, and the Pyrena3i Montes, which stretch 
across the greater portion of the isthmus, connecting it with the 
continent. Its form is neither a quadrangle, as Strabo supposed, 
nor yet a triangle, as others describe it, but a trapezium. It lies 
between 36^ 1' and 43^ 4o X. lat., and between 3^ 20' E. and 
9"^ 21' W. long., its greatest length from X. to S. being about 460 

2 D 3 



610 



HISPAXIA. 



Book IV. 



miles, its greatest breadth, from E. to AV. about 570, and its area, 
including the Balearic Isles, about 171,300 square miles. The 
greater part of the peninsula is an elevated table-land, sustained by 
lofty mountain ranges, sloping down gradually to the W. coast, and 
terminated eastwards by the ranges which bound the valley of the 
Iberus. 

Names. — The name '^Hispania" came into use when the Eomans 
became connected with the country : its original form was Span, or 
Sapan, supposed to be derived from a Phoenician root signifying 
^' rabbit," in reference to the number of those animals in the country: 
it has also been derived from the Basque Ezpana, ^'margin/' in reference 
to its position on the shores of the ocean. The Greeks termed it 
'^Iberia/' from the river Iberus, and ^^Hesperia/' as the most westerly 
portion of the known world, to which the Latins added the epithet 
^'Ultima." The interior of the country was occasionally termed 
'^Celtica" from its Celtic population ; and the S. portion, outside the 
straits^ ^^Tartessis," the same as the scriptural Tarshish. The ethnic 
forms were ^^Iber," and in the plural ^^Iberes/' or "Iberi," and 
^^Hispanus/^ or ^^Spanus:" the adjective forms were ^^Ibericus/' 

Iberus," or Iberiacus/' and Hispaniensis." 

§ 2. The chief mountain range is the Pyrenaei Montes, already 
described as crossing the isthmus between the Mediterranean Sea 
and the Bay of Biscay. The great table-land of Spain is bounded 
on the K. by the continuations of the Pyrenean range, under the 
names of Vasconum Saltus and Vindius Ms. ; on the E. by a range 
which strikes off from the eastern extremity of the latter towards 
the S.E. and S., under the names of Idubeda, Sierras de Oca and 
de Lorenzo., and Orospeda or Ortospeda, Sierra Molina ; on the S. 
by the Marianus Ms., Sierra Morena ; while towards the W. it sinks 
dov/n gradually towards the Atlantic. The table-land itself is crossed 
by two chains which spring out of Idubeda, and run towards the 
S.W., neither" of which received specific names in ancient geography, 
with the exception of the W. portion of the northerly one, which 
was called Herminius, Sierra de Estrella. An important range, now 
Sierra Nevada, runs parallel to the Mediterranean Sea, portions of 
which were named Solorius and Ilipula. This was connected with 
Orrospeda by cross ranges, named Castulonensis Saltus and Argen- 
tarius, which closed in the head of the valley of the Ba3tis. 

§ 3. The great rivers of Spain have their basins clearly defined by 
the chains just described — the Iberus, Ehro, draining the large tri- 
angular space enclosed by the Pyrenees on the N". and Idubeda on 
the W., and opening out to the Mediterranean Sea on the ScE. ; the 
Baetis, G-uadalquivir, between the ranges of Ilipula and Marianus ; 
the Anas, CTuadiana, between Marianus and the southerly of the two 
ranges that cross the table-land ; the Tagns, between the two central 
ranges and the Durius, Bouro, between the northern one and Ms. 



Chap. XXIX. PHYSICAL FEATUEES — IXHABITAXTS. 



611 



Yindius. Of these rivers the three hast belong mainly to the central 
table-land, the two first to the surrounding district. The valleys of 
the Iberiis and Ba?tis, together with the intervening maritime dis- 
trict, were the most important portions of the peninsula in ancient 
times, that of the Iberus lying conveniently open to the Mediter- 
ranean, and that of the Ba^tis being so enclosed with mountain ranges 
as t-o be almost a distinct country. 

§ 4. The line of coast jiresents the following promontories and 
bays :— Pyrenes or Veneris Prom., C, Creus, the E. extremity of the 
Pyi'enean range; Dianium, C. St. JI'Artin, which forms the S. ex-- 
tremity of the Sucronensis Sinus, G. of Valencia ; Satumi Prom., C. de 
Palos, which encloses on the S., as Dianium on the X., the Illicitanus 
Sinus, B. of Alicante : Charidemi Prom., C. de Gata^ betv^een which 
and Saturni lies the Massienus Sinus; Calpe, Gihrrjltar, at the E. 
end of the Fretum G-aditanum, Straits of GilrraJtar \ Junonis Prom., 
C, Trafalgar^ outside the "\Y. entrance of the Straits ; Cuneus, C. de 
Santa Maria, and near it Sacrum Prom., C. St. Vincent, at the S.W. 
extremity of the peninsula : Barbarium Prom., C. EspicneJ, and 
Magnum Prom., C. da Boca, respectively S. and X^. of the estuary 
of the Tagus : Celticum or Nerium Prom., C. d^ FinisUrr^, at the 
X.W. extremity ; and Com or ^Trileucum Prom., (J, Oriegad, at 
the extreme X. 

§ 5. The climate of Spain varies with the varying altitude of the 
districts. In the central table-land the cold is vt-rv st- vere for a con- 
siderable portion of the year ; the southern maritime districts have 
an almost tropical heat. Equally various are the soil and produc- 
tions : while large portions of the centre are barren, and others only 
adapted for hardy productions, such as wheat, the valleys of Ba?tica 
are suited to the growth of the palm-tree and C'ther tropical plants. 
The latter region was therefore most attractive for early culoni- 
zation : it prodticed corn, wine, oil, and figs, in abundance. Lusi- 
tania was famed for its fine-wooled sheep ; Celtiberia f ^r its asses : 
the fields of Carthago Xova and other plains for its spartuni, <:'Ut <A 
which cordage was made; and Cantabria for its pigs. The most 
valuable productions, however, were minerals : silver was abundant, 
and one of the mountains we have noticed, Argentarius, was named 
after its valuable mines of this metal: tin was found in Lusitania, 
Gallaecia, and Ba^tica ; lead in Saltus Castulonensis ; iron and copper 
in many places, the latter especially at Cotin£e. 

§ 6. The population of Spain consisted mainly of Iberians, the 
progenitors of the modern Basques ; another very important, though 
less numerous element was supplied by the Celts. These two 
coalesced to a certahi extent, and formed a mixed race named Celt- 
iberian, which occupied the centre of the country as well as parts of 
Lusitania and of the X. coast. In other parts they lived distinct — 



612 



HISPAXIA. 



Book IV. 



the Iberians in the Pyrenees and along the coast-districts, the Celts 
on both sides of the Anas and in the extreme N.W. of the peninsnla 
about Prom. Xerinm. Lastly, there was a large admixture of Phoe- 
nicians in Bfetica; colonies were established on the S.E. coast by 
the Carthaginians, and by various Greek states ; and at a later period 
there was also a large influx of Eomans. The tribes were very 
numerous, and differed materially in character and acquirements. 
The Cantabrians and the peoples of the X. coast were the wildest 
and rudest ; the Celtiberians had a higher character, but were hardly 
more civilized; the Yacc^ei were (under the Romans at least) highly 
civilized ; while the Turdetani cultivated science, and had a litera- 
ture of their own. In some respects the Iberians ^ contrasted favour- 
ably with the civilized nations of antiquity, particularly in the 
higher position assigned to women in their social system ; but on the 
other hand they were cunning, mischievous, and dishonest. Under 
the Piomans the coimtry was thoroughly civilized : many very con- 
siderable colonies were planted, and were adorned with magnificent 
productions of Roman architecture, some of which remain to this 
day, while vast numbers have been barbarously demolished for the 
sake of the materials alone. Roads were constructed through every 
part of the country, and so completely was the Roman influence in- 
fused into it, that in Ba^tica the natives had forgotten even their 
own language. The degree of culture may to a certain extent be 
inferred by the numerous illustrious men who were born in Spain — 
the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian ; the poets Silius Italicus, Lucan, 
Martial, Prudentius, and Columella ; the two Senecas ; the geo- 
grapher Pomponius Mela ; the rhetorician Quinctilian ; and many 
others. 

§ 7. The earliest political division of Spain dates from the time 
when the Romans gained a footing in the country. In B.C. 205 it 
was divided into two parts — Citerior and Ulterior, respectively E. 
and W. of the river Iberus, which formed the original line of de- 
marcation between the Roman and Carthaginian possessions. Other 
designations were occasionally employed, as Celtiberia for the E. and 
Iberia for the W. by Polybius, As the Roman conquests advanced 
into the country, Citerior advanced with them until it embraced 
the whole country as far as the borders of the later Ba^tica. A new 
arrangement was introduced by Augustus by the division of Ulterior 
into two provinces, named Isetica and Lusitania, and the alteration 
of the name Citerior into Tarraconensis. He further subdivided the 



1 The general bearing of tlie ancient Iberian was strikingly similar to that of 
the modern Spaniard; lie was temperate and sober, indolent and yet spirited, 
successful in guerilla warfare, and stubborn to the last degree in the defence of 
towns, but deficient in the higher military qualities requisite for pitched battles 
or other operations in the field. 



Chap. XXIX. 



B^TICA. 



613 



whole country into 14 conventus juridici. Constantino divided 
Spain, with its islands and part of Mauretania, into 7 provinces. 
We shall adopt the division of Augustus in the following pages. 

I. B^TICA. 

§ 8. Baetica was bounded on the X. and W. by the river Anas, 
on the E. by a line drawn from the upper valley of the Anas across 
that of the Ba3tis to the sea near Prom. Charidemi, and on the S. by 
the sea : it thus corresponds to the modern Andalusia. It derived 
its name from the chief river in the district, the Baetis,^ Guadal- 
quivir, which rises in Mt. Argentarius near Castulo, and flows to- 
wards the S.W., reaching the sea a little W. of Gades ; it receives 
only one important tributary, the Singulis, Xenil, which rises in 
Ilipula, and flows towards the jln.W., joining it in its mid-course. 
The Ba^tis was navigable for small boats as far as Corduba, and for 
light vessels as far as Hispalis. Baetica was the portion of Spain 
which, from its fertility and its contiguity to the Straits of Gibraltar, 
l^ecame first known to the commercial nations of antiquity. The 
Phoenicians carried on an extensive trade with Tartessus,^ the 
Tarshish of Scripture, which appears to have been the name both 
of a town and of a district W. of the Columns of Hercules about the 
mouth of the B^tis ; they planted the colonies of Gades and Carteia 
there. It was visited by Samians about B.C. 650, and by Phocseans 
in 630 ; and at this period its trade extended to Britain and Africa. 

§ 9. The principal tribes were — the Bastuli on the S. coast, from 
Calpe on the W. to the E. border ; the Turduli and Turdetani, two 
tribes closely connected together, occuiDying the lower valley of the 
Baetis ; and a tribe of Celtici in the district of Beeturia, which lay 
between Ms. Marianus and the Anas. Ba?,tica possessed some of the 
finest towns of Spain : Cordiiba, on the right bank of the Ba^tis, 
ranked as its capital, being the residence of the Eoman governor, 



2 The indigenous name was Certis or Perces ; the early Greeks described it as 
the Tartessus : the modern Arabic name signifies the " Great Pviver." The name 
was used by the poets as eqiiiyalent to the country which it watered : — 
Bsetis oliTifera crinem redimite corona ; 

Aurea qui nitidis vellera tingis aquis. Mart. xii. 100. 

An Tartessiacus stabuli nutritor Iberi 

Baetis in Hesperia te quoque lavit aqua? Id. viii. 28. 

3 Tartessus became a synonymous term for the West among the Latin 
poets, e. g. : — 

Presserat occiduus Tartessia littora Phoebus. Ov. Met, xiv. 416. 
Armat Tartessos, stabulanti conscia Phoebo. Sil. Ital. iii. 399. 

And sometimes for Spain : — 

meoque subibat 

Germano devexa jugum Tartessia tellus. Id. xiii. 673. 



614 



HISPAXIA. — B JETICA. 



Book IY. 



and tlie seat of a conventus. Three other towns were the seats of 
conventus, viz. Gades on the sea-coast, Astigi on the Singulis, and 
Hispalis on the left bank of the Bsetis. The whole number of towns 
under the Eomans was 175, of which 9 were colonice, 8 nmnicipia^ 
29 endowed with the Latin franchise, 6 free, 3 allied, and 120 sti- 
pendiaria, 

(1.) Towns along the Coast from W. to E. — Onoba GEstuaria stood 
near the mouth of the Luxia and near an island named Herculis Insula, 
Saltes : it had a mint. There are a few Roman remains of it, particu- 
larly an aqueduct, at Huelva . Asta* stood on an estuary of the Gulf of 
Cadiz, about 12 miles from Gades: it was the ancient seat of congress 
for the people of that neighbourhood, and, under the Romans, became 
a colony: its ruins are called 3Iesa de Asta. Gades,^ Cadiz, one of the 
most famous cities of Spain, was situated on a small island now named 
Isla de Leon, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait, the 
River of St. Peter, over which a bridge was thrown. It was founded 
by the Phoenicians at a very early period. Originally the town, which 
was very small, stood on the W. side of the island : under the Romans 
it was enlarged by the building of the "l^ew City," and, even then, 
it did not exceed 2 J miles in circumference, as the more wealthy 
citizens had their villas outside the towTi, either on the mainland or 
on the isle of Trocadero. The territory of the city was but small, its 
gi'eat wealth and power being wholly derived from its commerce. It 
entered into alliance with Rome in B.C. 212, and this alliance was 
confirmed in 78: it was visited by Julius Caesar in 49, when the 
civitas of Rome was conferred upon its citizens. Under Augustus it 
became a municipium. Gades possessed famous temples of the Phoeni- 
cian Saturn and Hercules, the latter of which stood on St. Peter s Isle, 
and had an oracle. The wealth of Gades induced habits of luxuiy 
and immorality.^ Belon stood at the mouth of the river Barbate, W. 
of Tar if a, and was the usual place of embarkation for Tingis on the 
opposite side of the straits : its ruins are at Belonia. Carteia ^ was an 



* The root Ast, which appears in this and Tarious other Spanish names, is sup- 
posed to mean "hill-fortress." 

^ The Phoenician form of the name was Gadir, or, with the article, Hagadir, 
-which is the usual inscription on the coins. The Greeks called it Gadeira. Its 
meaning is thus exijlained by Arienus : — 

Gaddir hie est oppidum : 
Nam Punicorum lingua con septum locum 

Gaddir vocahat. Or a Marit. 267. 

The Greeks and Romans regarded it as the extreme Vs. point of the world : — 
Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque 
Auroram et Gangem. Jrv. x. 1. 

6 Forsitan exspectes, ut Gaditana canoro 

Incipiat prurire choro. In. xi. 162. 

Gaudent jocosee Canio suo Gades : 

Emerita Deciano meo. Mart. i. 62. 

Kec de Gadibus improbis puellse 

Yibrabunt. Id. t. 78. 

7 Carteia is probably identical with Calpe, which was one of the Greek forms of 
the name the others being Carpia, Cmyeia, Calpia ; it may also be identical with 
Tartessus , which was sometimes described as Carpessus. The same root lies at 



Chap. XXTX. 



615 



ancient Phoenician town, situated on the Bay of Gibraltar, at Bocadilloy 
about half way between Algesiras and Gibraltar, where the remains of 
an amphitheatre still exist. In the Punic War it was an imjDortant 
naval station, and the scene of a sea-fight in which Lselius defeated 
Adherbal, in B.C. 206: in 171 it became a colony, and was peopled with 
the offspring of Roman soldiers and Spanish women. Cn. Pompeius 
took refuge there after his defeat at 3Iimda. Malaca, Malaga, was an 
important town, situated on a river of the same name, now the Giiadal- 
medina, E. of Calpe : it was probably of Phoenician origin : under the 
Romans it became a feeder ata civitas and had extensive establishments 
for salting fish. 

(2.) Toicns in the Interior. — Illiturgis was situated on a steep rock 
on the X. side of the Baetis, near Andujar. In the Second Punic War 
it joiqed the Romans, and was twice besieged by the Carthaginians : it 
afterwards revolted, and was stormed and destroyed by Publiu,? Scipio 
in B.C. 206, and again in 196. Under the Roman empire it was a 
considerable town with the surname of Forum Julium. Munda pro- 
bably stood, not on the site of the present Monda, but near Martos to 
the S.E. of Corduba, where are the remains of an ancient town: it 
was the scene of two great battles, the first in B.C. 216, when Cn. 
Scipio defeated the Carthaginians,^ the second in 45, when Julius Csesar 
defeated the sons of Pompey. Astigi, Ec-ija, stood cn the plain S. of 
the Bsetis. Though a considerable town, it possesses no historical asso- 
ciations. Hispalis,^ Seville, stood on the left bank of the Baetis, and 
from its position gradually rose to the highest eminence, being styled 
metropolis by Ptolemy : as a Roman colony it bore the titles of Julia 
Romula and Colonia Romulensis. Italica, Old Seville, on the opposite 
side of the river, was founded by Scipio Africanus, in B.C. 207, as a 
settlement for his disabled veterans : it was a rnunicipium, and the 
native place of the Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius, and^ 
as some say, of the poet Silius Italicus : its inhabitants migi-ated to 
Seville in the Middle Ages : the rains of an amphitheatre and of some 
reservoirs alone remain. Sisapon, Almaden, was the chief town in 
B^eturia, and derived its importance from its silver mines and veins of 
cinnabar. Corduba, Cordova, on the right bank of the Baetis,^ is said 
to have been foimded by Marcellus, who made it his head-quarters in 
the Celtiberian War. Its population was a mixture of Romans and 
natives, and it was the first Roman colony in those parts : it suffered 
severely in the great Civil War, and was taken by C^sar in B.C. 45, 
when 22,t)00 of its inhabitants were slaughtered. It became the 
capital of the province,^ and had the surname of Patricia from the 



the bottom of all these words, and appears in the Phoenician name of Hercules, 
Mel-Carth. 

8 Poeni saturentur sanguine manes ; 

Ultima funesta concurrant praelia Munda. Luc. i. 39. 

Xon Uticse Libye clades, Hispania Mundae ^ 
Plesset. ' Id. vi. 306. 

9 The tide reached up to Hispalis : — 

Et celebre Oceano atque alternis Eestibus Hispal. — Sil. It-^l. iii. 392. 
^ In Tartessiacis domus est notissima terris 

Qua dives placidum Corduba Bee tin amat. Mart. ix. 62. 
2 The bright colour of the wool in this neighbourhood is often noticed : — 

Uncto Corduba loetior Venafro, 

Histra nec minus absoluta testa. 



616 



HISPAXIA, 



LUSITANIA. 



Book IV. 



number of patricians among its colonists. It was also tlie birthplace 
of Lucan and the two Senecas.^ 

We may further briefly notice — Illiberis, the original of Granada, 
noticed by Hecateeus under the form of Elibyrge; TJrso, Osuna, in the 
mountains S.E. of Hispalis^ the last resort of the Pompeians, and a 
Roman colony with the name Genua Urbanorum; Carmo, Carniona, a 
strongly-fortified town N-E. of Hispalis, one of the head-quarters of the 
rebellion in BEeturia, B.C. 197, and in the Julian Civil 'War described as 
the strongest city in Hispania Ulterior : Astapa, in an open plain on the 
S. margin of the valley of the Ba3tis, celebrated for its devoted attach- 
ment to the Carthaginians, and for the consequent self-destruction of 
its inhabitants when besieged by the Romans in the Second Punic 
War: Aeinipo, about 6 miles N". of Bonda, worthy of notice for the 
ruins of an aqueduct and theatre on its site ; Aurinx, or Oringis, near 
Munda, the head-quarters of Hasdrubal in B.C. 207, and also wealthy 
from its silver-mines and the fertility of its territory ; Calentum, 
Cazalla, famous for the manufacture of a verj^ light kind of tile; 
Ilipa, on the right bank of the Baetis, with great silver-mines in its 
neighbourhood, and just at the point where the river ceased to be 
navigable for vessels : its ruins are near Pefiaflor ; and Intibili, near Illi- 
turgis, the scene of a victory gained by the Romans over the Cartha- 
ginians in the Second Punic War. 

II. LUSIT^NIA. 

§ 10. Lusitania was boiiDded on the W. and S. b}" the Atlantic 
Ocean, on the N. by the river Durius, and on the E. by the Anas 
as far as above Metellinnm, and by a line drawn thence to the 
Durius, at a point below the jnnction of the river Pisoraca. It 
corresponds generally to the kingdom of Portugal, but while on the 
one hand it was less extensive than that kingdom in the iST. (for 
Portugal extends to the Minho), it was more extensive towards the 
E., and included the N. part of Spanish PJstremadura, and the S. 
part of Leon. The country is generally lofty and rugged on the 
E. side, but more level as it approaches the sea. It is divided into 
two portions by the range of Herminius, w^hich separates the basins 
of the Tagus and Durius. The chief rivers are the Tagus,"^ ^vhich 



Albi quae superas oves Galesi, 
Nullo murice, nec cruore mendax, 

Sed tinctis gregibus colore vivo. Mart. xii. 64. 

Qua dives placidum Corduba Baetin amat ; 
Yellera nativo pallent ubi flava metello, 

Et linit Hesperium bractea viva pecus. Id. ix. 62. 

3 Duosque Senecas unicumque Lucanum 

Facunda loquitur Corduba. Id. i. 62. 

It was famed for its fish and oysters : — 
Sed qusecunque tamen feretur illic 
Fiscosi calamo Tagi notata 

Macrum pagina nostra nominabit. Id. x. 78. 

Likewise for its gold sand, of ^vbicb at the present time the quantity is very 
small : — 



Chap. XXIX. 



POPULATION— TOWNS. 



617 



falls into the ocean near Olisipo ; the Durius, Bouro, on the IST. 
Ijorder ; and the smaller streams of the Callipus, Sadao, S.E. of the 
Tagns, and Vacua, Vouga, between the Tagus and Dmins. 

§ 11. Liisitania was occupied by five chief tribes — the Lusitani 
on the W. coast, between the Tagiis and Durius ; the Vettones, E. of 
them, between the Durius and Anas; the Turduli Veteres, on the 
banks of the Anas ; the Turdetani, between the lower course of the 
Anas and the S. and W. coasts ; and the Celtici in various positions, 
chiefly S.E. of the Lower Tagus, and on the S. coast in the district 
named Cuneus, where they bore the distinctive name of Conii. Of 
the towns we have not much information ; Olisipo, Lisbon, was 
the old capital of the Lusitani, and Emerlta Augusta, in the S.E. of 
the province, the later capital of the Eomans, while Pax Julia, near 
the Callipus, and Scalabis on the Tagus, were, with Emerita, the 
seats of the three conveiitus into which the province was divided. 
The total number of towns was 46, of which 5 were colonke, 1 a 
municipium, 3 with the Latin franchise, and 37 stiioendiaria, 

T 010118 from S. to N. — Balsa, Tavira, stood on the coast W. of the 
Anas, and was a municipium, with the title of Felix. Myrtilis, ^lertola, 
on the river Anas, had the jus Latii, with the surname of Julia. Pax 
Julia, Beja, lay on a hill to the N., and was a Eoman colony, and the 
seat of a conventus : it was probably the same as Pax Augusta. Salacia, 
Alacer do Sal, to the N.W., was celebrated for its manufacture of fine 
woollen cloths. Ebora was an important town and a municipium, with 
the surname of Liberalitas Julia : there are fine ruins at Evora, especially 
of an aqueduct and a temple of Diana. Augusta Emerita, Merida, on 
the Anas,^ was built, in B.C. 23, by Publius Carisius, the legate of 
Augustus, and was colonized with the veterans of the 5th and 10th 
legions. It was a colonia from the first, and had also i\iQ jus Itcdicum,, 
was the residence of the praetor, and the seat of a conventus. The 
ruins of the town are magnificent ; the circus is nearly perfect ; the 
great aqueduct is one of the grandest remains of antiquity in the 
world, and the old Eoman bridge remained uninjured until A.n. 
1812, when some of the arches were blown up : in respect to its ruins it 
has been termed the Eome of Spain." Meteliinum, 3IedeUin, was 
higher up the Anas : the modern town stands on the S. side of the 
river, and would thus have fallen within the limits of Beetica ; it was a 
colonia. Olisipo, Lishon, stood on the right bank of the Tagus, near its 



Cedat et auriferi ripa beata Tagi. Ov. Am. i. 15, 34. 

Tanti tibi non sit opaci 
Omnis arena Tagi, quodque iii mare Yolvitur aurum. — Juv. ill. 54. 
JEstus serenos aureo franges Tago, 

Obscurus urabris arborum. Mart. i. 50. 

5 Clara mihi post has memorabere, nomen Iberum, 
Emerita sequoreus quam prseterlabitur amnis, 
Submittit cui tota suos Hispania fasces. 
Corduba non, non arce potens tibi Tarraco certat 
Quseque sinu pelagi jactat se Bracara dives. 

AusoKius, 07-d. Noh. Urh. ix. 



618 



HISPAXIA.— TARRACOXEXSIS. 



Book IV. 



moTith : its territory was celebrated for a remai^kably swift breed of 
horses : the narae is also given as Ulyssipo^ from a mistaken idea that 
the legend of a town founded by Ulysses applied to it. Norba Csesarea, 
Alcantara, lay on the left bank of the Tagus. X.TV. of Emerita : a 
magnificent bridge over the river, built by Trajan, still remains. 
Scalabis, Santarem, lay between Olisipo and Emerita: it was a colony, 
with the surname Preesidium Julium, and one of the three conventus. 
Salmantica, Salamanca, also called Helmantica and Hermandica. stood 
S. of the Durius : the piers of a bridge of 27 arches oyer the Torines, 
built by Trajan, are still in existence. 

III. Tareacoxexsts. 

§ 12. Tarraconensis was bounded on the E. by the Mare Internnm ; 
on the X. by the Pyrenees, which separated it from Gallia, and 
further by the Mare Cantabricinn : on the by the Atlantic 
Ocean, as far S. as the Dnrins, and below that point by the x3rovince 
of Lusitania ; and on the S. by the provinces of Lusitania and 
B^etica, from the former of which it was se^Darated by the Dmius, 
from the latter by Ms. Marianns. It thus embraced the modem 
provinces of Mv.rcia, Valencia, Ccdcdonia, Arragon, Xavarre, 
Biscay, Asturias, Gallicia, the X. parts of Portugal and of Leon, 
nearly all the CastHh.s, and part of Andalusia. This extensive 
district contains within its limits the upper courses of all the large 
riv^ers already noticed, the Baetis, Anas, Tagus, and Durius, together 
with the whole course of the Iberus, which was historically the 
most important river of Spain, and which received as tributaries, 
on its left bank, the G-allicus, Gallego, and the Sicoris,^ Segre, and on 
its right, the Salo, Xalon. In addition to these we may notice the 
following important rivers which flow into the Mediterranean : the 
Eubricatus, Llohregat, joining the sea a little W. of Barcino ; the 
Turia, Cr?iadalaviai\ near Talentia, famed for a battle fought on its 
banks between Pompey and Sertorius ; the Sucro, Xu.car, more to 
the S. : and the Tader, Segura, X. of Carthago Xova. On the 'W. 
coast, the Minius, Jlinho, which rises in the mountains of Galla^cia, 
is an important river : it is said to have been so named from the 
minium, or vermilion, carried down by its waters. We may also 
notice the following tributaries of the Durius : on its right bank the 
Pisoraca, Fisuerga, and the Astura, Ezla, and on its left the Cuda, 
Coa. In describing Tarraconensis we shall adopt a fourfold division 
of the tribes, as foUows : (1) those along the coast of the Mediter- 
ranean ; (2) those at the foot of the Pyrenees ; (3) th^se along the 
N. coast ; (4) those in the interior. It only remains for us here to 
observe that Tarraconensis was divided into seven conventus juridici, 



6 Inter 
Stagnantem Sicorim et rapidiim deprensus Iberum. — LrcAx, ir. 334. 



Chap. XXIX. 



INHABITANTS — TOWNS. 



619 



containing 472 towns and villages, of wliich 12 were colonice, 13 
oppida civium Romanorum, 18 Latinorum veferum, 1 foederatorum, 
and 135 stipendiana. 

§ 13. The tribes on the coast of the Mediterranean from S.W. to 
N.E. were — the Bastetani, on the borders of B^tica, sometimes 
identified with the Bastuli ; the Contestani, on the coast from the 
borders of B^etica to the river Sucro ; the Edetani, or Sedetani, 
between the Sucro and the Iberus ; the Ilercaones, in that portion 
of the sea-coast of Edetani a which lies S.W. of the Iberus ; the 
Cosetani, from the mouth of the Iberas northwards to near the 
Kubricatus ; the Lsesetani, or Laletani, thence to the territory of the 
Indigetes, who lived on the bay of Emporise in the extreme N.E. 
This district contained the most important towns in Spain — Carthago 
Nova, the Punic capital, in the territory of the Contestani ; Tarraco, 
the Eoman capital, on the coast N. of the Iberus ; C^esaraugusta, the 
chief town in the upper valley of the Iberus ; Barcino and Emporiae, 
flourishing sea-ports between the Iberus and the Pyrenees. The 
origin of many of these towns is unknowm : Carthago Nova was 
founded, wdthin historical times, by the Carthaginians ; the names 
of Tarraco and Barcino also bespeak a Punic origin. Saguntum and 
Emporia^, on the other hand, were attributed to the Greeks, the 
latter having an undoubted Greek name, and the former being 
regarded as a modification of Zacynthus. The inland towms belonged 
to the Iberians, their names being either Latinized forms of the 
original ones, or, as in the case of Caesaraugusta, new names 
assigned to them by the Romans. 

Cartliago Nova, Cartagena, stood a little W. of Prom. Saturni^ at the 
bottom of a bay, which, having its entrance nearly closed by the isle of 
Scombraria^ was thus converted into a sheltered harbour. The site of the 
town was an elevated tongue of land projecting into the bay^ surrounded 
on the E. and S. by the sea, and on the W. and partly on the N. by a lake 
communicating with the sea, the isthmus between the lake and the sea 
being only 250 paces ^vide. A range of hills encircled the town on the 
land side, Carthago Nova was a colony of Carthage, planted by Has- 
drubal in B.C. 242, the site being selected partly from the excellence of 
its harbour and its central position in reference to the coast of Spain 
and the opposite coast of Africa, and partly from its proximity to the 
richest silver mines of Spain. It became the Carthaginian capital of 
the country — at once the treasury, the arsenal, and the base of opera- 
tions. It was surprised by P. Scipio in 210, and became thenceforward 
the rival of Tarraco. It was made a colony, with the title of Col. Yictrix 
Julia Nova Carthago, and was the seat of a conventus. It remained an 
important place of commerce even after its size was much diminished. 
It sometimes received the surname of Spartana, from the valuable plant 
(a kind of broom) which grew in its neighbourhood. Sastabis, Jativa, 
was a Roman municipium, and the seat of a large flax'' and linen manu- 



Saetabis et telas Arabum sprevisse superba 

Et Pelusiaco filiiin componere lino. Sil. Ital. ill. 374. 

Nam 



620 



HISPAXIA. 



TARRACOXEXSIS. 



Book IV, 




Coin of Valentia in Spain. 



the sea. 



facture : it lay upon an eminence S. of the Sucro. Valentia belonged 
to the Edetani, and was situated on the Turia, about 3 miles from its 
^-^lT7rr\ ^ ^ mouth: it became a co- 



lony, and was peopled 
with the soldiers of Vi- 
riathus : it was destroyed 
by Pompey, biit was re- 
stored; it still exists, with 
the same name. Sagimtuin 
was seated on an emi- 
nence^ on the banks of 
the river Pallantias, be- 
tween the Sucro and Tar- 
raco, and not far from 
It was said to have been founded by Zacynthians, ^ with whom, 
according to some accounts, Rutuli from Ardea were mixed. It lay in 
a fertile district, and attained to great wealth by its commerce. Its 
capture by Hannibal, in B.C. 218, after a long resistance, was the cause 
of the Second Punic War. It was recovered by the Romans in 210, and 
made a Roman colony. A manufacture of earthenware ^ cups (calices 
Saguntini) was carried on there. The modern town is named 3Iur- 
viedro, from the miiri veteres of the old town ; the remains of them, hov\'- 
ever, are now insignificant : the framework of the theatre exists, and 
there are portions of the walls of the Circus Maximus. Caesaraugusta, 
Zaragoza, Saragassa, stood on the right bank of the Iberus, and was the 
central point whence all the great roads of Spain radiated. Its original 
name, as a town of the Edetani, was Saldura, which was changed in honour 
of Augustus, who colonized it in B.C. 25 : it was a colonia immunis, and 
the seat of a conventus. The first Christian poet, Aurelius Prudentius, 
is said to have been born there in a.d. 348. Dertosa, Tortosa, stood on 
the left bank of the Iberus, not far above the delta of the river, in the 
territory of the Ilercaones : it became a colony. Tarraco,^ Tarragona, 
was finely seaied on a rock, ^ between 700 and 800 feet high, overhanging 
a bay of the Mediterranean sea: it possessed no harbour. It was 
fortified by the Scipios, who converted it into a fortress against the 
Carthaginians ; subsequently it became the capital of the province and 
the seat of a conventus. Augustus wintered there after his Cantabrian 



Xam sudaria Setaba ex Iberis 
Miserunt tibi muneri. 

8 Hand procul Herculei toUunt se litlore mnri, 
Clementer crescente jugo, quis nobile nomen. 
Conditus excelso sacravit coUe Zacynthos. 

9 Mox profngi ducente yoto advertere coloni, 
Insnla qnos gennit Graio circumflua ponto, 
Atque auxit qnoudam Laertia regna, Zacynthos 
Firmavit tenues ortns mox Daunia pubes, 
Sedis inops, misit largo quam dives alnmno, 
Magnanimis regnata viris, nunc Ardea nomen. 

1 Snme Saguntino pocula ficta Into. 
Pugna Sagnntina fervet commissa lagena.' 
2 The name seems to imply a Phoenician foundation : it come; 
' citadel." 

3 Hispanse pete Tarraconis arces. Mart. x. 104, 



Catull. xii. 14. 



SiL. Ital. i, 27 3. 



Id. 1. 288. 
Mart. xiv. 108. 
Juv. V. 29. 

from Tarchon, 



Chap. XXIX. 



TO^XS — POPULATIOX. 



621 



campaign. Its fertile plain and snnny shores are celebrated by Martial ^ 
and other poets ; and its neighbourhood produced good wine and flax. 
There are nnmeroiis remains of the old town, particularly the so-called 
palace of Augustus, now used as a prison, some cyclopean foundations 
near it. with traces of the circus and amphitheatre : near the town is a 
magnificent aqueduct, 700 feet long, with two tiers of arches, the loftiest 
of which are 96 feet high, and a sepulchre called the Tower of the 
Scipios."'" Barcino, Barcelona, was a city of the Laletani. and stood on 
the coast, a little X. of the Rubricatus: it is said to have been foimded 
by Hercules 400 years before Eome. and to have been rebuilt by 
Hamilcar Barcas, who gave it the name of his family. Under the 
Eomans it became a colony, with the surname of Faventia. It possessed 
an excellent harbour and a beautiful situation.^ and so attained a stat-e 
of high prosperity. Emporias, or Emporium, Arupi'rki.8. was on the 
small gulf which lies below the E. extremity of the Pyi^enees and at 
the mouth of the river Clodianus. which forms its port. It was the 
natural landing-place from Gaul, and is said to have been colonized by 
Phocaeans' of Massalia, who originally occupied a small island, and thence 
passed over to the main land. 

§ 14. The tribes at the foot of the Pyrenees from E. to AV. were — 
the Ausetani, of the Indigetes and Lieaetarii ; the Castellani; the 
CerretarJ.,^ in the upper valley of the Sicori> : the Lacetani. X. of 
the Laletani, and not improbably bnt an-jtlier form of the same 
name ; the Jaccetani,^ below the central pci'ticai of the chain ; the 
Ilergetes, to the S., along the X. bank of the Iberns, from the 
Gallicns in the W. to the Sicoris in the E. ; and the Vascones,^ be- 
tween the upper valley of the Iberns and the Pyrenees. Tlie tC'wns 
of this district were generally imimportant : Ilerda, on the Sicoris, 
the capital of the Ilergetes, Pompelo, the capital of the Tascones, 
and CalagiTrris, also in their territory, on the IberiLS, deserve notice 
as important military positions. 

Pompelo, Pa/y/plona. stood at the foot of the Pyrenees, in one of the 
lateral vallevs of the Elro. and on one of the roads leadina- into Gallia. 



^ Ajrrica repetes Tarraconis littora. Mart. i. 5 0. 

^ Tarraco, Campano tantuin cessura Lyaeo, 

Hsec geniiit Tnscis seniula vina cadis. Id. xiii. IIS. 

6 Et Barcilonum amoena sedes ditiiim. Aviex. Or. Mar. 520. 

' Fhocaicae dant EmporiEe, dat Tarraco pubem. Sil. Ital. iii. 369. 
^ Tliey were very famous for their hams : — 
CfBretana mihi fiet vel missa licebit 

De JSIenapis : lauti de petasone vorent. Mart, xiii, 54. 

They are also noticed by Silius Italiciis : — 

>'ec Cerretani. quondam Tirynthia castra. iii. 357. 

9 The territory of the Jaccetani formed a part of the theatre of war in the con- 
tests between Sertorius and Pompey, and between Julius Cssar and Pompey's 
legates. 

1 The name of the Tascones is preserved in that of the Basques ; they went to 
battle bareheaded : — 

Aut Tasco. insuetus galece. Sil. Ital. iii. 35S. 



622 



HISPAXIA.— TAEEACONEXSIS. 



Book IV. 



Calagnrris, CaJahorra, stood on a rocky hill- near the right bank of 
the Iberus : it is first noticed in the Celtiberian TVar. B.C. 186, but it 
obtained a horrible celebrity afterTrards for its resistance in the Serto- 
rian AYar to Pompey's legate Afranins. when its defenders consumed 
the flesh of their o\Yn wives and children.^ It afterwards became a 
rnunicipium with the Clvitas Piomana : it was snrnamed Xassica, to 
distinguish it from Calagurris Fibularia. Loarre, X. of the Ehro. It 
was the bh^th-place of the rhetorician Quinctilian. Ausa, the capital of 
the Ausetani, stood on a tributary of the Alba at Vique : and lower 
down the river was their other town. Geninda, Gerona. The only town 
belonging to the Cerretani was Julia Libyca, near Puigcerda. Jacca, 
the capital of the. Jaccetani, is still named Jaca. Ilerda, Lerkia, the 

capital of the Ilergetes, 
stood upon an eminence ^ 
on the right bank of the Si- 
coris, and from its position, 
commanding the great road 
from Tarraco to the X.W, 
of Spain, which here crossed 
the Sicoris, it was a place 
of great importance. Afra- 
nius and Petreius ^ occupied 
it in the first year of the 
Civil War, B.C. 49, and were besieged by Caesar, whose successful opera- 
tions have made Ilerda the Badajoz of antiquity : under the Romans 

it became at first a flourishing place, 
but afterwards fell mto decay. Osca, 
Huesca, X.E. of Ctesaraugusta, is 
chiefly known as the place where 
Sertorius died: it was a Roman co- 
lony^ and had a mint, to which per- 
haps the expression J. /Y7fc/2/?r;/z Oscense 
refers. Celsa, on the Iberus, was a 
Roman colony, with the siumame 
Yictrix Julia: the river was here crossed by a bridge, the ruins of 
which remain at Telilla. 

§ 15. The tribes on the X. coast from E. to ^'V. were the Varduli, 




Coin of Ilerda. 




Coin of Osca. 



2 haerens scopnlis Calagnrris. Arsox. £p. xxt. , 

3 Tascones, liapc fama est, alimentis talibus olim 
Produxere animas : sed res diversa, sed illic 
Fortnncp invidia est, bellornmque nltima, casus 

Extrenii, longse dira ob-idionis egestas. Jrv. Sat. xv. 93. 

* Its position is tbns described by Lncan : — 

CoUe tuniet modico, lenique excrevit in altimi 

Pingne solnni timinlo : snper hunc fmidata vestnsta 

Surgit Ilerda manu : placidis preelabitur undis 

Hesperios inter Sicoris non nltimus amnes, 

Saxeus ingenti queni pons amplectitur arcu. iv. 11. 
Its remoteness is tlie point in Horace's line : — 

Ant fugies I'ticam, ant vinctn.s mitteris Ilerdam. — Ep. i. 20, 13. 
5 Postqnam omnia fatis 

Ca?saris ire vides, celsam Petreins Ilerdam 

Deserit. Lrc. iv. 14 3. 



Chap. XXIX. 



POPULATION. 



623 



AV. of tlie 7ascones, reacliing from the upper Elro to the S.E. 
corner of the Bay of Biscay ; the Caristi; the Autrigones, from the 
upper valley of the Ehro to the sea-coast about the mouth of the 
Xerva ; the Cantabri,^ an important tribe occupying the mountains 
about the sources of the Ehro and the maritime district to the X. 
of them : they offered an obstinate resistance to the Eomans, having 
been first subjugated by Augustus in b.c. 25, and again by Agrippa 
in 19 : the Basques are their genuine descendants : they were 
divided into seven tribes, of which the Concani were the most 
notorious for their savage habits ; " the Astures, between the upper 
Durius and the sea, in a country abounding in gold, and also famed 
for a breed of horses, the smaU ambling jennet now named Astv/rco ;^ 
the X. part of their country (the modern Astur ias) is the " Wales " of 
Spain, and has always been the stronghold of Spanish independence ; 
the people were a wild and warhke ^ race, and were defeated by the 
Piomans on the banks of the Astura in B.C. 25 ; ^ the Gallasci, or 
Callaici, who were divided into- two great tribes, the Lucenses in the 
X., from the coast in the neighbourhood of the river Xavia to the 
Minius ; and the Eracari in the S., fi'om the Minius to the Durius, 
a warlike but barbarous race, who imposed orchnary labc-ur upon their 
women ; the Bracari were subdued by Decimus Brutus in b.c. 136 ; 
the Lucenses yielded to Augustus along with the other northern 
tribes ; lastly, the Artabri in the extreme X.AV. The toA^ms along 
the coast of the Bay of Biscay were unimportant, but in the interior 
there were some places which were occupied as military stations by 



6 The name was sometimes loosely applied to the inhabitants of all the moun- 
tainous districts on the X. coast : e.g. in Juvenal, xt. 108, compared with 93. 
Theii' hardihood and bravery are frequently noticed : — 

Cantaber ante omnes, hiemisque eestusque famisque 

Invictus, palmamque ex omni ferre labore. Sil. Ital. iii. 326. 

Septimi, Gades aditure mecum, et 

Cantabrum indoctum juga ferre nostra. Hoe. Carm. ii. 6, 1. 

Quid bellicosus Cantaber. Id. ii. 11, 1. 

^ Et laetum equine sanguine Concanum. Id. iii. 4, 34. 

Nec qui Massageten monstrans feritate parentem 
Cornipedis fusa satiaris, Concane, vena. Sil. Ital. iii. 360. 

^ Merserit Asturii scrutator pallidus auri. Lrc. iv. 298. 

Hie brevis, ad numeruni rapidos qui coUigit ungues, 

Venit ab auriferis gentibus, Astur equus. ZVIart. xiv. 199. 

^ Exercitus Astur. Sil. Ital. i. 252. 

Belliger Astur. Id. xii. 748. 

1 Gold was abundant in their country : — 
Astur avarus 
Visceribus laceree telluris mergitur imis, 

Et redit infelix effoso concolor auro. Sil. Ital. i. 231. 

Accipe Callaicis quidquid fodit Astur in arvis. Mart. x. 16. 



624 



HISPAXIA.— TAREACOXEXSIS. 



Book IV. 



t-lie Eomans. and were tliiis raised to great prosperity : these are 
still important towns, and retain, with bnt slight alteration, their 
modem names : we may instance Astiirica, Astorgcf., and Legio VII. 
Gemina, Leou^ in the cotmtry of the Asttires, Liiciis Attgnsti, Lugm, 
and Bracara Augusta, Braga, in the districts of the Liicenses and 
Bracari. 

Asturica Augusta- stood in a lateral valley of the mountains 
of Asturia. on the upper course of one of the tributaries of the Astura. 
It obtained its surname probably after the Cantabrian War. and it 
became the seat of a conventus. Pliny describes it as urhs magninr-a. 
and the modern Astorrja gives a perfect idea of a Eoman fortified town, 
Legio VII. Gemina vras admirably situated at the confluence of two 
tributaries of the Astura. at the foot of the Asturian mountains. It 
was the station of the nevr seventh legion which was raised by the 
Emperor Galba in S^^ain. and which was named Gemina from its amal- 
gamation by Vespasian with one of the German legions. Brigantiuni 
was an important seaport town of the Callaici Lucenses. variously iden- 
tified with .Ferro/ and with Coninna. Lucus Augusti. Lnao. stood 
on one of the upper branches of the Mmius : it was originally the chief 
town of a small tribe named the Capori, but imder the Romans it 
became the seat of a conventus. and the capital of the Callaici Lucenses. 
Bracara Augusta, Brago.. stood between the Durius ancl Miuius. near 
the river Xtebis, and was the seat of a conventus: among its ruins are 
the remains of an acpaeduct and amphitheatre. 

§ 16. Tril-^es of the interior from to E. : the Vacc^i. between 
the Cantabai on the X. and the river Diiritis on the S. : the 
Celtiberi,^ a A'ery important race occtipyin^; the whole central plateau 
from the bc'tdL^rs -jf Lnsitania in the V. to the mountains that 
bound the valley of the Ebro in the E. ; they were subdivided into 
four tribes, of whom the Arevac88, in the X., were the most }::Owerful, 
while the Pelendones lived more to the E., the Berones, between L:lu- 
beda and the Iberns, and the Lus5nes, about the sources of the Tagus ; 
the Carpetard or Carpesii,^ one of the most numerous and most 
powerful in the whole peninstda, occupying the great valley of the 
upper Tagus and the intervL-ning district to the Anas in the S. : and 
the Oretani, more to tlii^ s.. tlit^ l^orders of Ba?tica. The only 
famous town in this disrricr Avas Xumantia. 

Paliaiitia, Pcilencia, the capital of the Vaccfei. stood on a tributarv 
of the Durius. Clunia stood on the stimmit of an isolated hill siu- 



- The Asturians attributed its foinidation to Astiu, son of ^Memnon : — 

Armiger Eoi non felix Meinuoiiis Astiu'. Sil. Ital. iii. 334. 

3 The origin of the name has been already referred to ; it is thus expressed by 
Lucan : — 

Profiis-ique a gente vetasta 
Galloriim Celta? miscentcs nomen Iberis, iv. 9. 

^ Their name appears to be connected with that of Calpe and Carpessus, or 
Tartessus ; they may, therefore, have once stretched down to the Mediterranean 
coast. 



Ckap. XXIX. 



TOAVXS. 



625 



ix)unded with rocks, somewhat X. of the Diirius : it belonged to the 
Ai-eTacfe. and is descrihed by Pliny as Cdtiherix finis: nnder the 
Romans it became a colony, and the s-at of a con-rentus, Numantia, 
the capital of the Arevaca?, stood on a moderately high but steep hill 
near the Dmius, and was accessible only from one side, in which 
du^'ection it was strongly defended:-^ it was besieged and destroyed by 
Scipio Africanus in B.C. 134:^ the ruins at FuenU dt Don Guarray are 
supposed to mark its site. Bilbiiis, Barnl^Ia, the second city of the 
Celtiberi, stood on a rocky height overlianging the river Salo : ' it was 
the birthplace of the poet Martial. It was famed for its manufacture of 
steel, the vrater of the Salo being remarkably adapted to tempering the 
metal ;^ g'^hl was also found there. ^ Under the Romans it became a 
■munictplv.ui, with the surname of Augusta. The neighbourhood was 
for some time the scene of the war between Sertornis and Aletellus. 
Segobriga, the capital of the Celtiberi, lay S.W. of Ccesaraugusta, near 
Friego : the surrounding district vras cekbrated for its talc. Contrebia, 
one of the chief cities ot Celtiberia. lay S.E. of Ctesaraugusta. probably 
nQ-^T AVjarracin : it was besieged by Sertorius, and held out for forty- 
fom' days. Toletum, Tdedo. the capital of the Carpetani. was situated 
on the Tagus: it was a very strong town, and famed for its manufac- 
ture of arms and steel-ware : there are ntunerous remains of Roman 
antic[uities, especially the ruins of a cn-cus. Castulo, Cazlona, was on 
the upper course ^ of the Bfetis. near the E. border of Bfetica: it was 
the chief city of the Oretani. and one of the most important towns in 
the S. of Spain, having very rich copper and lead mines - in its neigh - 



5 NoUs tonga feroi bella Numanti^. Hor. Carm. ii. 12, 1. 

6 Hence named Numantinus : — 

Ille Xumantina traxit ab urbe notam. Ov. Fast. i. 596. 

Afra Numantinos regna loqimntur avos. Peopzet. iv. 11, 30. 

" Mmiicipes, Augusta mini quos Bilbilis acri 

Monte creat, rapidus quern Salo cingit aquis ; 
Ecquid Iseta juvat vestri vos gloria vatis ' 

2s am deeus et nomen, famaque vestra sumus. — Maet. x. 103. - 
citafas 

AUam Bilbilin, et timm Salonem 

Quinto forsitan essedo Tidebis. Id. x. 104. 

s Saevo Bilbilin optimam metallo, 
Qute vir.cit ChalTbasqne, Noricosque, 
Et ferro Plateam suo sonantem, 
Quam fluctu tenui, sed inquieto 

Armorum Salo temperator ambit. Id. iv. 55. 

9 Me niultos repetita post Decembres 
Accepit mea, rusticumque fecit 

Aura Bilbilis, et superla ferro. In. xii. IS. 

1 The valley in Tvliicb Castulo stood lias some resemblance to that above Delplii ; 
lience the almsion in Silius Itaiicus : — 

Fnlget prteeipuis Parnasia Castillo signis. iii. 391. 

At contra Cirrheei sanguis Imilce 
Castalii. iii- 97. 

- These mines are still productive ; the well-known mine of Linares, the prO' 
perty of an English company, is near Castulo ; and perhaps the mine whence 
Hannibars wife drew her wealth is the one N. of Linares, named Los Fozos de 
Anihal. 

ANC. GEOG. 2 E 



626 



HISPAXIA.— TAEPvACOXEXSIS. 



Book IV. 



bourliood : Himilce. the rich wife of Hannibal, was a native of Ca?tulo. 
In the Second Punic AVar it revolted from the Carthaginians to the 
Romans^ and became the head-qnarters of P. Scipio ; it afterwards 
retm^ned to the Punic alliance, but was obliged to yield to Pome in 206 : 
under the Romans it became a municipium Tsith the Jus Latinum. 

Islands. — Off the E. coast of Spain lies an important group of islands, 
consisting of the Baleares,^ or Gynmesiae, and the Fityusse. The former 
contained two chief islands, named, from their respective sizes, Major, 
Majorca, and Minor, Minorca : the latter also contained two, Ebusns, 
Iviza, and Colubraria, or OpMusa, Formentera. The Baleares had 
numerous excellent harbours, and were extremely fertile in all produce, 
except wine and olive-oil. They were celebrated for their cattle, and 
especially for the mules of the lesser island. Their chief mineral 
product was the red earth named S'/r/o^^e. The inhabitants were famous 
for their skill as slingers : the}' were quiet and inoffensive. • The 
Carthaginians originally colonized these islands ; after the fall of 
Carthage they were independent until B.C. 1-3, when they were srib- 
dued by the Romans under Cascilius Metellus. The chief towns of 
Majorca were Palma, on the S.W., and Pollentia on the X.E. coast, 
both of which still retain their names; and of Jl///^o/"ca, Jamna, Ciu- 
(Jadda, on the W., and Mago, Fort Malion, on the E. coast, both of 
them Piicenician colonies. 

History — The earliest notices of Spain are connected with the com- 
merce of the Phcenicians : the Tyrians are described by Ezekiel as 
trading to Tarshish for silver, iron, tin, and lead; and the extent to 
which this commerce was carried is incidentally proved by the Biblical 
expression ''ships of Tarshish," meaning large, sea-going merchant- 
men. The Phcenicians settled chiefly on the S. coast and in Btetica, 
but did not endeavour to found a donjinionin Spain until B.C. 237, when 
Hamilcar formed the design of establishing a new Carthaginian empire 
there, partly as a counterpoise for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, 
and partly perhaps as an asylum for himself, should he .be expelled 
from Carthage. His plan was successful, and the rights of the Car- 
thaginians were so far recognized by the Romans that a treaty was 
concluded with Hasdrubal in 228, by which the Iberus was fixed as 
the boundary between the two states, with a special stipulation in 
favour of >aguntum, as an ally of Rome. The infraction of this stipu- 
lation led to the Second Punic T\"ar, when the contest was transferred 
by Scipio to Spain itself in 210, and the Carthaginians were wholly 
exj^elled in 206. The subsequent progress of the Roman arms has been 
already traced in Chap), iv. 



2 The name Baleares rras derived "by the Greeks from BaAAco, in reference to 
this disting-iiishing featnre of the inhabitants ; it is, however, derived from the 
rhoonician root BaJ. The Greek name Gymnesiae may have reference to the 
practice of slinging, as usua'' among light-armed troops ^vi'/xi'^re?' . 

^ Stnppea torquentem Balearis verbera funda?. Vieg. Georg. i. 309. 



Xon secns exarsit, qiiam cum Balearica plumbum 
Funda jacit. < 



Or. ITef. ii. 727. 



due tor 



Impiger et torto Balearis verbere funda? 
Ocior. 



Lrc. i. 228. 



Temple at Xemausus, now called tlie Maison Carree. 



CHAPTER XXX. 
Gallia. 

§ 1. Boundaries. § 2. Mountains and rivers. § 3. Inhabitants. § 4. 
Divisions. I. Aquitania. §5. Boundaries; rivers. §6. Tribes; 
towns. II. Xarbonensis. § 7. Boundaries ; rivers, § 8. Tribes ; 
towns ; roads ; Hannibal's march. III. Lugduxensis. § 9. 
Boundaries; rivers. §10. Tribes; towns. 17. Belgica. § H. 
Boundaries ; rivers. § 12. Tribes ; towns ; history. 

§ 1. The boundaries of Gallia coincided with those of modern 
France on three sides, viz. : on the X., W., and S. — the Mare Bri- 
tanniciim, the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean, with the Pyrenees, 
forming the natm'al limits in these du'ections. On the E. there is a 
considerable difference, as the ancient Gallia Avas carried forward to the 
Rhine in its lower and middle course, and thus included the greater 
part of Sii'itzerland,^ the Ducliy of Luxemhitrg, Germany W. of the 
Ehine, Belgium, and part of the NetherJarids. The soil was fertile, 
and the climate good : corn, wine, and oil Avere produced in various 
districts, and fruits of all kinds ripened. Cattle, pigs, and horses 
were abundant, and of good quality. Iron, lead, silver, and even 
gold, are enumerated among its mineral productions ; and its rock 
salt and brine springs were well known. 



^ The eastern part of Sicitzerla?id was not in Gallia. The provinces S. of 
the Lake of Geneva and of the upper Rhojie were not included among Caesar's 
Helvetii, and must therefore have heen regarded as a border country between 
Gaul and Italy. In the extreme S. the French border until recently coincided 
with that of later Gallia, the Yarns being regarded as the limit : the addition of 
Xice to France has once more reinstated the maritime Alps as the boundary. 

2 E 2 



628 



GALLIA. 



Book IV. 



Karnes. — Gallia proper was commonly described as Transalpina, and 
occasionally as Ulterior, to distinguish it from the Italian Gallia. It was 
also described as G-. Comata,^ from the fashion of letting the hair grow, 
which prevailed among all the Gauls except the Narbonenses ; while 
Karbonensis itself was named Braccata, from the braces or '^breeches" 
worn in that part. The Greeks termed it originally Celtice, then 
Galatia, and finally Gallia. 




Sketch Map of the physical features of Gallia and the political divisions in Cesar's time 

1. Pyrenseus Ms. 2. Alpes. 3. Cebenna. 4. Jura. 5. Vosegus. 6. Rhodanus. 7. Garumua. 8. Liger 
9. Sequana. 10. Rhenus. 11. Arar. 12. Matrona. 13 Mosella. 14 Mosa. 15. Scaldis. 



§ 2. The chief mountain ranges of Gaul (exclusive of the Alpes, on 
the borders of Italy, and the Pyrensei Mts. on the borders of Spain) 
are the Cebenna,^ Ceveimes, extending in a S. and S.W. direction 
between the basins of the Rhone on the E. and the Liger and 
Garumna on the W. ; Jura, Jicra, between the Ehone ne^v Geneva 



2 Et nunc tonse Liger, quondam per colla decora 
Crinibus effusis toti preelate Comatte. Lrc. i. 442. 

3 The Cevennes culminate in 2If. 3Iezene at a height of 5820 ft. "VMien Caesar 
crossed this range the snow lay 6 ft. deep on the summit of the pass. Hence 
Lucan's description : 

qua montibus ardua summis 
Gens habitat cana pendeiites rupe Cebennas. i. 434. 



Chap. XXX. 



MOUXTAIXS 



— IXHABITAXTS. 



629 



and the Eliine near Bash ; and Vosegus, or Vogesus,^ Vosges, running 
parallel to tlie left bank of the Upper Ehme for aV'Ove 170 miles. A 
high wooded district between the Ehine and the ]Mosa, in the X.E. of 
the country, was named Ar duenna Silva,^ the Ardennes. The most 
important rivers of Gallia are the Rhenus, on the borders of Ger- 
mania, rising in the Alps, and flowing northwards into the German 
Ocean ; the Rhodanns, FJione, rising in the same range, and flovdng 
southwards to the Mediterranean; the Garumna, Garonne, in the 
8.W., flowing into the Atlantic ; the Liger, Loire, which traverses 
an extensive district in central Gaul, having a circuitous course, first 
towards the N., and then towards the AV. into the Atlantic ; and 
the Sequana, Seine, the chief river on the X. coast, flowing into the 
Mare Britannicum.^ Of the numerous lakes in SicitzeAand, only 
the Lacus Lemannus, L, of Geneva, is SiX)ken of by ancient writers : 
the Yenetus Lacus, L. of Constance, was outside the limits of 
Gaul. 

§ 3. The inhabitants of Gallia belonged to various stocks : the 
proper Galli, who suppUed the bulk of the population, were Celts ; 
in the S.W., between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, were an Iberian 
race, named Aquitani : and in the X.E. were numerous Germanic 
and semi-Gennanic tribes. In addition to these, Greek settlers 
occupied at an early period some spots on the S. coast ; and at a 
later period Eomans were dispersed in great numbers over the whole 
country. The Celts appear to have been divided into two great 
branches — the Galli, whose name smwives in the present Gael r)f 
Scotland ; and the non-Galli, corresponding to the modern Cyrary oi 
Wales. The latter class occupied the X. and X.W. districts, and 
have preserved their language to the present day in Brittany : the 
Belg£e appear to have been substantially Gyrnry, but were in many 
instances intermixed with Germans. The Gauls are described as a 
fine, stalwart race, with fair complexions, blue eyes, and light hair. 
The prominent features in their character were desperate courage, 
skill in war, fickle temper, and great ingenuity. AVhen the Eomans 



* This form appears in Lucan : — 

Castraque qupe Vog-esi curvam super ardua rupem 
Pugnaces pictis coMbebant Lingonas armis. i. 39 7. 

5 The extent of this tract is over-estimated by Ccesar JB. G. vi. 2 9' , unless the 
present reading be as is probable) a mistake of the copyists. The text states it 
as 500 miles, ^vhereas the whole distance from Cohlcntz to the German Ocean does 
not exceed 300. The name is probably significant of a " forest," and reminds us 
of our " Arden" in WarA^-ickshire. 

^ These rivers exercised an important office as the commercial routes of ancient 
Gaul. The Rhone, the Arar or Saone, and the Sequana. formed the links in the 
chain of communication between the Mediterranean and the British Channel ; the 
Rhone and the Liger between the Mediterranean and the Bay of Biscaij : and 
again the Atax and the Garumua in the S.W. 



630 



GALLIA.— AQUITANIA. 



Book IV. 



first entered tlie couiitiy, tlieir social and political condition were 
low ; drunkenness and many barbarous practices prevailed : the poor 
were in a state of servitude, and the nobles engaged in constant 
feuds. Their rehgion was a form of Druidism. Great improvements 
took 2^1ace under the Eomans : universities were established ; the 
Latin language and Eoman law were introduced ; and the rehgion 
was modified by an infusion of the Soman tenets. The towns were 
beautified with temples and other public buildings, roads and aque- 
ducts were formed, and the remains of these magnificent structures 
prove, better than anything else, the advance of wealth and civiliza- 
tion< Literature was cultivated, and the Gauls were noted for their 
skill in rhetoric even as early as the days of Juvenal.' 

§ 4. The first political division in Gaul dates from the time that 
the Romans entered the country, when they named their conquests 
in the S.E. Provincia, in contradistinction to the rest of Gaul, which 
was independent. Caesar divided Gallia (by which he means Gallia 
exclusive of Provincia) into three portions, corresponding to the main 
elements in the population, viz. : Aquitania, between the Garumna 
and the Pyrenees ; Celtica, between the Garumna, the Atlantic, the 
Sequana, and the limits of Provincia ; and Belgica, between the 
Sequana and the Rhine. Augustus, who first organized the country, 
modified these divisions by substituting the name of Narbonensis for 
that of Provincia, enlarging Aquitania by the addition of an 
extensive district IST. of the Garumna, and assigning the name of 
Lugdunensis to the remainder of Caesar's Celtica. These divisions 
were retained until the 4th century a.d., when the whole was 
re-arranged into 17 x^rovinces, which were collectively described as 
" Gallia3 et septem Provincia?," the former term including Lugdu- 
nensis in four provinces, Belgica in five, and a part of Xarbonensis, 
bordering on the Alps, named Alpes Penninfe; the latter, including 
the remainder of Narbonensis in four, and Aquitania in three j)ro- 
vinces. We shall adopt the division of Augustus in the following 
pages. 

I. Aquitania. 

§ 5. Aquitania was bounded on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean, on 
the S. by the P^'renees and the Mediterranean, on the E. by the 
lower course of the Rhone and the Cevennes, and on the N. by the 
Liger. This district contained within it the northern slopes of the 
Pyrenaei Mts., and the whole range of Cebenna.^ The rivers which 



7 Nunc totus Graias nostrasque liabet orbis Atlienas. 
Gallia causidicos docuit /«cw/if?a Britannos. — xr. 110. 
s The name survives in the corrupted form Guienne : it has been conjectured 
that the original name was derived from the immerous springs (aquae) in this 
district ; but this etymology is doubtful. The Eomans undoubtedly were acquainted 



Chap. XXX. 



EIYEES — IXHABITAXTS. 



631 



fall witliin it are — the Aturus, Adoui\ whicli rises in the Pyrenees 
and enters the B, of Biscay near its S.E. corner ; the Garumna,^ Avhicli 
rises in the Pyi'enees, and flows towards the X.AV., into a large 
estuary of the B. of Biscay^ receiving in its course as tributaries, on 
its right hank, the Tarnish Tarn, the Oltis, Lot, and the Duranius, 
Dordogne ; the Carantonus, Charente, which joins the sea more to 
the X., flowing through the country of the Santones ; and the Liger,^ 
the border stream on the side of Lugdunensis, receiving on its left 
bank as tributaries the Elaver, Allier, which joins it at Xoviodununi, 
and the Carls, Cher, which joins it at C^sarodunum. 

§ 6. The tribes ^ of Aquitania were the Tarbelli,^ along the coast in 
the extreme S.AV, ; the Convenae,'^ N. of the Pyrenees, on the upper 
course of the Garumna ; the Ausci {Audi), X. of the Convenaa ; the 
Elusates (Eause), X. of the Atm'us ; the Vasates (Bazas), X.W. of 
the Elusates ; the Bituriges Vivisci, about the estuary of the Garumna ; 
the Petrocorii (Perigord), X. of the Duranius ; the Nitiobriges, un 
the middle course of the Garumna; the Cadurci (C^aAors), more to 
the E., along the course of the Oltis ; the Suteni ^ (Rodez), extending 
along the base of Cebenna, in the valleys of the Tarnis and its tri- 
butaries; the Gabali (Javols), on the range of Cebenna, somewhat X. 



with the mineral springs ; for we have notices of Aquse Tarbellicae, JDax ; Aojuie 
Convenarum, Bagneres in Cominges ; Aquensis Yicus, Bagneres de Bigorre ; Aquee 
Calidae, Vichy ; Aquse Bormonis, Bourhoiine-les-Bains ; and Aquse Siccae, perhaps 
Seiches. 

9 The gender of Garumna is dubious. Tibullus (i. 7, 11) calls it magrius 
Garumna;" but Ausonius {Jlosella, v. 483), " oequorese Garumnae." The tide 
enters the Garonne with great violence : — - 

Quosque rigat retro pernicior unda Garumnae, 

Oceani pleno quoties impellitur sestu. Clal-d. in Euf. ii. 113, 

1 The proper Greek form is Aety^jp : hence the first vowel would naturally be 
long. The Romans, however, made it short, as in the lines interpolated in Luc an 
(i. 438) :— 

In nebulis, Meduana, tuis marcere perosus ^ 
Andus jam placida Ligeris recreatur ab unda. 
And in Tibullus : — 

Testis Arar, Rhodanusque celer, magnusque Garumna, 

Carnuti et fiavi caerula lympha Liger. i. 7, 11. 

2 The names of almost all the Gallic tribes correspond to the modern names 
either of districts or towns — generally the latter — to which they were transferred 
in the later Roman era. As these towns serve to identify the position of the 
ancient tribes, we have added them in the text. 

^ They extended down to the Aturis and the Pyrenees : — 
Qui tenet et ripas Aturi, qua littore curvo 

MoUiter admissum claudit Tarbellicus sequor. Lrc. i. 420. 
Tarbella Pyrene 

Testis, et oceani iittora Santonici. Tibull. i. 7, 9. 

■* The Convente were (as their name implies) a mixed race. 
^ Solvuntur flavi longa statione Ruteni. Luc. i. 402. 



632 



GALLIA.— AQUITANIA. 



Book IV. 



of the sources of tlie Tarnis ; the Arverni^ (Auvergne), in tlie valley 
of tlie Elaver and the adjacent highlands; the Bituriges Cubi (^Bourges), 
along the course of the Liger from the Elaver to the Caris ; the 
Lemovices {Limoges), to the W. of the Arverni • the Santoaes 
(Saint es), IST. and E. of the estuary of the Garumna ; and the 
Pictones, or Pictavi {Poitiers), along the left bank of the Liger. Of 
the above-mentioned tribes only the Tarbelli, Convenes, Ausci, 
Elusates, and Yasates, were proper Aquitani, i.e. of the stock allied to 
the Iberians. The others were Celtae, whom Augustus added to the 
Aquitani when he extended the borders of the country from the 
Garumna to the Liger. Of the towns in Aquitania we know little 
more than the names : Burdigala, the ancient representative of 
Bourdeattx, appears to have been the most important : and the 
Eoman remains at Mediolanum, Saint es, and Limonum,' Poitiers, 
-proYe them to have been large towns. It may be said generally that 
almost every place of present importance was in existence in the 
Eoman era, the names in most instances corresponding to those of 
the ancient tribes/ 

Lugdunum,^ the chief town of the Convenaa and a Eoman colony, stood 
on an isolated hill by the Garumna ; it is now named St, Bertrand de 
Cominge. Elusa,^ the capital of the Elusates, stood at Civitat near 
Eause. Burdigala,^ Bordeaux, on the left bank of the Garumna, was 
the port of the Bituriges Vivisci, and a place of great commerce under 
the empire : it became the metropolis of Aquitania II., and was also the 
seat of an university. The only Eoman building still existing is the 
amphitheatre, called the Arenes, now in a much shattered state. 
Vesunna, Perigueux, the capital of the Petrocorii, was on a branch of 
the Duranius : the Eoman remains are extensive, consisting of several 
bridges, the ruins of an amphitheatre, and of the citadel, and a round 
building named the Tour deVesone, about 200 ft. in circumference ; there 



^ The Arverni claimed descent from the Trojans : — 
Arvernique ausi Latio se fingere fratres 

Sanguine ab Iliaco populi. Lrc. 1. 427. 

7 Note 2 above. 

8 The terminations of very many of the Gallic names of towns were signifi- 
cant ; e.g. -dimiim = "hill;" -durum (compare the "Welsh dicr) = "water;" 
-ritu7)i = ^' ford ;" -bona = " boundary ;" -hiHva = " bridge ;" -magus = " field." 
These Celtic terminations were combined by the Eomans with Latin prefixes in 
many cases ; e.g. Augustobona, Juliomagus, &c. 

9 It is noticed by Claudian {in Mufin. i. 137) :■ — 

Invadit muros Elusae, notissima dudum 
Tecta petens. 

1 The pronunciation of the name is decided by Ausonius, who was a native of 
Burdigala, and describes the place at length in his Ordo Nohiliiim Ui^lium : — 
Burdigala est natale solum, dementia coeli 
Mitis ubi et riguae larga indulgentia terras. xiv. 8. 

Diligo Burdigalam : Romani colo. Civis in hac sum, 
Consul in ambabus. Cunse hie, ibi sella cmnilis. Id. 39. 



Chap. XXX. ' TOWXS. 



633 



are several Eoman camps about the to^n. Divona," Cahors, the capital 
of the Cadurci, stood on the Oltis : it was siq^plied ^yith water by an 
aqueduct about 19 miles in length, a magnificent work, some remains of 
which are still extant : ruins of the baths and of the theatre have also 
been disco srered. Segodunum, Rodez, the capital of the Ruteni, was on 
a tributary of the Tarnis. Anderitum, the capital of the Gabali, has 
been variously identified with Javoh and Anterrieux. Gergovia, a town 
of the Arverni, was situated on a mountain^ still named Gergoie, about 
4 miles S. of Clermont, and W. of the Elaver ; in front of the town is a 
lower hill named Puij de Jiissat : this place was the scene of some im- 
portant operations in the Gallic War, when Yercingetorix was attacked 
by Caesar : the former was encamped on the plateau of Gergovia ; the 
latter seized the Pu(/ de Jusscd, and brought it into communication with 
his camp: he then assaulted Gergovia from the S. side^ and at the same 
time diverted the enemy's attention by a feigned attack on the X.AY. ; 
the troops succeeded in getting on the plateau, but were afterwards 
driven back. Angus toneme turn, Clermont, the capital of the Arverni, 
was on the Elaver : the modern name is derived from the Clarus Mons 
of the Middle Ages. Avaricum, JBourges, the capital of the Bitm^iges 
Cubi, stood on a branch of the Caris : its walls are particularly described 
by Csesar ' B. G. vii. 23), by whom it was besieged and taken in B.C. 52. 
Augustorituin, Limoges, was the capital of the Lemo vices. Mediolanum, 
Saintes, the capital of the Santones, stood on the Carantonus : the 
remains still existing of an aqueduct and an amphitheatre prove it to 
have been an important town r there is an arch in honour of Germa- 
nicus Caesar, singularly placed in the middle of the Cltarente. Limomim, 
Poitiers, the capital of the Pictoues, was situated on a tributary of the 
Vienne; there are remains of a huge amphitheatre, capable of liolding 
20,000 persons ; the walls are 7 French feet thick. 

II. Narboxensis. 

§ 7. Narbonensis,^ or, as it was originally termed, Provincia, ex- 
tended along the Mediterranean Sea fi'om the Alps to the Pyrenees, 
and inland to the Ehone on the N., and Ms. Cebenna on the W. 
With the exception of the three chains already noticed as forming its 
limits, there w^ere no other mountains in this portion of Galha. The 
chief river was the Rhodanus, which enters the province at the Lacns 
Lemanniis, and runs first to the W., as far as Lugdunum, then S. to 
the Mediterranean, where it forms a delta : it receives as tributaries, 



2 The name is derived by Ausonius from di, ''god," and von, "water" : — 

Dirona Celtarnm lingua, Fons addite Divis. Clar. Urb. [Burdig. 32. 
2 Its limits are thus described by Ausonius : — 

Insinuant qua se Sequanis Allobroges oris, 

Excluduntque Italos Alpina cacumina fines ; 

Qua Pyrenaicis nivibus dirimuntur Iberi ; 

Qua rapitur prtpceps Rhodanus genitore Lemano, 

Interiusque premunt Aquitaniea rura Cebennse, 

Usque in Tectosagos prima^vo nomine Yolcas, 

Totum Xarbo fuit. Ord, Noh. Urb. xiii. 4. 

2 E 3 



634 



GALLIA.— NARBOKE^nTSIS. 



Book IV 



on its left bank, tlie Isara,^ Isere^ which, rises in the Alps, and, 
flowing by Gratianopolis, GrenoUe, joins the main stream a little N. 
of Valentia ; the Sulgas, Sorgue, which joins at Yindalium ; and the 
Eruentia, Durance, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and rushes down 
with a violent course to the Ehone at Avenio. The other rivers 
which flow into the Mediterranean are — the Varus, Far, which in its 
lower course forms the boundary on the side of Italy ; the Arauris, 
Herault, rising in the Gehenna, and entering the sea near Agatha ; 
the Atax,'^ Attagus, or Narbo, Aude, rising in the Pyrenees, and 
fahing into the Sinus Gallicus to the E. of Narbo ; and lastly the 
Telis or Ruscmo, Tet, near the border of Spain. 

§ 8. The chief tribes from S.W. to N.E. were — the Sardones, at 
the foot of the Pyrenees and on the adjacent sea-coast ; the Volcae 
divided into two branches, the Tectosages and the Arecomici, who 
occupied the whole country between the Garonne and the Pihone, 
the former W., the latter E. of the range of Gehenna; the Salyes, 
or Salluvii, E. of the Ehone from the Druentia to the Mediter- 
ranean ; the Cavares, N. of the Druentia about Avenio ; the 
Vocontii,^ more to the E., at the foot of the Alps from the Druentia 
to the Isara ; and lastly, the Allobroges," between the Rhone, the 
Isara, and the Lake Leman. Narbonensis contained, as might be 
inferred from its proximity to the Italian frontier, some of the most 
important towns of Gaul. In the interior were Aqua3 Sextife, the 
first Roman colony in the country, Narbo, the earliest colony AV. of 
the Rhone, and the future capital of the province, Arelate, com- 
manding the valley of the Rhone, Nemausus on the road between 
Arelate and Narbo, and Vienna on the E. bank of the Rhone, S. of 
Lugdunum. These towns were adorned with magnificent buildings, 
some of which rank among the finest specimens of Roman architec- 
ture. On the coast we meet with the old Greek colony of Massalia, 
which attained a high pitch of commercial prosperity, and planted 
several colonies along the coast ; and Forum Julii, a Roman colony, 
and the chief naval station on this coast. 

lUiberis, Elne, was the nearest town to the Spanish frontier on the 
coast-road from Narbo : Hannibal passed through it on his advance to 
Italy. Ruscino lay on the same route and on the river of the same name : 



^ Hannibal followed the course of this stream, " Arar," in Livy, xxi. 31, being 
a corrupt reading for Isara. The insula of which he speaks was at the junction 
of the rivers. 

5 Mitis Atax Latias gaudet non ferre carinas, 
Finis et Hesperiae, promoto limite. Varus. Luc. i. 403. 

<5 Hannibal's route lay through their territory: — 

Jam faciles campos, jam rura Vocontia carpit. Sil. Ital. iii. 467. 
^ ^Emula nec virtus Capuse, nec Spartacus acer, 

Novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox. Hor. Upod. xvi. 5. 



Chap. XXX. 



TOAVXS. 



635 



its name has been transformed into BousiUon, and the site of the town 
is at Castel RoiisiUon. Tolosa, Toulouse, a town of the Tectosages. stood 
on the right bank of the Garumna : it was enriched with the gold and 
silver found in the surrounding district, and which was kept in the 
temples as a sacred deposit. The plunder of these treasures by Csepio, 
followed as it was by his defeat by the Cimbri. led to the proverb 
'^Aurum Tolosanum," as a warning against sacrilege. It afterwards 
became a colonia, and appears to have been a seat of art and literature.^ 
The important town of Narbo, or Narbona, Xarljonne, which the Eomans 
elevated into the capital of the province, stood on the river Atax : it 
belonged originally to the Volcte Arecomici, and was first occupied 
by a Eoman colony in B.C. 118. and surnamed •Olartius" or ^larcius. 
probably after a consul who was engaged in a contest with a Ligurian 
tribe in that year. It wa-s at all times an important commercial town, 
the Atax being navigable up to it : but its chief importance was due tu 
its position in reference to Spain and Aquitania. It was adorned with 
public buildings,^ none of which are now in existence, though numerous 
antiquities have been chscovered. The adjacent coast was famous for 
its oysters. Baeterrae, Beziers,^ was on the Orbis, E. of Xarbo_, in the 
midst of a wine-producing district: there are vestiges of an am^jhi- 
theatre and of an aqueduct. Nemausus, Ximes, the chief town of the 
Volcge Ai-ecomici, stood a little W. of the Ehone on the road between 
Arelate and Xarbo. The town was itself large, and contained twenty- 
four villages in its territory. The remains of the old town are very fine : 
the am^^hitheatre, which is tolerably perfect, was 437 feet in diameter, 
and could hold persons; the present height of the walls is 70 feet : 

there is also a beautiful temple dedicated to ]\I. Aurelius and L. Terus, 
now used as a museum, and named JIa /.so /i Carree, 76 feet long, and 4' » 
wide^ with 30 Corinthian fluted pillars. The famous fountain, noticed by 
Ausonius,^ still exists, but the chief supply of water was obtained from 
some springs near Vzes, and conveyed by a splendid aqueduct: a portion 




Aqueduct of Xemausus, now called the Pont du Gard. 



5 Hence Martial 'is. 100; terms it Palladia : — 

Te sibi Palladige antetulit toga docta Tolosfe. 
^ Quern jjidcherrima jam redire Narbo. Mart. viii. 72. 

1 Festus Avienus (589) furnishes us with a link between the ancient and 
modern names : — 

Dehinc 

Besaram stetisse fama casca tradidit. 
2 Non Aponus potu, vitrea non luee Xemausus 
Purior. Ord. Nol. Vrh. xiv. 33. 



636 



GALLIA.— NAEBONENSIS. 



Book IT. 



of this work remains across the valley of Yardo, and is named the Font 
du Gard: it has three tiers of arches; the lowest containing six arches, 
the next eleven, 8.nd the upper one thirty-five ; the total height is about 
155 feet, and the length on the top about 870. Arelate, Aries, a town 
of the Salyes, was situated on the left bank of the Ehone at the point 
where it bifurcates. It became a Roman colony in the time of 
Augustus, with the surname of Sextani, and was a place of considerable 
trade. It was improved by Constantino, and a new town^ added on 
the other bank of the river at Trinquetaille. The amphitheatre, of 
which there are remains, was capable of holding '20,000 spectators : it 
is not in so perfect a state as that of Nemausus. An Egyptian obelisk 
and some ancient tombs are the other most interesting monuments. 
Aqu^ Sextise, Aix, the first Roman colony planted in Gaul, B.C. 122, 
stood about 18 Roman miles of Massilia. Its name indicates both 
the presence of mineral waters, and that it was founded by Sextius 
Calvinus. The great battle, in B.C. 102, between Marius and the 
German tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones, was probably fought at 
Meiragues, two leagues from Massilia, the modern name being a cor- 
ruption of Marii Ager. Massilia, or Massalia, as the Greeks wrote it, 
Marseilles, stood on a bay some distance E. of the mouth of the Rhone, 
in the midst of a rather sterile district.^ The accounts of its founda- 
tion are somewhat conflicting, but they agree in asserting that Pho- 
cseans settled there about 600 b.c.^ It was built on rocky ground : 
the harbour, named Lacydon, faced the S., and lay beneath a rock in 
the form of a theatre. Both the harbour and city were well walled, 
and the town was of considerable extent, but contained few buildings 
worthy of notice except the Ephesium, or temple of Ephesian Artemis, 
and the temple of Delphinian Apollo, both of which stood on the citadel, 
Massalia became an ally of Rome in the Second Punic War, and was 
aided by her, in B.C. 154, against the Ligurian tribes of the Oxybii and 
Deceates, In B.C. 49, it sided with Pompey in the Civil War, and was 
taken after a long siege by C. Trebonius, CcGsar's legatus. The con- 
stitution of the town was aristocratic, and its institutions were generally 
good. The habits of the people were simple and temperate : literature 
and medicinal science were cultivated to a certain extent. Its com- 
merce w^as extensive, and it planted colonies on the shores of Gaul 
and Spain. Its prosperity declined after the planting of a Roman 
colony at Narbo. Forum Julii, Frejus, was the chief naval station of 
the Romans, and held the same position which Toulon (the ancient 
Telo Martius) now holds on this coast. It lay considerably E. of 
Massalia, at the bottom of a small bay, which was partly enclosed by 



3 It is hence termed by Ausonius duplex : it also received the name of Con- 
stantiua : — 

Pande, duplex Arelate, tuos, blanda hospita, portus, 
Gailula Roma Arelas : quam Narbo Martius, et quam 
Accolit Alpinis opulenta Vienna colonis. Ord. Clar. Urh. viii. 1. 

^ It produced the vine : — 

Cum tua eentenos expugnet sportula cives, 

Fumea Massiiise ponere vina potes. Mart. xiii. 123. 

^ Aristotle names Euscenus, and Plutarch Protos, as its founder. There is a 
romantic story that one of these t^o was chosen as husband by the daughter of 
Nannus, king of the country, her choice being signified by the presentation of a 
cup of water, of of wine and water. 



CfTAP. XXX. 



TOWXS- 



ROM.iX EOADS. 



637 



two moles: the entrance of the bay has been choked up by the deposits 
of the river Argenteus, and the entrance to the port is now 3000 feet 
from the sea. The place was probably named after Julius Csesar, but 
it first became a station in the time of Augustus. It had yarious sur- 
names, such as Classica, from its being the station of the fleet^, and Octa- 
vanoram, probably from the 8th legion being settled there. It was the 
birth-place of Cn. Agricola, and was further known for the manufacture 
of the sauce named gariim. A trmmphal arch, the ruins of the amphi- 
- theatre, an old gateway, and parts of the aqueduct still remain. 
Antipolis, Antihes, further E. on the coast, was a colony of Massalia, 
and under the Romans a municlpium : it was rather famous for its 
pickle : there are remains of a theatre and a few other buildings there. ^ 
Avenio, Avignon, stood at the junction of the Druentia with the Rhone: 
it was reputed a colony of Massalia. Arausio, Orange, was in the 
territory of the Cavares, near the E. bank of the Rhone; it became a 
colony with the additional title of Secundanorum. The Roman remains 
are numerous, the most remarkable being a triumphal arch, about 
60 feet high, with three archways, inscribed " Mario," but of a later 
period than the Marius who defeated the Teutones ; and the remains of 
an aqueduct near the town. Ebrodunum, Emhrun, was situated on the 
upper course of the Druentia under the Cottian AIds : it became the 
capital of Alpes Maritimae. Brigantium, Briangon, was the first toT\Ti 
in Graul on the road from Segusio over Mont Genevre : at this point the 
road branched off W. to the valle}^ of the Isara, and S.W. to that of the 
Druentia. Vienna, Vienne, lay on the E. bank of the Rhone^ in the 
country of the AUobroges. Under the Roman empu^e it became a 
cokmia, and a great place, even rivalling Lugdunum.''' The foundations 
of the massive Roman walls, 20 feet thick, still remain; there are also 
some arcades which probably served as the entrance to the thermae, a well 
preserved temple of the Corinthian order, dedicated to Augustus and 
Livia, now used as a museum, and the remains of an amphitheatre, and 
of four large aqueducts, chiefly constructed under ground. Pilate is said 
to have been banished to Vienna : an unfinished pyramid on a quadran- 
gular base, of a total height of 52 feet, is called, without any good 
reason, ''Pontius Pilate's Tomb." 

Roman Roads. — The Via Aurelia was carried on under Augustus from 
Vada Sabbata in Liguria to Arelate on the Rhone, passing through 
Antipolis, Forum Julii, and Aquae Sextiae. From Arelate the chief line 
of communication with Spain commenced, passing through Xemausus 
and Xarbo. A road sometimes named Via Domitia ran along the E. 
bank of the Rhone through Vienna to Lugdunum. From Vienna roads 
led to the Alpis Graia, Little St. Bernard, and to the Alpis Cottia, 
3Iont Genevre. 



6 Antipolitani, fateor, sum filia tlijTini 

Essem si scombri, non tibi missa forem. Mart. xiii. 103. 

7 Its beauty is referred to by Martial, and its state of culture may be inferred 
from the circumstance that both his own and Pliny's works were to be had at the 
booksellers' shops there : — 

Fertur habere meos, si vera est fama, libellos, 

Inter delicias, pidchra Vienna, suas. Id. vii. 88. 

It was also famous for its wine : — 

Haec de vitifera veni-se picata Vienna 

Ne dubites : misit Romulus ipse mihi. Id. xiii. 107. 



G38 GALLIA.— LUGDUXENSIS. Book IV. 




The Passes of the Alps, to illustrate Hannibal's Route. 



HannihaVs March. — The route pursued by Hannibal in his celebrated 
expedition from Spain to Italy, lay wholly through the portion of Gaul 
we have been describing. He entered it by the E. extremity of the 
Pyrenees, and thence followed the coast-road by Euscino, Narbo, and 
Nemausus/reaching the Ehone a little above Avenio. Having crossed 
the river, he followed up the left bank to the Isara, and thence along 
the latter stream to the point where it emerges from the lower ridges 
of the Alps near Grenoble. From this point his route is uncertain : 
according to some authorities he pursued the route marked I. in the 
accompanying plan, which follows the Isara, and crosses the Little St. 
Bernard into the valley of J.os^a, and thence down to Turin: according 
to others he pursued route 11. , which follows the Arc over 3It. Cenis, 
and thence straight dowTi to Susa and Turin : lastly, he may have 
pursued route III., following the Romanche by Bourg d'Oysans and 
across Mt. Genevre. The objections to route I. are its length, and the 
fact that the valley of the Dora w^as occupied by a very w^arlike tribe, 
the Salassi, who would not have permitted Hannibal's army to pass 
unopposed. Between II. and III. there is not much to choose : but the 
latter was probably the one : at all events the Mont Genevre route was 
the more frequented route in the Roman period; it w^as probably the 
one explored by Pompey in B.C. 77, and was certainly followed by 
Ceesar in his expedition against the Helvetians. The two stations Ad 
Martis and Brigantio are the modern Oulx and Briangon, 

Many of the villages on the road to St. Bernard derive their names 
from the Roman miles measured from Vienna, as Septeme (7), Oytier (8), 
and Diemoz (10). 

TIL — LUGDUNENSIS. 

§ 9. Lugdunensis was separated from Aquitania on the S.W. by 
the Liger, and from Narbonensis on the S.E. by the Rhodanus : on 



Chap. XXX. MOUXTAIXS — RIVEES — POPULATION. 639 



the E., where it was contiguous to Belgica, there was no natural 
boundary, but the limit between them would be coincident with a 
line leaving the Rhine near its great bend at Basle, and striking 
across to the British Channel at the point where the 50th parallel 
falls on it. The mountain range of Jura lies wholly in Lugdunensis, 
and the chief rivers are the border streams of the Liger and the 
Rhodanus, the former of which receives on its right bank at Julio- 
magus the Meduana, Mayenne, while the latter has an important 
tributary in the Arar, Saone,^ which rises in Yosegus, and flows 
with a slow current to the S., receiving the Dubis, Bouhs, on its left 
bank, and joining the main stream^ at Lugdunum. We have 
further to notice the Sequana, Seine, which rises in the high lands 
S. of Langres, and flows to the N.W, into the British Channel : it 
receives on its right bank the Matrona, Marne, and the Isara, Oise, 
with its tributary the Axona, A isne ; and on its left bank the 
Icaunus, Tonne, which is known to us only from inscriptions. 

§ 10. The nations occupying Lugdunensis from S.E. to N.W. 
were — the Segusiani, between the Liger and the Ehodanus, and, in 
Caesar's time at all events, in the angle formed by the Ehodanus 
and the Arar; the ^dui, between the Liger and the Arar; the 
Lingones,^ Langres, about the sources of the Marne and Seine, jST/of 
the ^Edui ; the Senones, Sens, N.W. of the JEdui to the Sequana 
near Paris ; the Camutes,^ Chartres, between the Sequana below 
Paris, and the Liger, and even beyond the Liger to the Elaver; 
the Aulerci, between the Sequana in its lower course and the Liger, 
divided into two great branches, the Eburovices,^ Evreux, in the N., 
and the Cenomani, Mans, in the S. ; the Namnetes, Nantes, on the 
right ^ bank of the Liger near its mouth ; the Armorici,'* a general 
name for the maritime tribes betvv^een the mouths of the Liger and 
of the Sequana, of which the most important were the Veneti, 



8 The mbdern name is derived from Saucona, which appears to have been the 
true Gallic name of the river. 

9 Qua Rhodanus raptum velocibus undis 

In mare fert Ararim. Luc. i. 433. 

1 The Lingones are described as a warlike race by Lucan : — 

Castraque quae Vogesi curvam super ardua rupem 

Pugnaces pictis cohibebant Lingonas armis. i. 397. 

2 They are noticed by Tibullus (i. 7, 12) under the form of Carnuti : — 

Carnuti et flavi caerula lympha Liger. 

3 In Caesar [B.G. iii. 17) the text has Eburones instead of Eburovices. The 
reading in vii. 75, " Brannovii," as a branch of the Aulerci, is probably an 
interpolation ; the Brannovices noticed in the same passage must have been a 
distinct tribe, as they lived S. of the ^dui ; the Diablintes, N.W. of the 
Cenomani, are noticed as a branch of the Aulerci by Ptolemy. 

* The name Armor ica is derived from the Celtic words ar, "on," and mor, 
'* sea." 



640 



GALLIA.— LUGDUNEXSIS. 



Book 1Y, 



Vannes, on the coast W. of the Namnetes, a sea-faring race, who 
carried on trade with Britain, and who, from the character of their 
coast, broken up by numerous promontories or ling nice surrounded 
with shallow water, enjoyed great security ; the Osismii, in the ex- 
tremity of Bretagne: and the Unelli, in the peninsula of Cotantin, 
Lugdunensis contained comparatively few towns of importance : 
Lugdunum, the capital of the province, stood opposite, the point of 
junction of the Ehone with the Arar. Augustodunum, near the 
Liger, is proved, by its extensive remains, to have been a fine 
town ; and the position of Genabum, in command of the passage 
across the Liger, rendered it a valuable military station. The 
modern capital of France is represented by Lutetia, which appears 
to have been a small place, but valuable from its safe position on 
an island in the Seme, whence either bank was accessible to its 
inliabitants. 

The Roman colony of Lugdunum was planted by L. Munatius Plane us 
in B.C. 43, and peopled with the inhabitants of Vienna. It stood on the 
right bank of the Arar on the slope of a hill named Fourviere. The 
modern town of Lyons originally occupied the same site, that portion of 
the city which lies between the two rivers Arar and Ehone being a 
modern addition. The position of Lugdunum, as a place of trade 
and a central spot of communication, secured to it a large amount of 
prosperity. It was destroyed by fire in Seneca's time, and restored 
by the Emperor Nero. It was again burnt by the soldiers of Septimius 
Severus in a.d. 197. Between the two rivers stood the Ara August!,^ 
dedicated to the emperor by the sixty states of Gaul, each of which was 
represented by a figm^e. A church was planted at Lugdunum at an 
early period, which suffered a furious persecution in the time of Marcus 
Aurelius in a.d. 172 or 177 : Irenteus was one of its bishops. The 
Roman remains are small : there are traces of a theatre on the Place (Us 
Minimes, and of a camp on the W. side of the Saone : some of the 
arches of the great aqueduct (50 miles long) are preserved at Cham- 
ponost: there were two other aqueducts of great length. Cabillonum, 
Clidlon, was a town of the ^dui on the Arar : the Romans kept a fleet 
of some kind there, and it appears to have been a place of commercial 
importance. Bibracte, or, as it was afterwards called, Augustodunum, 
whence the modern Autun, was the chief tovro. of the -^dui, and stood 
.on a tributary of the Liger: it was the chief place of education for the 
noble youths of Gaul, and was altogether a very important town. ISTe^r 
it Csesar defeated the Helvetii in a pitched battle: it was seized by 
Sacrovir in a.d. 21, was taken by Tetricus in the time of Gallienus, and 
is said to have been destroyed by Attila. The Roman remains at 
A utun are numerous, consisting of the circuit of the walls, with two of 
the main entrances, Folate d Arroux, 50 feet high and 60 broad, and 
Forte St. Andre, 60 feet high and 40 broad, the ruins of a theatre, traces 
of an amphitheatre with a naumachia near it supplied by an aqueduct 
from three large ponds outside the town, and the remains of a magni- 
ficent temple of Janus : the names Monjeu (Mons Jovis) and Chaumar 



5 Aut Lugclunensem rhetor dicturus ad aram. Jut. i. 44. 



Chap. XXX. 



TOWXS — ISLANDS. 



641 



(Campus Martius) are vestiges of the Eoman era. Alesia, AUse, a town 
of the Mandubii, was situated on a lofty hill between the streams Loze 
and Lozerain, tributaries of the Yonne. It was here that the Gauls^ 
under Yercingetorix, made their final stand in B.C. 52. Agendicum, Sens^ 
was the chief town of the Senones, and imder the later Koman empire 
became the capit?J of Lugdunensis IV. Lutetia, Paris, the capital of 
the Parish^ stood on the Sequana, and was originally confined to an 
island forming a portion of La Cite (derived from civitas^', the original 
isle having been increased since the Roman period^ by the addition of 
two other small islands. It was never a large place under the Eomans, 
though it may have occupied some ground on one or both of the banks 
of the river, with which the island was connected by bridges. The 
place was threatened by Labienus, in B.C. 52, without effect. Julian 
spent a winter, and was proclaimed Augustus there, a.d. 358. Some 
sculptm-ed stones, and a portion of a subterranean aqueduct^ are the 
only Roman remains. Rotomagiis, which was afterwards contracted 
into Rotomum, and this into Bouen, was the chief town of the Vello- 
casses on the Sequana. Genabum, or, as it was afterwards called^ 
Aureliani, and hence Orleans, was an emporium of the Caruutes on the 
Liger : it was the focus of the great insurrection in B.C. 52, and was 
taken and destroyed by Caesar : its later name is supposed to have been 
given after the Emperor Aurelian, in whose reign the walls, of which 
there are some traces, may have been built. Caesarodunum, Tours, the 
chief to^vn of the Turones (whence the modern name), was on the S. 
bank of the Liger. Juliomagus, the capital of the Andeca^vi, from 
whom its modern name Angers comes, was on the Meduana, a short 
distance above its junction with the Liger. 

Islands. — Ofi" the coast of Lugdunensis were two groups of islands — 
Veneticae Insulae, ofi" the W. coast, of which Vindilis, Belle-Isle, is the 
largest ; and Caesarea, Jersey, Samia, Guernsey, and Eidima, Alderney, 
off the IST. coast. 

lY. — Belgica. 

§ 11. Belgica was bounded on the W. by the rivers Sequana and 
Matrona ; on the X. by the Fretum Gallicnm, Straits of Dover ^ and 
the German Ocean ; on the E. by the Ehine ; and on the S. by the 
Rhone and the Alps. The mountain ranges of Jura, Vosegus, and 
the Eennine Alps, fall within these limits, together with the fol- 
lowing rivers — the border stream of the Rhenus, w^hich rises on the 
W. side of Ms. Adula, passes through the Lacus Yenetus, X. of 
Constance, in its upper course, receives as tributaries on its left 
bank, the Nava, Nahe, atBingium, Bingen, and the Mosella,^ Moselle, 



6 The Mosella is undoubtedly noticed in Caesar [B. G. iv. 15) in the words "ad 
confluentem Moscb et E.heni." Whether the river was called Mosa as well as 
Mosella, or whether there is a mistake of the author or his copyists, is uncertain. 
The hanks of the Moselle presented very much the same appearance in the 
4th century a.d. as at present, being well clad with vines : — 

Qua suhlimis apex longo super ardua tractu 

Et rupes et aprica jugi, flexusque sinusque 

Yltibus adsurgunt naturalique theatro. Arsox. Idyl. x. 154. 

Its 



642 



GALLIA.— BELGICA. 



Book IV, 



at Confluentes, CoNentz, and finally discharged its waters throiigli 
two main streams,^ of wliicli the western, uniting with the Mosa, 
received the name of Vahalis, JVao.L while the eastern retained the 
name of the original stream; the Mosa, 3Ieuse or J/aas, which rises 
about 4:8° X. iat., and flows towards the X., receiving, as above 
noticed, a branch of the Ehine, before its discbarge ; the Scaldis, 
Sclielde, more to the AV., which is described by Caesar (B. O. vi. 33) 
as flowing into the ]\Iosa ; and, lastly, the Samara, Somrue, which 
falls into the Fretiim G-allicum in the W. part of the province. 

§ 12. The most important tribes^ were located in the following 
manner — the Helvetii,^ in the plains of SiritzerlancJ^ between Jttra 
on the AV., the Ehone on the S., and the Ehine on the X. and E. : 
they were divided into fotir j:'Cig^, or cantons, of which two are named, 
viz. : Urbigenus, or Yerbigenus, which is supposed to have reached 

Its cheerful aspect is noticed : — 

Hand aliter pi ac idee subter vada Jccta Mosellee 

Detegit admixtos non concolor herba lapillos. — Arsox. Idyl. x. 7 3. 

' Pliny notices, in addition to tlie two already specified, a third, named 
Fleviim, Tvhich flowed towards the X. into the lakes [Zuider Zee] . This was 
probably identical with the artificial channel, Fossa Dmsiana, of which Tacitns 
speaks 'Ajui. ii. 6 . Ptolemy notices three outlets, all of them X. of the Mosa. 
In the midst of these somewhat conflicting statements it is clear that the Rhine 
Proper, wliich deviates from the TTaaJ at Fannerden and enters the sea near 
Ley den, was the boundary between Gaul and Germany. 

- The ethnology of Belgica is involved in considerable difficulty : generally 
speaking it will be found that the divisions of this province represent the two 
main elements of the population, i. e. that the tribes in the two Germaniae were 
Germans, and those in the two Belgicte were Belgians. But it must be remarked 
that many of the tribes on the border of Belgica were to a certain extent Germans. 
"We may instance the Menapii, Xervii, and Treveri. 

^ The Helvetii come prominently forward in the history of Caesar's wars in 

B.C. 58. They formed the 
plan of migrating in a body 
from their own territory 
into the heart of Gallia. 
Caesar prevented them from 
entering Pi ovincia by throw- 
ing up a wall, probably of 
earth, 19 miles long and 
1 feet high, marked a a in 
the accompanying plan, 
along the S. bank of the 
Ehone '1, from the point 
(4) where it issues from 
L. Leman (2) across the 
Arve (3) to where the y[t. 
aux Vaches (6' presses the 
S. side of the river. Th^ 
Helvetii were compelled 
therefore to go through the 
Map showing the posiiion of Caesar's Murus. pass of Fort VEcJiise on the 

X. side, and thus to follow 
the right bank of the Ehone to the Arar. They were met by Caesar and utterly 
defeated near Bibracte, and only 110,000 returned home out of 300,000. 




Chap. XXX. POPULATIOX. 643 

from Salodurum, Solotliurn^ as far as Aqua? Helvetica?, Baden, near 
the Aar ; and Tignrinus more to the S., between L. Jlorat on the X., 
Jura on the W., and the L. of Geneva on the S., its Hmits on the 
E. not being known : the other two pagi are not named, but may 
have been the Tugeni, between L. Zurich and L. of Coustanz, and the 
Ambrones to the S. of the two first ; the Rauraci, along the Ehine 
in the neighbourhood of Bash ; the Sequani,^ between the npper Arar 
in the W., Jura in the E., and the Ehone, near Geneva, in the S. ; 
the Leuci,- in the valley of the Upper Moselle ; the Remi, Bheims, 
l^etween the Marne and the Meuse ; the German tribes of the Tribocci, 
Nemetes, and Vangiones,^ along the Upper Rhine ; the Mediomatrici, 
Metz, X. of the Leuci on the course of the Jloselle, and at one time 
reaching E. to the Ehine, but subsequently restricted to the AV. of 
the Vosges by the German inmnigrants : the Treviri^ or Treveri, 
Treves, on the Lower 2Ioselle, from the Jleuse in the W. to the 
Ehine in the E., though their position on the course of the latter 
river is by no means well defined ; the Ubii, a German tribe, who 
in Caesar's time lived E. of the Ehine opposite the Treveri, but in 
the time of Augustus crossed the river and occupied a district 
between the Treveri and the Gugerni, in the middle of which stood 
Cologne ; the Gugerni to the X. : the Batavi,^ a branch of the Chatti 
who left their country and settled, before Ca?sar's time, in the island 
(Batavorum insula) formed by the two great branches of the Ehine 
on the N. and S. and the sea on the \V. ; the Menapii, in Caesar's 
time, on both sides of the Ehine, and along the coast as far AV. as 
the Morini (the German tribes of the Usipetes and Tenctheri crossed 
the Ehine and settled in their territory) : the Uervii ^" on the right 



1 The Sequani appear to have been skilful Tveavers : — 

Hanc tibi Sequanicee ping-uem textricis alnmnam, 

Quae Laceclaemonium. barbara nonien habet ; 
Sordida, sed gelido non aspeniauda Decembri 

Dona, peregrinani mittimus endromida. Mart. ir. 19. 

2 The Leuci and Remi are noticed by Lucan as skilful spearmen ; — 

Optimus excusso Leucus Rhemusque lacerto. i. 424. 

^ Et qui te laxis imitantur, Sarmata, braccis 

Vangiones. Lrc. i. 430. 

* Tu quoque, Isetatus converti proelia, Trevir. Id. i. 441. 

5 The Batavi are described as a fierce race, of large size, with light or red 
hair : — 

Batavique truces, quos eere recurro 

Stridentes acuere tubse. Lrc. i. 431. 

Hie petit Euphraten juvenis doiiitique Batavi 
Custodes aquilas, armis industrius. Jrv. viii. 51. 

Sum figuli lusus, nifi persona Batavi. Mart. xiv. 176. 

Jam puer auricomo praeformidate Batavo. Sil. Ital. iii. 608. 

^ The Xervii offered a most determined resistance to the Romans : they were 



644 



GALLIA,— BELGICA. 



Book IV. 



bank of the upper Scaldis ; the Morini along the sea-coast from the 
month of the Scaklis in the E. to the territory of the Amhiani in 
the AY. ; the Bellovaci, Beauvais, between the upper Samara and the 
Seqnana, reputed the first of the Belgic tribes in numbers and 
influence ; and the Caleti, Caux^ on the sea-coast E. of the Sequana. 
The towns of Belgica rose to importance at a comparatively late 
date. The dangers that threatened the Roman empire on the side of 
Germany necessitated a number of garrisons along the course of 
the Ehine, commencing with Argentoratum, and extending down to 
Lugdunum Batavorum, between which points we have Mogontiacum, 
Bingium, Bonna, Colonia Agrippma, Asciburgium, Castra Vetera, 
and other less important towns. Augusta Trevirorum, on the 
Mosella, was the finest town in this part of the country, and the 
general residence of the Roman Emperors in their visits to northern 
Gaul. Divodurum, on the same river, and Durocortorum, on a 
branch of the Isara, are also proved by their remains to have been 
important and fine cities. 

Colonia Equestris Noviodunum, Xyon, was in the country of the 
Helvetii on the L. of Geneva : the name of Equestre is said still to 
attach to the neighbourhood of Xyon. Aventicum, Avenches, the 
capital of the Helvetii, stood X.E. of Geneva: it became a Roman 
colony with the name Pia Flavia Constans Emerita : there are remains 
of its amphitheatre and aqueduct, and part of its wall. Salodunim, 
SoJothurn, was another town of the Helvetii. of which some ancient 
remains are still extant. Vindonissa, TTincUscli, near the Aar, was a 
considerable place, and the station of the 21st Legion in a.d. 71 : there 
are traces of an amphitheatre, and various other Roman remains on its 
site. Augusta Raurac5rum, Augst, 6 miles E. of Basle, wasthe chief 
town of the Rauraci : a Roman colony was planted there in the time of 
Augustus by L. Mmiatius Plancus. Vesontio, Besancon, the chief town 
of the Sequani, stood on the Dubis. Douhs, a tributary of the Arar : 
the position of the town is correctly described by Caesar as being on a 
peninsula surrounded by the Dubis ; but he is wrong in stating the 
width of the neck of land which connects it vith the adjacent country 
ai5 600 Roman feet, its width really being 1500. Vesontio suffered 
severely from the Alemanni, Hims. and others ; a triumphal arch and 
a part of the aqueduct are all the remains of the old town. Tullum, 
Toul, was the chief city of the Leuci. Catalauni, or, as the name is 
othervvise given, Durocatalaunum, Chdlons-sur-Jtlarne, in the territory of 
the Remi, was famous for the defeat of Attila and his Huns by the 
Roman Aetius in a.d. 451 : the name implies a people as well as a town. 
Durocortorum, Eeirns, was the capital of the Remi, and the centre where 



cut up by Ceesar on the hanks of the SaMs in e.g. 5 7 ; they revolted in 54, and 
were again defeated by Ceesar in 53. 

nimiumque rcbellis 

Xervius, et ceesi poUutus sanguine Cottee. Lrc. i. 428. 

' Their name, from mor, " the sea," bespeaks a Celtic origin : they are noticed 
by Virgil as the most distant of the Continental nations : — 

Extremlque hominum Morini. ^ILn. viii. 727. 



Chap. XXX. 



TOWXS. 



645 



numerous roads met : it also possessed a school of rhetoric : it contained 
niunerous Eoman edifices, of which a triumphal arch ^^ith three 
gateways and eight Corinthian columns, and some traces of the Thermae, 
ai'e the only remains. Divodunim, Metz, probably derived its name 
from being situated at the junction • divo = U^o of the Moselle and 
Seille : it was the chief town of the Mediomatrici, and became from its 
position an important place. In a.d. 7<j, -t< juQ of its inhabitants were 
massacred by the soldiers of Vitellius : it was destroyed by the Huns in 
the fifth century. The town was supplied with water by a magnificent 
aqueduct six French leagues in length : of this, five arches remain on 
the left bank of the Moselle, and seventeen on its right Ijank at Jouy, 
one of which is 64 feet high. Argentoratum, afterwards Stratisburgium, 
whence its modern name Strashurg. was the chief town of the Tribocci 
on the Hhine. The Bomans had a manufactory of arms^ and Julian 
defeated the Alemanni there. Noviomagus, Speier, lower down the 
course of the Ehine, was the capital of the Xemetes. Mogontiacum, 
Mainz, on the Ehine, was a niuiucipiuni. and is noted as the spot where 
a monument was erected in honour of Drusus, father of Germanicus. 
Bingium, Bingen, at the junction of the Xava and the Ehine, was a 
EoDTian station, and is noticed by Tacitus in connection with the war of 
Civilis. Augusta Trevirorum, Trier or Treves, was a Eoman colony, 
planted probably by Augustus, on the right bank of the Moselle : it was 
connected ^vith the other side of the river by a bridge, and it appears to 
have been walled from the time of its erection. Ausoniiis places 
Tre^dri fourth in his list of nobiles urbes :" it appears to have been 
the regular imperial residence in this part of Gaul in the fourth century. 
It was one of the sixty cities taken by the Franks and the Alemanni 
after the death of Aurelian, and recovered by Probus. Constantino the 
Great frequently resid.ed there, and restored the place, and Eumemus 
the rhetorician speaks of the great circus, the basiliete, the forum, and 
the walls, as the works of that emperor. The piers of the bridge, the 
remains of the amphitheatre, and a gigantic gate — a C[uadrangular con- 
struction, 115 feet long, 91 high, and G7 deep — are the most striking 
Eoman monuments. Bonna, Bonn, was a town of the Ubii, on the 
Ehine : it was here that Drusus made his bridge of boats across the 
river in B.C. 12 or 11. It became a military station of the Eoman 
legions, which were attacked here in a.d. 70, by the Batavi and Cannine- 
fates. It was probably taken by the Alemanni. as the Avails were 
repaired by Julian in a.d. 359. Colonia Agrippina, Cologne on the 
left bank of the Ehine, was originally called Oppidum Ubiorum, as being 
the chief town of the Ubii : the chauge of name was effected, in a.d. 51, 
by Claudius, at the request of his Avife Agrippina, who Avas born there, 
and at the same time a colony of veterans Avas planted there. The 
town was AA'ell situated at the chief place of transit betAveen the E, and 
W. sides of the Ehine, and the inhabitants soon became enriched Avith 
the tolls they levied on the merchandize that crossed there, a.s Avell 
as probably on that which passed down the river. It became the chief 
toAvn of Germania Secimda, and enjoyed the jus Italicurn. Aulus 
Vitellius was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers in ad. 69, and Trajan 
assumed the imperial insignia there in 98. The place was taken by the 
Franks, but recovered by Julian about a.d. 356. The Eoman remains 
consist of a gateway, the Ffojf en-port e, supposed to be the Porta 
Claudia, and portions of the walls, Avith numerous antiquities : the name 
Cologne is a modification of Colonia. Asciburgium, Ashurg, on the 
lower Ehine, was a Eoman station in a.d. 70. Castra Vetera, Xanten, 



646 



GALLIA.— BELGICA. 



Book IV. 



was an important Eoman station on an elevation near the Rhine, formed 
in the time of Augustus : Civilis blockaded and captured some Eoman 
legions there in a.d. 70. Lugdununi Batavorum, Leijden, was the chief 
town in the Batavian isle : the name itself is Celtic, and leads to the 
inference that the Celts had occupied this district before the entrance 
of the Batavi. Gesoriacum or Bononia, Boulogne, was the chief port of 
the Morini, and the j^lace whence Claudius crossed into Britain : it is 
described by Plinv as Portus Morinorum Britannicus, and the distance 
across (probably to Butupise) is estimated by him at 50 m. p. : there are 
no B-oman remains at Boulogne. The Itius Portus, whence Ctesar sailed 
certainly in his second expedition, and probably in his first, is more to 
the E. at Wissant, where there is no port strictly speaking, but a wide, 
sheltered, sandy bay : the Ulterior Portus of which he speaks would 
thus be Sangatte. Castellum, Cassel, near Dunl-erque, was a Eoman 
station, as also was Taruenna, Terouenne, both in the territory of the 
Morini. Samarobriva, A miens, a to™ of the Ambiani, was situated (as 
its name implies) on the Samara. Augusta Suessionum, the capital of 
the Suessiones, is the present Soissons: and Juliobona, the capital of the 
Caleti; is Lillehoime, where are the remains of a theatre, and tombs, 
together with other antiquities. 

History, — The history of Gallia commences with the settlement of 
Massalia by the Phocseans of Asia Minor, about b c. 600, who introduced 
the vine, and taught the Galli the use of letters. We hear little of the 
country until the time that the Eomans entered it in 125, as allies 
of the Massaliots against the Salyes. In this and the two following 
years the Salyes were attacked, and finally subdued ; and in 1"22 the 
colony of Accuse Sextia? was planted. The gradual progress of the 
Roman arms has been already traced, ^ and need not be repeated here. 
After the completion of Caesar's conquests, various colonies were planted 
throughout the country, but no regular government was introduced 
until B.C. 27, when Augustus established the fourfold division to which 
we have referred. 



^ See pp. 52, 53. 




Coin of Xemansus. 




..emains of Eoman ^Vall. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

BEITAX^'IC^ lySULJ.. GEEMA^■IA. 

I. BRiTAyxic^ Insula. § 1. Xames and diyisions of the islands. 
§ 2. Rivers, Sec, of Britannia Romana. § 3. Climate and produc- 
tions. § 4. Inhabitants. § 5. Roman divisions ; towns : roads ; 
walls; history. §6. Britannia Barbara. §7. Hibernia. 11. Ger- 
MAXIA. § 8. Boundaries and general description. § 9. Mountains; 
rivers. § 10. Tribes; towns: history. 

I. Beitaxic^ Insula. 

§ 1. The term Britannicee Insulae "^^as employed by Greek writers 
to describe the whole group of the British Isles, but more espe- 
cially the two largest of them, Great Britain and Ireland. Subse- 
quently to the time of Caesar these two were distinguished, the 
former as Britannia,^ or Albion,^ the latter as Hibernia, or lerne. At 



1 The Greeks generally Tvrote tlie name Bpe-ravia., ^vith a double t ; the Latins 
used the single t. Lucretius alone lengthens the i in the line — 

Xam quid Britannis coelum differre putamus. vi. 1105. 

The origin of the name is not known ; it is usually referred to the Celtic Irit, 
" painted." 

2 This name is generally regarded as derived from alb us, in reference to the 
"white" cliffs on the S. coast. It is more probably connected with the Celtic 
Alhati, signifying " height." 



648 BRITANNIC^ INSULA. Book IV. 



a later period Britannia was applied to England as distingnislied 
from Scotland. The position of the groui3 in relation to the con- 
tinent of Europe, and particularly to Gaul, was well known to the 
later Eomans ; ^ very inaccurate views, however, prevailed, even 
down to the time of Ptolemy, as to the form and relative positions 
of the islands themselves. The seas which surround them are — the 
Mare Britannicum on the S., the Mare Germanicum on the E., the 
Oceanus Atlanticus on the "W., and the Mare Cronium or Pigrum 
on the N. Britannia itself was divided into two portions, Romana 
and Barbara, corresponding generally to the modern England and 
Scotland, though Romana was sometimes carried into Scotland as 
far as the Firths of Forth and Clyde, and was sometimes restricted 
to Hadrian's Wall. As the latter ajjpears to have been the proper 
boundary of the Pioman province, we shall regard it as the limit of 
Britannia Eomana in the following pages. 

§ 2. The names of the physical features of Britannia Eomana are 
known to us, partly from the writings of Csesar and Tacitus, and 
partly from the description of Ptolemy. The notices of the two 
former writers are few, but are the only ones that possess any his- 
torical interest : Csesar mentions the Prom. Cantium, North Foreland, 
and the river Tamesis, Thames ; and Tacitus the river Sabrina, Severn, 
and the Antona, for which we should probably read Aufona, Avon, 
The description in Ptolemy is sufficiently full, but consists of names 
alone without any associations. These are valuable, as proving the 
identity^ of the modern and ancient names, and occasionally as 
affording indications of the ancient British language. We give them 



3 The remoteness of Britain is noticed by Virgil and Horace : — 

Et penitus toto divisos orbe Britannos. Virg. UcI. i. 67. 

Serves iturum. Caesarem in ultimos 

Orbis Britannos. Hon. Carm. i. 35, 29. 

Pestemque, a populo, principe Csesare, in 
Persas atque Britannos 

Vestra motus aget prece. Id. i. .21, 14. 

Te belluosTis, qui remotis 

Obstrepit, Oceanus, Britannis. Id. iv. 14, 47. 

The identity is not indeed universal, but it holds good in many instances 
-vrhere there is an apparent discrepancy ; e. g. Idumania and BJackicater probably 
have the same meaning, the latter being a translation of the former : Garr- 
huenus is radically the same as Yare ; while Ituna, Sohcay Firth, no doubt has 
reference to the Eden, which flows into it. The orthography of the classical names 
is very doubtful : we have, for instance, three forms for the ancient name of the 
Thames, viz., Tamesis in Csesar, Tamesa in Dion Cassius and Tacitus, and lamesa 
in Ptolemy, the latter being probably an error of a copyist. So also of the tribes ; 
e. g., Trinobantes and Trinoantes, Damnonii and Dumnonii, Demetse and DimetaB, 
&c. And so still more of the towns ; e. g., Camalodunum and Camulodunum, 
Verolamiurn and Verulamium, Luguvallum, Luguvallium, and Lugubalum, kc. 
We deem it unnecessary to specify all these variations in the text. 



Chap. XXXI. 



CLIMATE AND PEODUCTIOXS. 



649 



therefore in brief, taking a survey of the coasts, beginning with 
the N.E. 

(I.) On tlte E. coast. Rivers — Vedra, Wear; Ahus, Siimher : Gar- 
rhuenus, Ya7e: Sturius, Stoiir : Idumania, Blaclacater : and Tamesa, 
Thames. Estuaries and Bays. — Bunum Sinus, Dunsley Bay, near 
Whithy ; Gabrantuicdrum Sin., Filey Bay: Metaris ^stuarium, the 
Wash ; and Tamesa ^st., the mouth of the Tliarnes. Promontories. — 
Ocellum, Flamboro Head; and Cantium, Xortli Foreland. 
• (2. ) On the S. coast. Rivers. — Trisanton, probably the J. ; Alau- 
nus, perhaps the Axe; Isaca, Exe ; and Taniarus, Tamar. Promon- 
tories. — Danmonium or Gcrinum, the Lizard ; Antivestaeum or Bo- 
lerium, Land's End. 

(o.j On the ir. coast. Rivers. — Sabrina, Severn; Ehatostatbybius, 
Ta f; Tobius, Towey ; Tuerobis, Teify ; Stucia, Bovey ; and Toesobis, 
Conway. J^stuaries.—Ssibima. ^st., Bristol Channel; Seteia ^st., 
mouth of the Dee ; Belisama ^st., mouth of the Rihhle ; Moricambe 
-Est., Morecamhe Bay ; and Itunsi Mst., Solicay Firth. Promontories. — 
Herculis Prom., HartJand Point; Octapitarum, St. David's Head; and 
Cangan5rum Prom., Braicli-y-Pidl. 

§ 3. The climate and productions of Britain are described by 
several writers. The former is characterised as humid and foggy, 
but otherwise temperate. A large amount of the country was 
covered with forests and morasses, which rendered it more moist 
than it now is. The soil was regarded as fertile : in Caesar's time a 
very small portion of it was cultivated, but in the later times of the 
Empire a large amount of corn was exported for the use of the 
Eoman troops in Germany.^ The greater part of the island was 
given up to pasture, and the native British lived mostly on the 
produce of their flocks and herds. The country was rich in mi- 
nerals : the tin-mines of Cornwall were probably worked by the 
Phoenicians from a very early period,^ and led to the application of 
the name Cassiterides to the S.AY. coast and the Scilly Isles. In 
addition to this we have notices of lead, iron, silver, and even gold." 
The dogs ^ of Britain were particularly prized, and the oysters of 
PiutupiaB ^ were well known at Eome. Pearls were found in con- 

5 About A.D. 360 Julian had 600 vessels built for the express purpose of im- 
porting corn to tlie provinces bordering on the Ehine. 

6 This however has been denied by many modern writers, as no Phoenician 
coins have been found nor any other evidence of their having settled in Britain. 
It has been supposed that the tin was carried across Gaul to Massilia and other 
Greek colonies, and then sold to the Phoenician merchants. 

' Specimens of these metals, as produced by the Pvomans, are still in existence. 
Blocks of tin are rare ; those of lead are more common, and bear inscriptions 
giving the name of the emperor in whose reign they were smelted. A square 
ingot of silver has also been found with a Latin inscription ; and there are un- 
doubted proofs that the Eomans crushed quartz for gold in the neighbourhood of 
Llampeter in Wales. 

^ They are noticed by Claudian as a very powerful breed : — 

Magnaque taurorum fracturse colla Britannae. — Be Laud. Ital. iii. 301. 

9 Kutupinove edita fundo 

Ostrea. Jw. iv. 

AXC. GEOG. 2 F 



650 



BEITANNIC^ INSULiE 



Book IV. 



siderable niim"bers, but of poor quality. We have also evidence that 
there were abundance of sheep, pigs, goats, deer, oxen, and horses 
on the island.^^ The seas about the shores of Britain were reputed 
to abound with a kind of whale.^ 

§ 4. The inhabitants of Britannia Piomana were Celts of the 
Cymry branch, and are described as similar to the Gauls in person 
and manners, The}^ had attained but a low degree of civilisation 
at the time the Piomans became acquainted with them : their cloth-* 
ing was made of skins, and they were in the habit of staining and 
tattooing their bodies.^ They were warlike,^ and fought without 
armour, but were acquainted with the use of the war-chariot. 
They were divided into numerous tribes, which lived independently 
of each other under their own chieftains. Their religion was 
Druidism, and the priests exercised considerable influence in the 
state, as the depositaries of learning and the administrators of 
justice. Their towns were little else than stockaded villages. The 
introduction of Pioman civilisation effected without doubt a consi- 
derable improvement in their condition, though we have not much 
information on this subject. It appears, however, that they acquired 
the art of coining money. The chief memorials of the ancient 
British people consist of " cromlechs," barrows, and circles of stones, 
all of which are connected with their sepulchres, camps, traces of 
villages, and above all the mysterious construction at Stonelienge, 
The articles discovered in the sepulchres consist chiefly of urns, 
sometimes rudely ornamented, and instruments of stone and bronze, 
such as " celts " or chisels, arrow-heads, and the heads of axes and 
hammers. 



Proofs of the existence of these animals are found in the Roman rubbish-pits, 
where their bones exist in great quantities, showing that they were largely eaten. 
From this source we learn that there was a very large breed of oxen then in the 
island, described by naturalists as hos longifrons. 

1 Quanto delphinis balsena Britannica major. Juv. x. 14, 

helluosus qui remotis 

Obstrepit Occanus remotis. Hoe. Carm. iv. 14, 47. 

2 This custom is frequently noticed by the Latin poets : — 
Claudia cceruleis cum sit Rufina Britannis 

Edita. Mart. xi. 53. 

Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannis. Id. xiv. 99. 

Nunc etiam infectos demens imitare Britannos, 

Ludis et externo tincta nitore caput. Propert. ii. I'i, 25. 

Sed Scythiam, Cilicasque feros, vwidesque Britannos. — Ov. Am. ii. 16, 39. 
3 Visam Britannos hospitibus feros. Hor. Carm. iii. 4, 33. 

Qua nec terribiles Cimbri nec Britones unquam 
Sauromatseve truces aut immanes Agathyrsi. Juv. xv. 124. 

Gallicum Rhenum, horribilesque ulti- 

mosque Britannos. Catull. xi. 11. 



Chap. XXXI. 



UXDER THE EOMAXS. 



651 



The native tribes of Britain were arranged as follows : — (1.) S. of 
the Thames — the Cantii in Kent : the Regni in Surrey and Sussex; the 
Belgae in Wilts, Hants, and Somersetshire; the Bnrotriges in Dorset- 
shire ; the Atrebatii in Berhs ; and the Bamnonii in Devon and Cornicall. 
(2.) Between the Tliames, the Severn, and the Humher — the Trino- 
bantes in MidcUesex, Essex, and the S. of Suffolk; the Bobuni in 
Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, with the Catuellani as a subdivision; 
the CatyeucMaiii in Northami:)tonshire, Beds, Hunts, and Eidland ; the 
Cenimagni in the X. of Suffolk ; the Iceni in Norfolk ; the Coritani in 
Lincolnshire and Leicestershire ; and the Comavii in Cheshire and parts 
of Staffordshire and Shropshire. (3.) W. of the Severn — the Silures in 
Monmouthshire and the E. oi S. Wales; the Bimetae in the three "W. 
counties of S. Wales ; and the Ordovices in Shropshire and N. Wales. 
(4.) Between the Humher and Hadrian's Wall — the Brigantes, with 
the Setantii as a subordinate tribe on the banks of the Btbhle, and the 
Parisii just X. of the Humher. The position of the Cangi^ noticed by 
Tacitus, is quite uncertain. 

§ 5. The Romans first entered Britain in B.C. 55, mider Caesar : 
but they did not permanently occupy it until about one himdred years 
later, when Claudius subdued the tribes S. of the Thames (a.d. 43). 
That emperor constituted Britain a province under the government 
of a consular legatus and a procurator. It remained in this state 
imtil A.D. 197, vrhen it was divided into two provinces, Superior and 
Inferior, the latter being in the S., each under a separate Praises. 
It was subsequently, probably under Constaniine, subdivided into 
four provinces named as follows : Britannia Prima, S. of the Thames ; 
Brit. Secunda, W. of the Several ; Maxima Caesariensis, between the 
T?iarnes and the Humher ; and Flavia Caesariensis, N. of the Humher. 
Our information with regard to the political and social state of Bri- 
tain under the Piomans is unfortunately scanty : the sources whence 
it is derived may be classed under three heads, — (1) historical do- 
cuments ; (2) itineraries and geographers, particularly Ptolemy ; 
(3) existing remains. 1. From the first of these sources we learn 
somewhat of the topography of the country and of the political 
status of the towns ; the classical writers notice the capital Londi- 
nium, London, Camalodununi, Colchester, the first Pioman colony, 
Yerularnium, St. Allan's, the capital of Cassivelaunus, and Pvu- 
tupise, Eichhorough, the chief port for communication with the con- 
tinent ; later writers (Dio Cassius, Eutropius, &c.) notice Eboracum, 
York, the great station of the Eomans in the later period of their 
occupancy ; and a very much later authority. Pilchard of Cirencester,'* 
who, however, probably drew his information from original sources, 



4 Hichard of Cirencester flourished in the 14th century. Among other works 
he composed a treatise, " De Situ Britanniee," ^vhich was not known to the world 
until 1747, when it was discovered by Dr. Bertram of Copenhagen. The manu- 
script has been lost, and it is doubtful whether Bertram has given his author with 
fidelity. There seems, however, to be no doubt that Richard of Cirencester's 
treatise contained local information not found in the Itineraries. 

2 F 2 



652 



Book IV. 



informs iis that there were in Britain 2 'municijna, viz., Terula- 
mium and Eboraciim ; 9 coZora'ce, viz., Londinium, Camalodimum, 
Eiitiipias, Ricliboroughj Ac|na3 Solis, Bath, Isca, Caerleon, Deva, 
Chester, Qleviim, Gloucester, Lindnm, Lincoln, and Camborlcnm, 
Carrtbridge ; 10 cities Latlo Jure donatce, of which we may notice 
Dm'obrivas, Castor, Lnguballium, Carlisle, and Coriniiim, Ciren- 
cester ; and 12 stijjendia)' ice, of which we may notice Yenta Bel- 
garum, Winchester, Segontium, Carnarvon, Maridunnm, Car- 
marthen, Eat£e, Leicester, Cantiopolis, Canterhury, Dminum, 
Dorchester, Isca, Exeter, and Durohriva^, Bochester. 2. From the 
Itineraries we obtain information with regard to the roads con- 
stmcfced by the Eomans, and tlie numerous towns which lined 
them. No less than fifteen routes are given in the Itinerary of Anto- 
nine, and eighteen in that of Eichard of Cirencester. These routes de- 
monstrate how completely the Eomans had opened up the country, and 
how great was the communication carried on between the different 
districts. Ptolemy also mentions numerous towns. 3. From the 
third source of information we obtain a vivid idea of the extent to 
which the country was Eomanised, and the high pitch of wealth and 
refinement that prevailed through all parts. AVe learn, for instance, 
from this source, that the towns were inclosed within strong walls ^ — 
that every one of any size possessed its basilica or court-house, and 
its public baths — that magnificent temples were erected^ — that 
many of them had amphitheatres-' — and that all were furnished 
with large cemeteries outside the walls. We further learn that 
villas were dispersed all over the land, and that in the southern 
counties they were almost as numerous as gentlemen's seats in the 
present day— that these villas were of vast extent ^ and of great 
magnificence, furnished with hypocausts " for the purpose of 
warming the rooms, and with baths, and adorned with painted walls 
and mosaic floors Avith elaborate designs. AYe further learn that the 
Eomans carried on extensive manufactories of pottery ^ and of 
iron,^^ and that, as we have previously noticed, they worked and 
smelted other metals. Yre further learn that there was the usual 
amount of refinement in matters of personal appearance : among the 



^ Specimens of Eomaii ^alls and gates are found at Bichhorough, Burgh in 
Suffolk, Lymne, York, Lincoln, Chichester, Berensey, and other places. 

6 We know of tlie existence of a temple of Minerva at Bath, a temple of Xeptime 
and Minerva at Chichester, and a temple of Minerva at Coccium, Bihchester. 

' As 3.t Borchester, Cirencester, Caerleon, Bichhorough, Colchester, smd Silchester. 

8 The most perfect remains of villas are found at Bignor in Sussex, and at 
Woodchester in Gloucestershire. 

^ Kemains of potteries have been found at Cpchurch Jlarshes on the ITechcay, 
and at Caistor in Xorthcrmptonshire. 

The Forest of Dean was the main seat of the iron-works ; the heaps of scorise 
may still be seen there in vast numbers. Iron also appears to have been made in 
the Weald of Sussex, 



Chap. XXXI. 



653 



articles which have been discovered, are fihidce or buckles, bone and 
bronze hair-pins, metal specula or looking-glasses, gold torques or 
collars, bracelets, needles, styli or pens, spoons, &c. Lastly, the 
vast number of coins which are discovered amid Roman niins, ex- 
tending over the whole period of their occupation of the country, 
ajffords no slight indication of the extent to which Eoman ^ influence 
prevailed in the transactions of daily life. From this brief review of 
the state of Britain under the Eomans we now revert to the notices 
of the towns. 

Toicns. — Londinium, the capital of Eoman Britain^ origiually stood 
wholly on the X. side of the Thames ; but in the time of Hadrian and 
Antoninus Pius it had extended to the S. bank (where Soutlurarl: now 
stands), and is hence described by Ptolemy as a town of the Cantii. It 
is first noticed by Tacitus, who speaks of it as a place of great trade ; 
it was plundered by the Britons at the time of Boadicea's revolt. It 
bore at a later date the surname of Augusta, and became the ter- 
minus of the great roads of Britain. The remains that have been dis- 
covered, show the extent and magnificence of the town. The walls 
enclosed the same circuit as those of mediseval London ; they were 12 
feet thick, and were furnished with at least seven gates. Xumerous 
tesselatecl pavements and fragments of statuary and sculpture have 
been discovered at depths varying from 12 to 20 feet below the present 
level of the soil. There was a mint at London, the coins struck in it 
belonging chiefly to Carausius, AUectus, and Constantinus. Verula- 
mium, Old Verulam, near St. Alhans, was probably the residence of 
Cassivelaunus, which was taken by Ccesar : it was afterwards the capital 
of a prince named Tasciovanus, some of whose coins still exist : it was 
plundered at the time of Boadicea's revolt. It subsequently became a 
municipium, and one of the cliief Eoman stations in the island. The 
abbey chm^ch of St. Alhans is built to a great extent of Eoman tiles 
taken from the old to-\;\m. Camalodunum was the chief town in the 
country of the Trinobantes. It was the residence of Prince Cunobe- 
linus in the reign of Tiberius, and was taken by Claudius in a.d. 43, 
and converted into a Eoman colony under the name of Col. Camalodu- 
nensis Yictricensis. Tacitus (^Ann. xii. 32, 33) states that this was 
done for the repression of the Silm^es ; but this is clearly erroneous. 
He also informs us (Ann. xiv. 31, 32) that it possessed a temple of Clau- 
dius, a curia, and a theatre. It was taken and destroyed by the Britons 
before Boadicea's revolt. Some doubt exists as to whether it is to be 
identified ^\ith Malclon or Colchester : the general opinion is that the 
Eoman Colonia and Camalodunum were the same place, in which case 
it would be Colcliester , where a vast number of Eoman remains have been 



1 It is important to observe that the Romans of Britain were not all of them 
Italians. With regard to the civilians, indeed, we know little or nothing ; but the 
legionary troops who were stationed in the island were drawn from the most 
remote and widely-separated districts. There were, for instance, Gauls stationed 
^tLynuie ; Spaniards at Anderida, Ferensey ; Dalmatians at Branodunum, Bran- 
caster ; Thracians at Gabrosentum, Drumlurgh, and Dacians at Amboglanna, 
BirdosiuaJd. These nations introduced various kinds of religious worship ; and 
hence we find altars not only of Juj)iter and the other Eoman gods, but of deities 
whose names even are unknown to us. 



654 



BPJTAXNIC^ INSULA. 



Book IY. 



discovered. Venta, the capital of the Iceni, and hence surnamed Iceno- 
rum, to distinguish it from the other towns of the same name, pro- 
bably stood at Caisfor, a little S. of Norwich. Lindum was an im- 
portant town in the district of the Coritani, and a colony, as its modern 
name Lincoln, from Lindi colonia/' implies. The Roman remains are 
very important, and consist of a gateway, named Newport, still in use; 
a sewer, a wall now known as the ^'Mint Wall," numerous inscriptions, 
coins, &c. Eboracum, YorPc, was situated in the country of the Bri- 
gantes, and. became from its northerly position the chief military station 
of the Romans in the later period of their residence in the island. It 
was the station of the 6th Legion, surnamed Victrix. The emperors 
Severus and Constantius Chlorus died there ; and Constantine the 
Great is said (but on insufficient authority) to have been born there. 
The foundations of the old Roman walls on three sides have been disco- 
vered, together with the remains of one of the gates, probably the Prae- 
torian, facing the I^. The town appears to have been of rectangular 
form, 650 yards long by 550 broad, and to have been protected by a 
wall, with a rampart on the inside and a fosse on the outside. Outside 
these limits were suburbs of considerable extent. The remains of pri- 
vate dwellings, baths, tesselated pavements, and votive tablets, parti- 
cularly two to Serapis and Mithras, are very numerous. Luguvallum, 
Carlisle, appears to have been an important place, though the notices 
of it are very scantj^. It stood near the W. extremity of Hadrian's 
wall, and on one of the roads leading into Caledonia. Deva, Chester,^ 
was so named from the river on which it was built. It was an im- 
portant military station, and the head-quarters of the 20th Legion, 
surnamed Valeria Victrix. The Roman re-mains are numerous^ con- 
sisting of the foundations of the walls, a postern now called Sldpcjate, 
pJtars, and baths, statues, particularly one of Mithras with a Phrygian 
bonnet, vases, &c. Uriconium, Wroxeter, was situated on the main 
road between Deva and Londinium, and in the territory of the Cor- 
navii. The explorations which have been made here prove that it 
was a very important town. The buildings as yet discovered consist 
of a hasilica, tJiermce, a forum, and numerous other objects. Isca, 
Caerleon, in the country of the Silures, was an important military post 
for keeping that nation in order, and was at one time the station of the 
2nd Legion, surnamed Augusta. Nimieroas antiquities have been dis- 
covered there, pa^rticularly an amphitheatre, the remains of a Roman 
villa, Vv4th specimens of Samian ware and bronze ornaments, tesselated 
pavements, and inscriptions. In the same neighbourhood stood Venta, 
surnamed Silnrum, Caerwent, where are traces of the Roman walls. 
Corinium, or Burocornovium,^ Cirencester, was centrally situated at the 



2 In many instances, where the ancient differ from the modern names, the 
former still exist in reference to other objects ; e.g. we may compare Deva with the 
river Dee; Uriconium with the mountain Wrehin ; Segontiiim with the river 
Seiont ; and Isca with the Usk. In other cases the ancient names are modified 
by the addition of the word castra in different forms. The Saxons turned this 
into Chester or cester, and the Danes into castor or caster, while the British used 
the form caer or car as a prefix. Hence we have the names Gloii-cester as 
equivalent to " Glevi castra," Don-caster to Danii castra, Carlisle to Castra Lugu- 
valli, Caer-leon to Castra Legionis, Carmarthen to Castra Mariduni ; and in some 
instances we have simply Castra, as in Chester and Caistor. 

3 The prefix Duro, which appears in numerous instances, is equivalent to the 
Welsh dicr, "water," and expresses the position of the town by a river. The two 



Chap. XXXI. 



TOWXS— EOADS. 



655 



junction of three Roman roads, and in the midst of a well-occupied 
district. Many villas have been discovered in and about the town, and 
it appears to have been one of the most fashionable towns of Roman 
Britain. Aquae Solis, Bath, was the favourite watering-place of the 
Romans. Solis " may be a corruption of Sulis," a British goddess, 
whose name appears on an altar found there. Remains of the baths 
and of a temple of Minerva have been discovered there, together with 
inscriptions which prove that it was much frequented. Durnovaria, 
Dorchester, was one of the chief towns on the S. coast : the walls have 
been traced, and an amphitheatre is still in existence. Venta Eelgarum, 
Winchester, and Sorbiodunum were the chief towns of the Belgse ; the 
walls of the latter have been traced at Old Sarum near Scdishury, and 
numerous coins have been found there. Calleva, the chief town of the 
Atrebates, is represented by Silcliester, where walls three miles in circuit 
mark the site of the old town. Finally, in Kent we have to notice 
Durobrivae, iioc/ie.sfe/% where coins, fihulx, and pottery have been found; 
Durovernum, Canterhury ; Eegulbium, Beculver, a fort, of which some 
walls still exist, commanding the entrance of the channel that separated 
the isle of Thanet from the mainland ; Eutupiae, Richhorough, its port 
being named Portus Rutupensis (Trutulensis in Tac. Agric, 38 ) ; it was 
evidently a town of great magnificence : portions of its walls still exist 
to the height of between 20 and 30 feet, as well as the foundations of 
its amphitheatre, and a vast number of smaller objects, such as fihulds, 
pottery, coins, &c. ; we have already noticed Rutupiae as the chief port 
for the Continental traffic ; there were also ports at Dubris, Dover, 
where is a tower supposed to have been a lighthouse ; and at Portus 
Lemanis, Lyrane, where one of the gates has been discovered as well as 
the old walls : both Dover and Lymne were stations for the marines 
{Classiarii Britannici). 

Boads. — The Roman roads were constructed in a most substantial 
manner, and may still be traced in many parts of the country. The 
most remarkable feature about them is the un deviating directness of 
their course. The original names have not come down to us^ with the 
exception perhaps of the Via Julia along the coast of >S'. Wcdes: in 
theu' place, we have the names given to some of them by the Saxons. 
Five main routes traversed the country in various directions, as 
follows : — 1. WatUng Street, from Rutupiee through Durobrivse to Lon- 
dinium (where the name is still applied to an important street), and 
thence by Verulamium, Yenonee, High Cross in Leictstershire, and 
Etocetum, Wall in Staffordshire^ to Uriconium, where it divided, one 
branch going through Wales to Segontium, Carnarvon, while another 
went northwards to Deva and ?\rancunium, Manchester, whence it was 
carried on by Caractonium, Catterick, to Cortospitum, Corhridge on the 
Tyne, and thence into Scotland. 2. Ermine Street, or the great north 
road, which appears to have started from Anderida, Bevensey, on the S. 
coast, and passed through Londinium, by Dm^olipons, Godrnanchester 
in Huntingdonshire, Durobrivas, Castor, and Causennse, Ancaster, lo 



forms Corinium. and Duro-cornorium differ mainly throngli the addition of the 
prefix in the latter case, and the same root lies at the bottom both of these and of 
the modern Ciren-cester, all of them having reference to the river Churn. So 
again Durobrivae and Rochester may be identified by the rejection of tbe prefix 
Buro in the ancient, and the affix Chester in the modern names, the connecting 
links between the remaining — brivse and Ro — being found in the forms " Ci vitas 
Roibi,^^ and the Saxon ^ro/e-ceaster. 



656 



BRITAXXIC.E IXSULiE. 



Book IV. 



Lindum^ whence it was continued in one direction to the Humher, in 
another to Danum, Doncaster, and Eboracum. 3. Tknield Street, from 
Venta Icenorum by Camboricum, Cambridge, Sorbiodunum, and Isca 
Damnonioriim, Exeter, to the extremity of Cornwall. 4. Fosse Way, 
from Lindum in a S.W. direction by Ratee, Leicester^ Corininm, Aquae 
Solis^ and Ischalis, llcliester, to Moridunum, probably Seaton near Ho- 
niton. 5. BijTmield Street, from Hadrian's wall near Tynemouth, in a 
S.W. direction to Glevum, Gloucester, and thence along the coast of 
iS. Wales by Xidum, Neatli, to Maridunum, Carmarthen. Important 
roads also led from Londinium to the eastern counties by Caesaro- 
maguS; Chelmsford, to Camalodunum and Venta Icenorum ; and again 
to the W. by a route which crossed the Thames at Pontes, Staines, and 
thence by Calleva and Spinae, Speen in Berhs, to Corinium in one di- 
rection, and Aquae Solis in another : from the latter place it was con- 
tinued across the Bristol Channel (where the old Roman name for the 
passage, Augasti Trajectus, is still preserved in the iovm Aust) to Venta 
Silurum, Burrium, Vsli. Gobannium, Abergavenny, Luentinum, in Car- 
diganshire, and thence in a line parallel to the coast to Conovium, 
Conway : this road is now called Sam Helen in "Wales. 

Bornan Walls. — Among the monuments which survive to tell of the 
presence of the Romans, none are more striking than the lines of de- 
fence erected by them on the frontier. The first in point of time 
was erected by Agricola in a.d. 81, between the Firths of Clyde and 
Forth, and consisted of a chain of forts, of which there are said to have 
been nineteen in all, though the sites of only thirteen have been disco- 
vered. This line of defence was completed in a.d. 144-, by the addition 
of a rampart and ditch, constructed by Lollius Urbicus, the lieutenant 
of Antoninus Pius, and named, after the emperor, Vallum Antonini. 
It began near Old Kirhpatrich on the Clyde and terminated between 
Abercorn and Borroicstoness on the Forth : its course can still be 
traced in some parts. Another and more important line of defence 
was erected between the Tyjie and Solicay Firth, consisting of a wall 
of stone, and a vallum or rampai^t of earth running parallel to it on 
the S. side, with an interval of space between the two generally of 60 
to 70 yards, bat sometimes as much as half a mile, and sometimes only 
a few yards. It has been generally assumed that the tvvo lines were 
erected at different periods, the Vallum by Hadrian in a.d. 120, and 
the wall by Severus in 208-211. It is, however, far more probable 
that they were both erected by Hadrian, and were subsequently re- 
paired by Severus. The wall was probably from 18 to 20 feet high, 
and from 6 to 9J feet tliick. It was protected on the outside by a 
fosse, in some places 40 feet wide and 20 deep. Between the wall and 
the rampart were stations at intervals of four miles, eighteen of them on 
the wall, the others on either side of it. These stations enclosed areas of 
from three to six acres, and one of them, named Borcovicus, Houseteads, 
even fifteen acres. In addition to these there were Castella, or forts, 
about 60 ft. square, at intervals of a mile. 

History. — The first expedition of Caesar took place in B.C. 55 : starting 
from Portius Itius he crossed the channel to the neighbourhood of 
Dover, and thence coasted along probably to Deal.^ He defeated the 



* The spot where Cfpsar's disembarkation took place has been the subject of an 
interesting controversy in the present day. Csesar arrived off Dover on the 27th 
of August, at about 10 a.m. ; he remained there until 3 p.m., and then, to use his 



Chap. XXXI. 



HISTOEY. 



657 



Britons, but did not advance far from the coast. In 54 lie again 
invaded the island, defeated the Britons, probably on the banks of 
the St our, crossed the Thames near Chert sey, and took the capital 
of Cassivellaiinus. which stood probably on the site of "^rerulamium. 
Having received the homage of most of the southern tribes, he re- 
tired. The permanent conquest of Britain was comineuced by Clau- 
dius^ who sent over Aulus Plautius in a.d. lo, and shortly after 
followed himself, and took Camalodunum, the capital of Cimobeiine. 
Plautius was succeeded in 5'J by Ostorius Scapula,, who advanced 
the Roman fi'ontier to the banks of the Serev/i. defeated the Iceni 
of Xorfolk, the Brigantes of YorlisJiire, and the Silures of S. Wo.les, 
under their king Caractacus. Didius, who succeeded Ostorius, was 
again engaged in war vith the Silures. He was succeeded in 57 by 
Veranius^ and he by Paulinus Suetonius, who attacked the isle of 
!Mona, but was summoned thence to quell the insmTection of the Iceni 
under Boadicea. The next important event was the reduction of the 
Brigantes by Petilius Cerealis in the reign of Vespasian. Julius Fron- 
tinus succeeded as proprietor, and defeated the Silures ; but the final 
conquest of Britain was achieved by Julius Agricola, who became go- 
vernor in 78, defeated the Ordo vices of A'. Wales, reduced Mona^ 
adopted various measures for civilising the tribes, and in 80 crossed 
the frontier of Scotland, and succeeded in extending the Roman domi- 
nion as far as the Firths of Forth and Clyde, between which he erected 
the line of forts already described : beyond this he advanced in 84 to 
the foot of the Grampians, and defeated the Caledonians under Gal- 
gacus in a pitched battle, believed to have taken place on Ardoch Jloor 
in Perthshire. In the reign of Hadrian these concjuests are said to 
have been given up, and the boundary was fixed at the Tyne and the 
Solivay. Antoninus Pius again advanced the border, and established 
the vallum parallel to Agricola's chain of forts in a.d. 144. The re- 
maining facts in the history of Britain are — the death of the em^^eror 
Severus at York, in a.d. 211 ; the revolts headed by Carausius and 
AUectus; the appearance of the Picts in the reign of Diocletian, and 
of the Attacotts and Scots in that of Julian a.d. 360. Britain was 
abandoned by the Romans early m the 5th century in consecjuence of 
the difficulties under which the empire laboured ; shortly afterwards 
the Angli and Saxones made their appearance and subdued it. 



own words, " ventum et aestum. uno tempore nactus secundum, circiter millia 
passuum vii. ab eo loco progressus, aperto ac piano littore naves constituit " 
[B. G. iv. 23\ As low water occurs at 2 p.m. on that day, it was inferred by Dr. 
Halley that Cipsar was carried by the flowing- tide to the X. and landed at Deal. 
Mr. Airy, the Astronomer Eoyal, has stated that the stream off Dover does not 
turn at the time of high water, but runs ^vestward for 7 hours, commencing 
with the 4th hour after high water, and that consequently Caesar was carried 
iresticard. The accuracy of this statement has been in turn disputed by Vv. 
Cardwell, who has ascertained that there is a dilference in the currents of the mid- 
channel and the in-shore water, the change taking place in the latter from one to 
two hours earlier than in the former. 3Ioreover the westward set of the mid- 
channel current commences at half ebb and continues until half flood, whereas the 
Astronomer Royal's computation adds one hour to the former and two to the 
latter. .Allowing for these differences, Dr. Cardwell thinks it more than pro- 
bable that Cfesar was carried northward by the inshore ciurent, which would 
commence on the day in question at 3 p.m. 'See Archreol. Cantian. vol. iii.) 
Those who have adopted the Astronomer Eoyal" s view, have placed the landing 
either at Romnev Marsh, W. of Hvthe, at Rye, or even at Pevensev. 

2 F 3 



658 



BRITANNICiE INSULA. 



Book IV. 



Islands. — Off the coast of Britannia were the islands — Vectis, I. of 
Wight, which was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Claudius ; 
Ictis, St. Micliael's 3Iount, whither (according to Diodorus^ the Britons 
conveyed their tin in waggons when the tide was out ; Mictis (appa- 
rently one of the Scilly Isles), noticed by Pliny as a place where tin 
was founds and which the natives reached in coracles ; Silura, or Sy- 
lina, the former appearing in Solinus, the latter in Sulpicius Severus, 
probably one of the SclUy Isles ; Mona, Anglesey, the head-quarters of 
the Druids in the time of the Romans, and hence attacked by Paulinus 
in A.D. 61, and again by Agricola in a.d. 78 ; and lastly, Monapia, or 
Monarina, Isle ofAEan, which is also named Mona by Csesar {B. G. v. 13). 

§ 6. Britannia Barbara embraces the whole of Britain X. of the 
great rampart between the Sohray and the Tyne : it corresponds 
generally to the Caledonia ^ of the ancients in its extended sense, and 
to the modern Scotland. The Eomans were very slightly acquainted 
vrith this district, at all events vvith that portion of it which lies N. 
of the Firths of Clyde and Forth . The names of the tribes and 
localities are chiefly valuable to the ethnologist as indicative of the 
races to which the inhabitants belonged. The occurrence, for in- 
stance, of the names Canta? and Cornubii in N. Britain, which are 
almost identical with the Cantium and Comubii of S. Britain, and, 
again, the appearance of the element Car in many of the names, 
leads to the inference that the population of Scotland was originally 
British rather than Gaelic.^ This is further supported by the pro- 
bable etymology of the name Caledonii. The names of Picti ' and 
Scoti appear only in late writers : the latter were undoubtedly a 
Gaelic race who immigrated into the X. of Scotland, from Ireland, 
and subdued the occupants of the whole district N. of the Clyde ; 
the former, the Picti, appear to have been identical with the Cale- 
donii, the name being a mere translation of the term hrit, "painted," 



^ The name Caledonia first appears in Pliny : it occurs frequently in Tacitus's 
Agricola as applicable to all ttie populations N. of the rampart, while in Ptolemy 
the Caledonii are a tribe resident in the W. of Scotland. It appears again in the 
Oceanus T)Q\\-caledon'uis of the same writer, and in the Di-calidones, one of the 
two genres into which the Picts are di^ided by Ammianus Marcel] inus. It is 
probably derived from the Welsh celeddon, " wooded district." A comparison of 
the passages in which it occurs leads to the inference that until the invasion of 
Agricola the term was restricted to the residence of the Caledonii or Di-caledonii 
between Loch Fyne and the Jlurray Firth, and that Agricola, having become first 
acquainted with this people as living immediately X. of his rampart, extended the 
term to all the tribes of Scotland. 

^ The limit between the British and Gaelic Celts is marked by the prevalence of 
the prefix aoer in the former, and inver in the latter. This line runs obliquely 
from Loch Fyne on the W. coast to the Sjjey on the E. On the X. of it are the 
names J«rer-ness, Lnver-?.vx, &c. ; on the S. Aber-deen, J.Ser-dour, &:c. 
' lUe leves Maaros, nec falso nomine Pictos 
Edomuit, Scotimique vago mucrone secutus, 
Fregit Hyperboreas remis aucLacibus undas. 

Claudiax. de III. Co?is. Honor. 54. 

See also note ^ below. 



Chap. XXXI. 



TEIBES. 



659 



which is supposed to be at the root of the name Briton. The na- 
tionahty of the Picts is, however, a subject of much mystery. 

Physical Features. — There is but one mountain range named by 
ancient wiiters^ viz. Grampius Ms., which evidently ansvrers in name 
to the Grampians, the scene of Galgacus's resistance to the Roman arms. 
There is also a forest^ Caledonia Silva,^ noticed by Ptolemy : the posi- 
tion of this could not. from the geological character of the country, 
have been further X. than the Clyde on the W. and the Dee on the 
E. coast. The chief promontories, from the S.AV. round to the fS-E. 
are — Prom. Novantarum, CorsiJI Point: Prom. Epidium, Jiull of Ccn- 
tyre ; Prom. Tarvedum or Orcas, Lunnet Head : Verabium, Xoss^Head: 
and Taezalorum Prom., Kinnaird's Head. The rivers and estuaries 
are — the Novius, Xitli: Deva, Dee; lena ^st,, YHgton Bay; Eeri- 
gonius Sin., Loch Byo/n ; Clota -Est,, Firth of Clyde : Lelannonius Sin., 
L. Linnh.e; Volsas Sin., Loch Broom; Varar ^st., Firth of Croinavfy : 
Tusesis ^st., ^hirray Firth; Tava ^st,, Firth of Tay ; and Boderia 
^st., Firth of Forth. 

Tribes. — '1.^ In Valentia, from S. to X., the Selgovffi in Diiinfri'rS' 
shire; the Novantse in Tl'igtonsliire ; the Gadeni in Boxlurghshirt : ^he 
Otadini in Xorthuni'b^rland a^d Berir:chslure : and the Danmii or Bum- 
nonii in PetUes. Sdhirh. Lauarh. Fdinlurgh, Li,dithgov\ Btnfren\ and 
Stirling. '2. To the X. of the Clyde, from S. to X. : in the "\V.^ the 
Epidii, Cerones, Vacomagi, Camonacse, and Carerd; in the E., the 
Venicontes, TaezaH, Decantae. Meretse. Lugi, and Cornavii. 

Toicns. — Blatum Bulgium, Hiddlehy, in Lunur'es^hire, where there 
are Poman remains ; Eremenium, a town of tlie Otadmi. vari'i u-ly 
identified with Brampton, Biechester, and ye^'jcastle ; Colania and Coria, 
towns of the Damnii. identified with Co/r stairs and Craicfurd respect- 
ively : Vanduara or Vandogara, Paisley, and Victoria, either on Lnch- 
heith Lsla/id or Ahernethy neav Pert]/, also towns of the Damnii; and 
Alata Castra near Lnvcrness. the northernmost station of the Pomans, 
probably raised by Lollius Urbicus in a.d. 1o9, but soon abandonod. 

Lslands.—O^ the W. coast of Scotland lie. the Hebudes or Ebudae, 
Hebrides, which are noticed by Pliny and Solinus : and off the X. coast 
the Orcades,^ the Orkney and Shetland Lsles, Avhich are noticed by 
several writers. We may here notice Tlinle,'"- which Pytheas, its dis- 



s Martial implies that bears -were imported at Eome from the ^vikls of 
Scotland : — 

Xuda Caledonio sic pectora preebuit nrso. De Sjjectac. xii. 3. 

9 ■ — Arma cmidem ultra 

Littora JuveriiEie promovirniis, et modo captas 
Orcadas, et minima contentos nocte Britannos. 

Jttt. ii. 159. 

Quid rigor ^termis ceeli ? quid sidera prosunt ■ 
Ignotumque fretum ? maduerunt Saxone fuso 
Orcades : incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule : 

Scotorum cumulos flevit glacialis lerne. — CLArDiA>-. c7e IT. Cons. Honor. 30. 
Thule was always regarded as the farthest point of the hno-vrn world ; and 
this is supposed to be expressed in the name itself, the Gothic tiel or tiule 
denoting the remotest land : — 

tibi serviat ultima Thule. — Tirg. Georg. i. 30. 

We seem to have some reference to the frozen waters of the arctic seas in the 
following lines of Claudian : — 



660 



BEITANXIC^ INSULA. 



Book IV. 



coverer, places at six days' sail from the Orcades, and thus leads us to 
identify it with Iceland, while Ptolemy places it more to the S., in the 
latitude of the Shetlands, so that we may identify it with Mainland. 

§ 7. The ancient accounts oi Ireland^ are chiefly interesting as illus- 
trative of the progress of geographical knowledge : they also, to a 
certain extent, assist the ethnologist. The oldest form of the name is 
lerne, which appears in Aristotle, and w^hich most nearly apx)roxi- 
mates to the native name Eri. Diodorus Siculus calls it Iris ; Straho, 
lerne ; Mela, Iverna ; Pliny, Hybernia ; Solinus, Hibemia ; and 
Ptolemy, Ivemia. The statements of these writers are somewhat 
fabulous. The people w^ere cannibals, according to Diodoms ; and 
the country was so cold as to be barely habitable, according to Strabo. 
Ptolemy alone gives any details as to the geography, and his descrip- 
tion of it is fuller even than that of Britain. It may be observed 
that many of the rivers and places retain their ancient names at the 
present time. The population was substantially Gaelic. The occur- 
rence of the German names Cauci and IMenapii, and of the British 
name Brigantes, suggests the probability of colonies havmg been 
planted on the E. coast from Germany and Britain. The Scoti, who 
migrated to Scotland, are not noticed by Ptolemy, but appear in 
Claudian.2 

Physical Features. — The rivers noticed are — the Bargns, Barrow; 
Senus, Shannon; Liboius, Liffij ; Oboca, Avoca ; and lemus, probably 
the Kenmare. The promontories are — Sacrum, Carnsore Point, at the 
S.E. ; Isamnium, St. John's Point; Eobogdium, Fair Head, at the 
N.E. ; Eoreum, Malin Head ; and Notiuin, Mizen Head, on the S.W. 
angle. 

Tribes.— The Brigantes and Coriondi on the S. coast ; the Velleb5ri, 
Gangani, Autini, Nagnatae, Erdini, and Vennicnii, along the W. coast 
from S. to jN". ; the Darlni and Eobogdii, along the N. coast; the 
Voluntii, Eblani, Cauci, and Manapii, along the E. coast from N. to S. 

Towns. — The situations of the towns noticed by Ptolemy are pro- 
blematical. Eblana represents Dublin; Nagnata, described as an im- 



Facta tui numerabat avi, quern littus adustee 

Horrescit Libyae, ratibusque impervia Thule. — III. CoJis. Honor. 52. 
1 It is difficult to decide the date of the earliest notice of Ireland. If the 
Orphic poem on the Argonautic expedition were composed by Onomacritus, we 
should carry it back to the reign of Darius I. The form of the name is the 
old one : — 

vri<70i<TLV 'IepvL(TLV acrcrov iKcojiai. Orpheus, 1164. 

The knowledge of Avienus was derived from the Carthaginians, perhaps from the 
account of Hanno's expedition : he describes it as the " sacred isle," from the 
similarity of the name to I'epa : — 

Ast in duobus in Sacram, sic insulam 

Dixere prisci, solibus cursus rata est. 

Heec inter undas multa cespitem jaeit 

Eamque late genus Hibernorum colit. Or. Marit. 109. 

2 totam quum Scotus lernen 

MoYit. In I. Cons. Stilich. ii. 251 



Chap. XXXI. 



GEEAIAXIA. 



661 



portant town, was probably on Sligo Bay; Manapia maybe Wexford. 
In addition to these, six inland towns are enumerated, proving that the 
country was well occupied : their names were Rhseba, Laverus, Dunum 
(a well-kno^m Celtic termination), Macolicum, perhaps 21111 Ick on the 
Shannon, and two named Rhegia. 

II. Germania. 

§ 8. The boundaries of G-ermania were the Ehme on the AV., the 
Danube on the S., the Sarniatian Monntains and the Vistula on the 
E., and the Mare Snevicnm, Baltic, and Mare Germanicum on the 
X. Sometimes indeed the peninsula of Scandia was regarded as a 
part of Germany, in which case the X. boundary was carried on to 
the Oceanus Septentrionahs. Taken at its fullest extent, it would 
include, in addition to the greatest part of Genno.ny, Hollo. nd, 
the W. of Boland^ Denmarh, Xoryxiy, and Siceden. The greater 
]^x)rtion of this extensive district was unlmown even to the Romans : 
the parts with which they were best acquainted were in the 
and S. It is described as a wild and inhospitable ^ coiuitry, covered 
with forests and marshes, excessively cold, and much infested with 
wild beasts. Its soil was generally unfertile, yet it produced, in 
certain parts, wheat, barley, oats, flax, and various edible roots. The 
vine was not introduced until the 6th century of our era : the ordi- 
nary diink of the country was a kind of beer. The coimtry sup- 
ported a large number of pigs, together with a fair amoimt of sheep 
and goats, valuable hounds, strong but small horses, and short-horned 
cattle. Xumerous kinds of wild beasts are mentioned, particularly 
elks {alces) and wild oxen {uri). 

Name. — The name was regarded by many ancient writers as derived 
from the Latin germanL ?md as intended to describe the ■'• brotherhood" 
supposed to exist between the Gauls and Germans. Tacitus, however, 
regarded it as originally the name of a particular tribe, the Tungri. It 
has also been derived from the Persian tribe of the same name, noticed 
by Herodotus (i. 125;. [Most probably it is of Celtic origin, and came 
into use among the Celts in Gaul before the time of Csesar. It has been 
referred to a Gaelic root gair, "to cry out," giving it the sense of the 
Homeric ^ot]^ ayaOos, a fierce warrior. The indigenous name has 
always been Deutsch, which appears in the classic form Teutones. Ger- 
many proper was named Germania Magna, Transrhenana, or Barhara, 
in contradistinction to the Germania on the "W. of the Rhine. 

§ 9. The mountain ranges of Germany received for the most j^ar^ 
specific designations. The Hercynia ^ Silva has been already noticed 



3 Quis Parthum paveat ] quis g-eliduni Scythen ? 
Qiiis, Germania quos horrida parturit 

Foetus, incoluiiii Caesare ? Hor. Carm. iv. 5, 25. 

* The name is of Celtic origin, signifying a "wooded mountain:" it still sur- 
vives in the modern Harz. 



662 



GEEMAjSTIA. 



Book IV. 



(p. 320). The other ranges are — Taunus, in the angle between the 
Ehine and the Moenns, Maine ; Rhetico, of uncertain position, in the 
same neighbourhood; and Saltus Teutoburgiensis in the X., between 
the Lipioe and Weser. The only promontory noticed is Cimbromm 
Prom., Skagen, the jST. point of Denmark. Several great forests ^ are 
noticed, as Csesia Silva, between the rivers Lij^^je and Yssd ; Badu- 
beniiBS Lucus, Holtpade in West Friesland ; Herculis Silva, Suntelge- 
hirge, W. of Minden ; Semnonum Silva, between the EJster and 
Spree ; and Nabarvalorum Silva, between the Oder and Vistula. 
The chief rivers are — the border stream of the Rlienus, Rhine, which 
receives on its right bank the tributary waters of the Nicer, Xeckar, 
Moenus, Maine, and Luppia, Lipjje, with others of less consequence ; 
the Amisia, Ems, flowing into the Geman Ocean, and historically 
knovm for a battle fought on its banks in B.C. 12 between Drusus 
and the Bructeri ; the Yisurgis, Weser, reaching the ocean in the dis- 
trict of the Chauci ; the Albis, EJhe, the most easterly river reached 
by the Eomans, having been crossed by Domitius Ahenobarbus in 
B.C. 3 ; the Viadus, Oder, which flows into the Mare Suevicum in 
the land of the Eugh ; the Vistula on the E. border ; and the Danubius, 
which has its sources in Abnoba Ms., and receives numerous tri- 
butaries on its left bank, of which the Marus, March, is the most im- 
portant. In the X.AV. of Germany a large lake is noticed under the 
name of Flevo Lacus, now the Zuider Zee. This was connected 
with the Ehine by a canal cut by Drusus, and named after him Fossa 
Drusiana, which commences below the separation of the Ehine and 
Waal, and joins the Yssel near Doeslurg : this new outlet for the 
Ehine was named Flevum Ostium. 

§ 10. The Germans are said to have regarded themselves as an 
autochthonous race, and they certainly have preserved no tradition of 
their Asiatic origin. In physical appearance they were tall and hand- 
some, with blue eyes ^ and fair or red hair.' They subsisted chiefly 
on the cattle they reared, and on the proceeds of the chase and war. 
They enjoyed a character for independence and faithfulness combined 
with cunning and falsehood. The various tribes were classified by 
Tacitus m three groups : the Inggevones on the ocean, the Hermiones 



5 The forests of Germany were in many cases sacred to certain gods, as in the 
case of the Semnonum and Baduhennae groves : — 

rt procul Hercynise per vasta silentia silvge 
Yenari tuto liceat, lucosque vetusta 

Eeligione truces CLArniAN. in I, Stil. i. 228. 

^ Xec fera cserulea domuit Germania pube. Hon. Fjyod. xvi. 7. 

' They had a custom of heightening the red colour of their hair bv artificial 
means : — 

Caustica Teutonicos accendit spuma capillos ; 

Captivis poteris cultior esse comis. Mart. xiv. 26. 



Chap. XXXI. 



TRIBES. 



663 



in the interior, and the Istsevones in the E. and S. To these we 
may add the inhabitants of the Scandinavian peninsula, who bore 
the general name of Killeviones,' The chief tribes belonging to these 
groups were located in the following manner : — 

(1.) On the coast. — The Frisii, about Lake Flevo, between the Bliine 
and Ems, divided into two clans, Majores and Minores, the former 
living probably W. of the canal of Drusus in ' N. Holland, the latter 
E. of it, in Friesland, which still retains the ancient name. The Chauci, 
between the Ems and the Elbe, in Oldenburg and Hanover, also divided 
into jiajores and Minores, living respectively W. and E. of the Weser ; 
they were skilful navigators, and much addicted to piracy. The 
Saxones, E. of the Elbe in Holstein, a people whose name does not 
appear in history until a.d. 287, but who may have occupied that dis- 
trict in the days of Pliny and Tacitus. The Cimbri, in the Chersonesus 
Cimbrica,^ Jutland, in all probability a Celtic race, as the ancients 
themselves believed, their name bearing a close resemblance to that of 
Kijmri, and their armour and customs differing from those of the Ger- 
mans ; the Varini, between the Chalusus, Trave, and the Suebus, 
Warne; the Teutones, also between the Trave and the Warne, the 
representatives of the original tribe which sent forth the mighty horde 
whom the Romans defeated, in B.C. 102 ; the Sideni, between the Suebus 
and the Viadus, Oder; and lastly the Eugii, between the Oder and 
Vistula, and on the island which still bears the name of Bugen. 

(2.) South of these, from E. to W., lived— the Helveconse, below the 
Rugii. The Biirgniidiones,^ a Gothic race, between the Vistula and 
Viadus; in later times (a.d. 289) a people of the same name appear in 
the S.W. of Germany, and in the early part of the 5th century these 
crossed the Rhine and established themselves in Burgundy. The Van- 
dali, a powerful race, of which the Burgundiones were regarded as a 
tribe, and whose settlements were frequently shifted : we first hear of 
them as seated on the Palus Maeotis, then (in Pliny's time) between the 
Vistula and Viadus, next in the country X. of Boliemia, about the 
Biesengebirge, w^hich were named Vandalici Mts. after them ; in the 
reign of Constantine in Moravia, whence they were transplanted by 
that emperor into Pannonia ; in the reign of Probus in Dacia ; in 
A.D. 406 ravaging Gaul: in 409 in Spain; in 429 across the Straits of 
Gibraltar in Africa, where they established themselves for above one hun- 
dred years, when Belisarius succeeded in destroying their power, a.d. 534; 
they have been variously regarded as a German or a Slavonic race. The 
Semnones, a Suevic^ tribe between the Viadus and Albis, and between 



8 latisqiie paludibus exit 

Cimber. Claudian. de TV. Cons. Bon. 451. 

9 The name is explained by Ammianus MarceUiniis as meaning those who lived 
in " townships" {lurgi). It is uncertain whether the later Burgimdians were the 
same race as those of the N.E., but they probably were so, 

1 Suevi appears to have been a general designation, embracing a great number 
of the tribes of Central Germany. By Ceesar they are placed on the E. bank of 
the Rhine in Badefi ; by Tacitus to the X. and E. of that district ; by Strabo 
between the Rhine and JElbe. The Suevi of Caesar were true Germans ; those of 
Tacitus and Strabo contained Celtic or Slavonian elements. About a.d. 250 a 
people calling themselves Suevi, though they appear to have belonged to various 
tribes, settled in Suabia, which still retains their name. Their general position is 
indicated by Lucan : — 



664 



Book IV. 



Potsdam in the and the hills of LusaUa in the S. ; they are men- 
tioned after the time of M. Aiirelius. The Langobardi,^ a Suevic tiibe, 
first met with on the left bank of the EVbe, X. of the junction of the 
Sala ; then on the right bank, having been probably driven across the 
Elbe by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus ; and again, in Ptolemy's 
time, between the Rhine and the Weser ; a people of the same name, 
and probably of the same tribe, are next heard of in Pannonia, and late 
in the 5th century a.d. on the right bank of the Danube in Hungary, 
whence they extended their sway along the Danube into Dacia, and 
finally crossed into Italy in a.d. 568, and settled in the country which 
still bears their name, viz. Lomhardy. The Anglii or Angli, a Suevic 
tribe, occupying, according to Ptolemy, an extensive district on the left 
bank of the Elbe, whence they subsequently migrated to Britain ; the 
Angrivarii, on both sides of the Weser, but mainly between that river 
and the Elbe ; and the Bnicteri,^ between the Rhine and the Ems, di- 
vided by the river Luppia into two branches, the Majores to the N., 
and Minores S. of that stream. 

(3.) Tribes yet more to the S., from W. to E. — The Usipetes,"^ ori- 
ginally belonging to the interior ; then settled on the right bank of the 
Luppia, after their defeat by Caesar ; and afterwards, as it appears, 
more to the S., in the neighbourhood of the Marsi. The Tencteri, a 
companion tribe to the Usipetes ; they apparently emigrated from the 
interior, crossed the Rhine in Caesar's time, were defeated and almost 
cut to pieces by him. and finally settled on the right bank of the Rhine, 
between the Bulir and the Sieg. The Sicambri, originally on the right 
bank of the Rhine, between the Sieg^ and the Lippe ; afterwards, when 
they had received the Usipetes and the Tencteri into their ' territory, 
they were transplanted to Gaul by Tiberius, and settled between the 
Meiise and Rhine, with the exception of a section which remained in 
Germany about Mons Rhetico. The Catti ^ or Chatti, E. of the Tencteri, 



Fnndat ab extremo flavos Aquilone Suevos 
AlMs, et indomitmn Eheni caput. ii. 51. 

2 The name has been generally understood to mean "long-bearded;" but more 
probably it is derived from the langc Bordc, " the plain by the side of the river " 
Elbe, where they are first found, and where the name still attaches to a district 
near Magdeburg. 

3 Yenit accola silvoe 

Bructerus Hercynise. Clai-dian. de lY. Cons. Hon. 450. 

* Eem factam Pompillus habet, Faustine : legetur, 
Et nomen toto sparget in orbe suam. 
Sic leve flavorum valeat genus Usipiorum, 

Quisquis et Ausoninm non amat imperium. Mart. vi. 60. 

5 Their name is generally derived from this river ; but this is doubtful. In 
B.C. 17 they invaded Gaul, but at the approach of Augustus retired to their own 
territory. To this Horace alludes in the following lines, which also indicate the 
reputed character of this people : — 

quandoque trahet feroces 

Per sacrum clivimi, merita decorus .. 

Fronde, Sicambros. . . .'.""^ Hon. Carm.ix. 2, 31. 

Te ccede gaudentes Sicambri 

Compositis venerantur armis. Id. iv. 14, 51. 

6 The Catti obtained great celebrity for their resistance to the Romans : — 

Traxerat attonitos et festinare coactos, 

Tanquam de Cattis aliquid torvisque Sicambris 

Dicturus. Jrv. It. 146. 



Chap. XXXI. 



TRIBES. 



665 



between the Saale in the E., the Maine in the S., and the upper course 
of the Weser in the N., thus occupying the country which still retains 
their name, Hesse; hi Ptolemy's time they apj^ear to have lived more 
to the E. The Mattiaci, probably a branch of the Chatti, occupying 
the present Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine. The Tubantes, 
originally between the Rhine and the YsseL but in the time of Ger- 
manicus S. of the Lippe, in the former territory of the Sicambri, and 
in Ptolemy's time still more to the S., near the Thuringer-Wald. The 
Cherusci, an important tribe between the Weser in the W., the Elhe^ 
in the E., Melibocus Ms. in the X., and the Sala in the S. ; after their 
conquest by the Chatti they dwindled down to a small tribe, which in 
the time of Ptolemy lived in the Harz Mountains. And, lastly, the 
Lygii, a widely-spread nation, containing a number of tribes, settled 
between the Vistula and Oder ; they were probably Slavonians who had 
been subdued by the Suevi. 

{4r.) Tribes along the course of the Danube from E. to W. — The 
Quadi, in Moravia, the X.W. of Hungary, and the E. of Bohemia ; they 
were regarded by Tacitus as Germans, but they may have been Sar- 
matians ; their name disappears towards the end of the 4th century of 
our era. The Marcomanni, i.e. " march-men," or " borderers," a tribe 
who first appear on the Rhenish frontier about the lower course of the 
Maine, as having crossed thence into Gaul, and being driven back by 
Caesar in B.C. 58 ; hence they migrated into the territory of the Celtic 
Boii, Bohemia, where they organised a powerful kingdom about a.d. 6 ; 
they came prominently forward in their wars with the Romans, a.d. 
166-180, and made inroads into Italy; they are last mentioned as 
forming a portion of Attila's army. The Hermuiiduri, between the 
mountains in the X.W. of Bohemia and the Roman wall in the S.W., 
which bounded the Agri Decumates ; they were a Suevic race, and 
first appear in history at the time of Domitius Ahenobarbus, who 
settled them between the Maine and the Danube, whence they spread 
out in a X.E. direction. Lastly, within the limits of the Agri Decu- 
mates, i.e. " tithe-lands," which lay in the S.W. of Germany, and were 
separated from the interior by a wall from Batishon on the Danube to 
Lorch, and thence by an earthwork to the Rhine near Cologne, were 
located various immigrant bands of Gauls and Germans, to whom were 
subsequently added colonies of veterans for the defence of the border ; 
this district was incorporated with the empire, as a part of the pro- 
vince of Rhfetia, but it was wholly lost about a.d. 280. 

The distinctive names of the German tribes appear to have fallen 
into disuse about the end of the 3rd century of our era, and the whole 
nation was classified under two broad appellations, Alemanni and 
Franci, the first applying to the tribes that lived on or about the 
Upper Rhine, the second to those on the Lower Rhine. Alemanni was 
(as the word itself implies, being derived from Alle Manner, " all men") 
a confederacy of many tribes, chiefly of the Suevic raoe. It first ap- 
pears in the history of Dion Cassius, about a.d, 200 ; and it is pre- 
served in the modern French name of Germany, Allemagne, The chief 
seat of the contest between them and the Romans was in the Agri 
Decumates. The Franci, i.e. "free-men," are first mentioned in a.d. 
240, and were also a confederacy of which the Sicambri were the most 
influential member. They conquered the X. of Gaul, and, having there 
adopted the civilisation of the Romanised Celts, they acquh'ed such 
power that they were enabled, in a.d. 496, to return and subdue their 
German kinsmen. 



666 



GERMAXIA. 



Book IV. 



Towns. — Of the toTrns which were scattered over the extensive dis- 
tricts above referred to, we know little else than the names. It is in- 
teresting, however, to observe that the much-frequented, watering- 
places in the neighbourhood of the Rhine were not unknowTi in ancient 
times, Baden being described, as Aquae Aureliae, and Wiesbaden as Aquse 
Mattiacse. Mattiumj the capital of the Chatti, which was burnt down, 

A. D. 15, in the war with Germanicus, was at Maden, on the right bank 
of the Eder. The only district bearing marks of Roman occupation is 
the Agri Decumates, where not only roads, but walls, inscriptions, 
and numerous antiquities, have been discovered in many places : we 
may instance the remains of SamuloceiiaB at Sillclien, of Cana at Cann- 
stadt, of Clarenna at Kongen, all of them on the Xedcar. The position 
of Solicinium, in the same district, rendered famous by the victory 
gained by Yalentinian over the Alemanni in a.d. 369, is uncertain. In 
the territory occupied by the Quadi the names of several towns fsuch 
as Eburodunum, Meliodunum, &c.) indicate a prior occupation of that 
country by the Celts. 

Islands. — The ancients not unnaturally rega.rded the Scandinavian 
peninsula as an island or collection of islands. Pliny names two of these 
islands Scandia and Scandinavia, the latter being the largest in the 
whole gi'oup. Ptolemy speaks of fotu' under the general name of 
Scandiee Insulae, of which the largest was Scandia. Tacitus does not 
mention Scandia, but the tribes of the Sitones and Suiones must un- 
doubtedly be placed, there : the latter name is the original of Svedes, 
and the southern part of Siceden still bears a name not unlike Scandia, 
Scan/a, Scone, or Sclwnen. Pliny also speaks of an island named 
Nerigos, whence people used to sail for Thule : this has been identified 
with Xoricay : in which case his Bergi may represent Bergen, and Dumna 
Dunoen : this is^ however, uncertain. 

History. — AVe have no connected history of the German nations until 
the time of Julius Caesar, who in his Gallic campaigns came in contact 
with and defeated Ariovistus. Caesar himself crossed the Rhine twice, in 

B. C. 55 and 54, but he did not attempt to maintain himself in Germany. 
In B.C. 37 Agrippa transplanted the Ubii to the W. bank of the Rhine, 
as a barrier on the side of the German border. This plan, however, 
did not fulh' succeed : and hence Xero Claudius Drusus undertook a 
series of expeditions against the Germans from the Insula Batavorum. 
He advanced as far as the Elhe : and on his death, in B.C. 9, the opera- 
tions were carried on by Tiberius and Domitius Ahenobarbus, who sub- 
dued for a while the tribes betvreen the Rhine and the Wtser : but in 
A.D. 9, Arniinius, king of the Cherusci, defeated the Romans in the 
Teutoburg forest, and terminated their supremacy in the X.. while the 
resistance of Maroboduus, the Meu'comannian, on the Middle Rhine, 
checked them in that direction. In the latter district Germanicus 
gained some advantages, but was unable to re-establish a permanent 
ascendancy. The Romans then withdrew within the Agri Decumates, 
which they fortified between a.d. 16 and 68. The great revolt of the 
Batavi. in a.d. 7u and 71, was followed by repeated wars with several 
German tribes, until in the reign of M. Antoninus the great Ma.rco- 
mannic war broke out on the Danube, resulting in the smTender of the 
Roman forts along the course of that river in a.d. 180. Soon after- 
wards the German tribes began to pour over the Rhine ; and towards 
the end of the 5th century they had subdued Gaul, Spain, and Italy, 
and had even crossed over into Africa. 



The Court-yard of Diocletian's Palace at Salonse (Spalato). 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

THE DANUBIAN PEOVIXCES, ILLYRICUM, MCESIA, DACIA, AND 
SAEMATIA. 

I. The Daxtbian Peotixces. § 1. Vindelicia. § 2. Rhfetia, § 3. 
Noricum. § 4. Pannonia. § 5. Its inlial)itants and towns. II. 
Illyeicoi. § 6. Boundaries. § 7. Mountains and rivers. § 8. 
Inhabitants; Towns; Roa(i3; Histoy. III. Mcesia. §9. Bounda- 
ries: Rivers. § 10. Inhabitants; Towns. IV. Dacia. § 11. Boun- 
daries; Mountains; Rivers. § 12. Inhabitants; Towns. § 13. The 
Jazyges Metanastse. Y. Saematia Eueop^a. § 14. Boundaries: 
Tribes ; Towns. 

§ 1. Vindelicia/ the most westerly of the four Dannbian pro- 
vinces, was bounded on the X. by the Danube and the Vallum 
Hadriani, on the W. by the territory of the Helvetii, on the S. by 



1 This name contains the root Vind, which occurs in other Celtic names, such 
as Yindobona, Yindomagus, &c. 



668 



THE DAXUBIAN PEOYIXCES, 



Book IV. 



Elisetia, tlie ridge of the EliEetian Alps forming tlie limit, and on 
the E. by the river ^niis, sej)arating it from Xoricum. It embraced 
the X.E. of Switzerland y the S.E. of Baden, the S. of Wilrtemhurg 
and Bavaria, and the X. of Tyrol, The country is for the most 
part flat, but spurs of the Ehsetian Alps travei'se the S. district. 
The chief river is the Danubius, which receives numerous tributaries 
on its right bank, of which the ^nus, Inn^ is the most important. 
The Brigantmus Lacus, L. of Constanz, belonged to this country. 
The inhabitants were in the time of Augustus a Celtic race, and 
were divided into numerous tribes. They were subdued by Drusus 
and Tiberius^ in B.C. 15, and their country was formed into a sepa- 
rate province. About the end of the first century after Christ, it 
was united with Eha^tia, but subsequently was separated from it 
with the title of Ehgetia Secunda. 

The towns possess no historical associations : the capital Augusta 
Vindelicorum, Augsburg, was founded by Augustus about a.d. 14-, at 
the junction of the rivers Licus and Vh^do. The other important 
to\viis were — Brigantium, Bregenz, on the lake named after it; Cam- 
podunum, Kerapten on the Tiler ; Reginum, Eafishon, on the Danube ; 
and Veldidena on the ^Enus. 

§ 2. Eliaetia, or, more properly, Raetia, was bounded on the X. by 
Yindelicia, on the "W. by the territory of the Helvetii, on the S. by 
the Alps from Mons Adula to M. Ocra, and on the E. by ISToricum 
and Yenetia. It comprised the modern Orisons, the Tyrol, and a 
portion of Lonibardy. It is throughout a mountainous country, 
being traversed by the ranges of the Eha^tian Alps. The vaheys 
were fertile, and piroduced a wine^ not inferior to that of Italy ; the 
inhabitants depended on their flocks rather than on agriciflture : 
wax, honey, pitch, and cheese were largely exported. The chief 
rivers are the ^nus, which flows northwards to the Danube ; and 
the Atliesis, Adige, with its tributary the Atagis, Eisacli, which 
flows S. into the Adriatic. In addition to these the upper streams of 
many of the Alpine streams, such as the Addua, Sarius, Ollius, and 
Mincius, fafl within the hmits of Eha^tia. The inhabitants of this 



- The expedition of Drusus is commemorated by Horace : — 
Videre Ehaeti bella sub Alpibus 

Drusum gerentem Viudeliei. Cann. iv. 4, 17. 

The expedition of Tiberius, which took place at a later period of the same year, 
is commemorated in the following lines : — 
Quem legis expertes Latinse 
Vindelici didicere nuper 
Quid Marte posses. Id. ir. 14, 7. 

3 et quo te carmine dicam, 

Rhsetica? nec cellis ideo contende Falernis. Yirg. Georg. ii. 95, 
Si non ignota est docti tibi terra Catulli, 

Potasti testa Rhsetica vina mea. Mart. xir. 100. 



Chap. XXXII. 



XOEICOI. 



669 



province in tlie time of Augustus were mainly a Celtic race.^ 
They were a wild, cunning, and rapacious mountain people, ardent 
in their love of freedom, and fierce in then' defence of it. They 
were conquered by the Eomans under Drusus and Tiberius^ in 
B.C. 15, and then country was reduced to a province. The chief 
tribes were the Lepontii who inhabited the valleys on the S. side 
of the Alps about the head of the lakes of Como and Maggiore : 
the Trideatini in the valley of the Athesis : and the Euganei,® who 
at one time occupied the whole tract from the Alps to the Adriatic, 
but were driven by the Yeneti into the Alpine valleys ; they were 
a distinct race from the Rha^tians, but their ethnological position is 
quite unknown. 

The only important town in Rhsetia was Tridentum, Trent, on the 
Athesis^ which appears to have been made a Roman colony : it stood 
on the road which the Romans constructed between Yerona and 
Augusta Yindeiicorum, Another road/ between the latter town and 
Comum^ passed through Rheetia. 

§ 3. Noricum^ was bounded on the AY. by Eha?tia and Yindehcia, 
on the X. by the Danube, on the E. by Mons Cetius, which sepa- 
rated it from Pannonia, and on the S. by the Savus, the Alpes 
Carnica?, and Motmt Ocra. It comprised portions of Austria, the 
greater part of Sfi/ria, CarintJua, and portions of Carniola, Bavaria, 
and Tyrol, It is a mountainous country, intersected by numerous 



4 An opinion prevailed among the ancients that the Ehaetians "were Etruscans 
■who had been driven into the Alps Irom Lombardy by the Gauis. This view has 
been adopted by some eminent scholars in modern times, ^vho have discovered in 
some remote districts 'the Grodnerthal and the -^alley of the Engadino) names of 
places, peculiar -words, and a few monimients, all of which bear some resemblance 
to those found in Etruria. This question does not affect the statement that in the 
time of Augustus the E-haetians were essentially Celts, 

3 The Genauni lived between the lakes 2Iaggiore and Como : — 

Milite nam tuo 

Drusus Genaunos, implacidum genus, 
Breunosque veloces, et arces 
Alpibus impositas tremendis 
Dejecit acer plus vice simplici ; 
Major !Xeronum mox grave proelium 
Commisit, immanesqiie EhcPtos 

Auspiciis pepulit secundis. HoR-Cr/rw. iv. 14, 9. 

6 They left a memorial of their former residence in the Euganeus Collis and the 
Euganei Lacus, and in the modern Colli Euganei, the volcanic group near Fadua. 

■ This second route crossed the SpUigen to Curia, Coire ; it is described by 
Claudian : — 

Protinus, umbrosa qua vestit littus oliva 
Larius, et dulci mentitur Nerea fluctu, 
Parva puppe lacum prtetervolat. Ocius inde 
Scandit inaccessos brumali sidere montes. Bell. Get. 319. 

8 The name is probably derived from that of the town Noreia ; its use dates 
from the time that the Eomans became acquainted with the country. 



670 



THE DAXI'EIA^' PEOYIXCES. 



Book IV 



valleys opening out towards tlie Dannbe, along the coui'se of wliicli 
tliere are some XDlains. Tlie climate was rough and cold, and the 
soil unfertile. The wealth of the countrv consisted in its non 
mines. ^ which were extensively worked by the Eomans. Salt was 
also abimdant. The chief range of mountains is the Alpes Noricae. 
which traverses the country ir^jm E. to AV. Cetius Mons. KoJJ.-n- 
hercL lies on the borders of Pamirnia ; Ocra was the name given to 
the lowest part of the Caiiiic Alps l-etween Aquileia and ^Emcna . 
The chief rivers are the Danubius. the .Eutis with its tributary the 
Jovavus, Sahacli. and the up};er courses of the Dravus, Brave^ and 
Savus, ^cLve. which rise, the fjiiner in the Xorican, the latter in the 
Carnic Alps, and flow in an easterly direction with nearly paraUel 
cour>es through the S. part of the prowince. The Xorici were a 
Celtic race whose ancient name was Tamisci : about b.c. 58, the 
kindred race of the Boii immigrated into the northern part of the 
countrv. The Xoricans offered an obstinate resistance to the 
Eomans, but were subdued about B.C. 13 by Tiberius, Ditisus, and 
P. Sihus, and their country was formed into a province, which was 
subdivided in the later division of the empne into two, Xoriciun 
Eii}ense about the Danube, and X. MediteiTaneum in the S. The 
Eomans were obliged to keep a strong military force in it as a safe- 
guard partly against the inhabitants themselves, partly against the 
Trans -Danubian tribes : they also maintained three fleets on the 
Danube, named Classes Cc'maginen>is, Arlapensis, and Laureacensis, 
for the latter purpose. 

The capital Noreia, XeirmarJd, was situated S. of the river ^lurius. 
and formed the central poiut for the gold aud iron trade : it is cele- 
braied for the defeat there sustained by C. Carbo against the Cimbri 
in B.C. 113, aud for i:s sie^e by the Boii. about B.C. 59. The other 
import aut towns were — Boiodunmi, Innstadt. at the mouth of the 
^Eiii'.s, a tovTL of the Boii, as its name indicates : Ovilaba. TTtls. a 
Eoman colony, to the S.W. of Boiodurum: Lanriacuni. Lor'j]( near 
E/(fi. at the junction of the river Anisius ^ith the Danube, the head- 
quarters of the third legion, a fieet station, an arsenal, and probably 
a Eoman colony: Juvavum, Saltzli'rri. on the left bank of the river 
Jovavus, the station of a cohort, the residence of the governor of the 
province, and in early times probably the residence of the native kings: 
Vii'iinum. an important town on the road from Aquileia to Lauriacum, 
the ruins of which are found at JIariasaaJ near Klagen furi : Celeia. 
ally, in the S.E. corner of the country, a fine town, as its remains 
testify; and Teumia, on the Upper Dravus near Spitah 



quas neque Xoricus 

Deterret ensls. Hor. Carrn. i, 16, 9 
Voles modo altis desilire turribus 

Modo ense pectus Xorico recludere. ■ Id. Epod. xvii. 70. 
Saevo Bilbilin optlmani metallc, 

QuEe vincit Chalybasque Xoricosque. Mart. iv. 55. 



Chap. XXXII. 



PAXXOXIA. 



671 



§ 4. Pannonia was bounded on the ZST. and E. by the Danube, 
on the S. bv Hlviicum and Ma-sia, tbe valley of tlie So. forming 
the limit in tliis dii*ection. and on the AY. hy Xoriciim and Italy. 
It comprehends the E. portions oi Austria, Carintliicfj Carniola, the 
. oi Hungary, SJavonia, and parts of Croatia ^yl^l Bosnia. It 
is a vast plain, enclosed on the TT. and S. by lofty mountains, but 
elseTvhere traversed by hills of only moderate height. The climate 
is described as severe, and the sc'il unproductive : but this is nc^t the 
present character of the country. The vine and olive were not in- 
tiTjduced until the time of the Emperor Pr'ji:iu> : previcusly the 
beverage of the country was a kind of beer, named Sabaia. The 
mines do not appear to have been known to the ancients ; timber 
was the most important production.-^ The mountains vere described 
by the general name of Pannordcss Alpes, the special names being 
Cetius and Carvancas tor the ranges on the sioe of Xoricimi, and 
Albii or Albani Mts. on the side of myricum. The chief rivers are — 
the LanubixLS, which in this part of its com'se deviates from its usual 
easterly course by a southerly bend : the Dravus and Savus. which 
flow in parallel C'jur-c- t^:' the Danube, and receive as tributaries, 
the foiTQcr the Murius, JIu/ir, on its left bank ; the latter the 
DriniLS, Drina, and several less important streams on its right bank. 
The Danul e ; also the Arrabo, BaoJj, previcais to taking- its 

southerly b:_. .arge lake named Pelso, PJatttnsee, lies in the 

. part of the provmce. 

§ 5. The Pannonians were generally reputed an El^uian race ; the 
Greek writei*s, however, identified them with the Paeonians of 
Thrace. TMiatever their origin ma^- Iv^a^:- r--ri. it is certain that 
there was a large admixture C'l . :hem.- They are 

descril^ed as a brave and warhke pe-|^.-, iaitixlc-.- and cimning, and, 
previous to then subjection to tlie E<jmans, rude and uncivilized. 
They were conquered hi the first instance by Octavianus in e.g. 35 
and ccmijletely suMued by Tiijeriiis in a.d. 8, and again by Drusus 
when they had brc'ken out after the death of Augustus. The 
country was then divided intC' two portions, Paimonia Superior and 
P. Inferior, the boundary being formed by a line drawn from 
Arrabona in the X. to Servitium in the S., Sujjerior lying of the 



1 Among the animals of Pannonia we have notice of bears, an unkno^vn animal 
named catta, hounds, and the cliarax or black-cock : — 

Pannonis hand aliter post ictnm seevior ursa 

Se rotat in vulnus. Lrc. ri. 220. 

Pannonicas nohis nnnqnam dedit I'mbria cattas. — Mart. xiii. 69 

2 testis quoque /r/^/r/.r 

Pannonins gelidas passim disjectiis in Alpes. TiBrLL. iv. 1, 108. 

Hunc qnoque perqne novem timnit Pamphylia messes 

Pannoniusque ferox. Stat. Sllw i. 4. 7 7. 



672 



THE DAXUBIAX PEOYIXCES. 



Book IV. 



line. In the 4tli century, Galerins subdivided Inferior by taking 

away tlie part X. of tlie Dravus, and constituting it a province with | 

the name of Valeria. Finally, Constantine the Great equalized the , 

size of the provinces by adding -to Inferior the S. part of Superior. | 

Under the Eomans the people became thoroughly civilized ; colonies ; 

and municipia were established, and fortresses were built for its i 
protection ; military roads were constructed, of which we may 
especially notice those from ^mona, where the road from Aquileia 

in Italy emerges from the Julian Alps, down the Savus and across i 

to the Danube at Yindobona, another along the course of the Danube, ; 
and again one through the central district from Yindobona to 

Sirmimn, The chief towns were situated on the Danube, and on ' 

the course of the Savus, with some few on the cross roads. They • 

were all strongly fortiiied, but of their history we know little. | 

- (1.) In P. Siqoerlor. — Yindobona, Vienna, on the Danube, was ■ 

originally a Celtic town: the Romans made it a municipium with the j 

name of Juliobona. and it became their most important military posi- ; 

tion as the station of the Danubian fleet and of the Legio X. Gemina. | 

Carnuntum, near Hairnljurg, on the Danube, was a place of the j 

gi'eatest importance as the station of the fleet after its transfer from i 
Yindobona, and as the head-quarters of a legion. M. Aurelius made it 
the base of his operations against the Marcomanni and Quadi : Severus 

was here when he was proclaimed emperor, and, though destroyed \ 
by the Germans in the fourth century, it was restored and was the 

centre of Valentinian's operations against the Quadi. Petovio, Fettau, ' 
on the Dravus, was a Roman colony with the surname of Ulpia, and 

was probably founded either by Trajan or Hadrian: it was the station ; 
of a legion, and an imperial palace existed outside its walls, ^mona, 

Layhacli, on the Savus, was a strongly-fortified town and a place of j 

considerable trade : it became a Roman colony with the title of Julia 1 

Augusta. Siscia, or Segesta, Sissek, stood on an island formed by \ 

the junction of the rivers Colapis and Odra with the Savus, together | 

with an artificial canal dug by Tiberius : it was from the first a strong | 

fortress, and after its capture by Tiberius it became one of the most \ 
important places in Pannonia, being centrally situated on the great 
road from ^Emona to Sirmium. It was made a colony, possessed a 

mint, and was the station of a small fleet on the Save : it sunk with i 

the rise of Sirmium. ; 

(2.) In P. Inferior. — Sirmium, Wtrovitz, stood on the left bank of j 

the Savus, and was the point at which several roads centered : it was j 

hence selected as an arsenal by the Romans in their wars against the j 
Danubian tribes and as the residence of the admiral of the first Flavian 
fleet on the Danube: it contained a large manufactory of arms, an 
imperial palace, and other public buildings. Taurunum, Semlin, was 

a strong fortress at the junction of the Savus with the Danube, and 1 

the station of a small fleet. Cibalae stood near lake Hiulcas, between \ 

the Savus and Dravus, its exact position not being known : it was the j 

birthplace of the Emperor Yalentinian, and in its vicinity Constantine j 

defeated Licinianus in a.d. 314. Mursa, Esse}:, on the Dravus, was ! 

made a colony by Hadrian with the surname of ^lia : it was the j 
residence of the Roman governor of P. Inferior, and near it Gallienus 



Chap. XXXII. 



ILLYEICOI. 



673 



defeated Ingebiis. Aquincum, or Acincum, Alt-Buda, a strong fortress 
on the Danube, was the centre of the Roman operations against the 
Jazyges, and possessed a manufactory of bucklers. Bregetium, E. of 
Comorn, on the Danube, was another very strong fortress: the Em- 
peror Yalentinian died there. 

II. Illyeicu:^!. 

§ 6. The country which the Greeks named Illyris (^ery rarely 
Illyria), and the Latins Illyricum,^ lay along the eastern shore of the 
Adriatic (in this part termed the ILlyi'ian Sea'^), from the river Arsia 
in the X.W., dividing it fi-om Istria, to the Ceraunian Mountains in 
the S., on the borders of Epirns ; on the E. it was contiguous to 
Moesia and Macedonia ; and on the N. to Pannonia. It was divided 
by the river Drilo into two portions, Illyris Romana or Barbara, 
which included the modern disiricts of Dr/Imatia, Herzegovina, 
and Jlonte-Xegro, with parts of Croatia, Bosnia, and Albania, and 
I. Grseca, answermg to nearly the whole of Alhania. The former 
was the proper province of Illyricum ; the latter was annexed to 
Macedonia by Philip of Macedon, and formed a portion of the 
Eoman province of Macedonia. The country is generally wild and 
mountainous, and, with the exception of the coast of the southern 
district, unproductive. 

§ 7. The ranges which traverse Illyricum in a direction parallel 
to the sea-coast from X.W. to S.E. are the connecting links between 
the Italian Alps and the systems of the Thracian Ha3mus and. the 
Greek peninsula. They were but little known to the ancients : 
the most northerly range was named Albamis Ms., vrhich was 
followed by Ardius Ms., the Bebii Mts. on the borders of Moesia, 
Scardus and Candavia Mts. on the borders of Macedonia, and the 
Ceraunii Mts. on the borders of Epirus. The chief rivers from X. 
to S. are : in Barlara, the Naro, Narenta, which Avaters the central 
district, and which is described as navigable for a distance of 80 
stadia ; the Barbana, Bojana, which flows through lake Labeatis : 
and the Drilo, Drin, rising in lake Lychnitis. In Grceca, the 
Genusus, Tj'erma, rising on the borders of Macedonia ; the Apsus,^ 



3 The name was occasionally applied in a broader sense to the countries S. of 
the Danube. It may have "been used in this indefinite sense by St. Paul '^Rom. xv. 
19^ After the subjection of the Dalmatee by the Eomans the province ^ras 
officially named Dalmatia ; and henceforward IllTricum and Dalmatia became con- 
vertible terms. It is thus that the term is used by St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 10). 
^ Tu mihi, seu magni supcras jam saxa Timavi : 

Sive Oram Illyrici legis cequoris. Yieg. FcI. viii. 6. 

Antenor potuit, mediis elapsus Achivis, 

Illyricos penetrare sinus. -^T;?. i. 242. 

5 Both the Apsus and Genusus, particularly the former, are mentioned in con- 
nexion with the campaign of Csesar and Pompey : — 

A>'C. GEOG. 2 G 



674 



ILLYEICUM. 



Book IV. 



Beratinos, wliicli rises in the Candavian range, and receives an 
important tributary in the Eordalcus, Devol ; and tlie Aous,^ Vovussa, 
wliicli rises in Mount Lacnion and flows generally to the N.W-. 
reaching the sea near Apollonia ; in its midcourse it takes a sudden 
turn for 12 miles to the S.W., passing bet^veen lofty cliffs which 
formed the Fauces Antigonenses of the ancients (so named from the 
neighbouring town of Antigonia), where Philip Y. engaged the 
Eoman consul Flaminius. There are several large lakes in Ulyricum, 
particularly Labeatis, Scutari, and Lyclinitis, Okridha, both of which 
abound with fish. The sea-coast is extremely irregular and, in the 
northern district, is fringed with islands. The only important 
bays are the Sinus Flanaticus, G. di Quarnero, in the extreme N., 
and the land-locked Sin. Ehizonicus, B. of Cattaro, near Epidaurus. 

§ 8. The lUyrians were regarded by the ancients as a separate 
race, distinct both from the Thracians and the Epirots ; they are 
undoubtedly the progenitors of the modem Albanians, who have 
now spread southwards over Epirus under the pressure of the Sla- 
vonian tribes. They were a warhke and, previously to the Eoman 
conquest*, a thoroughly uncivihzed race. Like the Thracians they 
tattooed their bodies, and offered human sacrifices. " The northern 
tribes, particularly the Liburnians, were skilful sailors and built 
peculiarly swift vessels^ (Lihurnicce naves). They were much 
devoted to piracy, for the prosecution of which their coast offered 
great advantages.^ They were divided into numerous tribes,^ of 



Prima duces junctis Tidit consistere castris 
Tellns, quam volucer Geniisus, quam mollior Apsus 
Circumeunt ripis. Apso gestare carinas 
Causa palus, leni quam fallens egerit unda. 
At Genusum nunc sole nives, nunc imbre solutse 
Prsecipitant. Neuter longo se gurgite lassat, 
Sed minimum terrse, vieino littore noTit. Lrc. v. 461. 

^ Lucan's description is hardly appropriate to the Aous, which is a considerable 
stream : — 

Purus in oecasus, parri sed gurgitis, JEas 

lonio fluit inde mari. vi. 361. 

' Ibis Liburnis inter alta navium, 
Amice, propugnacula ; 
Paratus omne Csesaris periculum 

Subire, Msecenas, tuo. Hor. Epoch i. 1. 

s Hence Virgil's description : — 

intima tutus 

Regna Liburnorum. ^n. i. 243. 

^ The Liburnians appear to hare been numerous at Eome, where they acted as 
attendants in menial offices : — 

Proeul horridus Liburnus, et querulus cliens ; 

Imperia viduarum procul. Mart. i. 50. 

Primus, clamante Liburno, 
Currite I jam sedit ! rapta properabat abolla 
Pegasus, attonitte positus modo villicus urbi. Juv. iv. 75. 



Chap. XXXII. 



TOTTXS. 



675 



wliicli the most important were — the lapydes in the X. in the 
interior ; the Liburni on the adjacent sea-coast, from the extreme X. 
of the Adriatic southwards ; and the Dalmatae in the central district. 
The country was divided by the Eomans into three parts, named, 
after the above tribes, lapydia, Liburnia, and Dalmatia. 

The following towns are described in order from X. to S, : — 
(1. ) In Barbara. — Metulum, the capital of the lapydes, was situated 
on the frontier of Pannonia either at jlottling or Metl/ca. ladera, 
Zara, the capital of Liburnia, was made a Roman colony by Augustus. 
Scardona stood on the estuary of the Titius, somewhat "W. of the 
modern Scardona \ as one of the three conventus of DalDiatia it 
must have been an important place. Tragnrimn, Trail, celebrated for 
its marble, stood on an island cut off from the mainland by an artificial 
canal. Salona, more correctly Saldnae, Salona, the capital of Dalmatia, 
stood on the banks of the river lader.^vhich falls into a small inlet of the 
Adriatic. It was the head-quarters of ^Metellus in B.C. 117, and was 
again besieged and taken by Cosconius in 78; in the Civil War it was 
vainly attacked by the Pompeian fleet under !M. Octavius : it was 
again taken by Asinius Pollio in 39, and from that time became the 
great bulwark of Roman power on this side of the Adriatic. All the 
great roads met here, and it became one of the three ^'conventus" of 
Dalmatia, Its neighbourhood was selected by Diocletian as the place 
of his retirement : lie built about 3 miles from the town a magnificent 
palace covermg no less a space than eight acres and containing temples 
dedicated to Jupiter and ^sculapius, the former of which is now 
named the Duomo, while the latter is a baj^tistery of St. John: the 
modern name Spalato is a corruption of Salon?e Palatium. K'arona 
stood on the river Xaro^ about 2^ miles fi-om its mouth at Vido, 
and was a Roman colony and a conventus;" the Romans made it 
their head-Cjuarters in the Dalmatian war. Epidaurus. Bagusa- 
Veccliia, is first noticed as being besieged by M. Octavius in the 
Civil War. It afterwards became a Roman colony. Scodra, Scutari, 
was a very strong place at the outlet of lake Labeatis : Gentms was 
defeated under its walls in B.C. 168. Lissus, LescJi, at the mouth of 
the Drilo, was founded by Dionysius the elder in b.c. 385, and was the 
limit appointed by the Romans for lUyrian commerce: Philip of 
Jklacedon captured it in 211. 

(2.) In Hhjris Grseca. — Epidaninus, or Dyrrliacliimn, the latter name 
being descriptive of the ruggedness of its situation, was founded by 
a mixed colony of Corcyi'Eeans and Corinthians about 627 B.C. It 
stood on the isthmus of a peninsula,- and from its favourable position 
rose to commercial importance at an early period. The dispute rela- 
tive to it between Corcyra and Corinth led to the Peloponnesian War : 
from 312 it was much exposed to attacks from the Illyrians until it 
obtained the protection of the Romans. It was the scene of the 



1 Qua maris Hadriaci longas ferit iinda Salonas 
Et tepidum in moUes Zephyros excurrit lader. Lrc. iv. 404. 
2 Its position is thus described by Lucan : — 

Sed munimen habet nullo quassabile ferro, 

Naturam, sedemque loci. Nam clausa profundo 

Undique, et illisum seopulis revomentibus eequor, 

Exiguo debet, quod non est insula, colli. vi. 22. 



676 



ILLYEICU.AI. 



Book IV. 



contest between Caesar and Pompey, and during the last Civil Wars 
it sided with M. Antonius. Its inhabitants, whose patron deity was 
Venus, w^ere an immoral race :^ it is still, as Durazzo, an important 
town. ApoUonia, PoUina, a colony of Corcyrseans and Corinthians, 
stood about 10 stadia from the right bank of the Aous and 60 from 
the sea. Under the Romans it became the seat of a flourishing 
university, and in the Civil Wars between Ccesar and Pompey it was 
an important military post. Lychnidus, on the E. shore of lake 
Lychnitis near its S. extremity, was, from its position on ihe frontier, 
an important point in the Macedonian Wars of the Romans : it was 
on the Egnatia Via. Oricus, or Oriciim, Ericlio, was a harbour not 
far S. of the mouth of the Aous, much frequented by the Romans in 
their communication with Greece. It w^as taken by Philip V. in 
B.C. 214, but afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans. Here 
-^milius Paulus embarked his army for Italy in 167 ; and here Ceesar 
laid up his fleet in his w^ar wdth Pompey. The place w^as famous for 
its turpentine.^ 

Boads. — The great thoroughfare between Rome and the East, the 
Via Egnatia, crossed the southern part of Illyricum, where it received 
the special name of Candavia from the ridge ^ which it crossed on the 
border of Macedonia. There were two branches of it, one starting 
from Dyrrhachium, the other from Apollonia: these united at Clodiana 
on the Genusus, and passed round the head of lake Lychnitis to Lych- 
nidus, and thence to Hera^clea in Macedonia. 

History. — The Illyrians first encountered the Greeks under Brasidas 
and Perdiccas in the Peloponnesian War. They were defeated and 
their countiy partly conquered by Philip of Macedon about B.C. 360. 
Their piractical practices led to the interference of the Romans in 233, 
when an honourable peace w^as concluded, and again, in 219, when the 
whole country was subdued. Various wars followed : the Liburnians 
yielded to Rome in 176; the Dalmatse, though defeated by L. Csecilius 
Metellus in 119, were not incorporated into the Roman Empire until 
the year 23 ; the laj^ydes were defeated in 129 by D. Junius Brutus, 
and w^ere united w^ith the Liburni in a province by Augustus, but 



^ Nam ita est heec hominum natio Epidamnia, 
Yoluiotarii atqiie potatores maxumi : 
Turn sycopliantce et palpatores plurimi, 
In urbe hac habitant : turn meretrices mulieres 
Nusquam perhibentur blandiores gentium. 
Propterea hiiic iirbi nomen Epidamno inditiim est, 
Quia nemo ferme hue sine damno divortitur. 
Tile Xotis actus ad Oricimi 
Post insana Caprse sidera, frigidas 
jS'octes non sine multis 

Insomnis lachrimis agit. 
Ut te felici prsevecta Ceraunia remo 
Accipiat placidis Oricos gequoribus. 

quale per artem 

Inclusum buxo, aut Oiicia terebintho, 
Lucet ebur. 



- sic fatus, in ortus 



Phoebeos conrertit iter, terrseque secutus 
Devia, qua rastos aperit Candaria salt as, 
Coniigit Emathiam, bello quam fata parabant. 



Plaut. Mencech: ii. 1. 

HoR. Carm. iii. 7, 5. 
Propert. i. 8, 19. 



uEn. X. 135. 



Lrc. vi. 329. 



Chap. XXXII. 



MCESIA. 



(377 



were not finally conquered until 34 by Octavianus. The province of 
Illyricum embraced the "northern district as far as the Drilo. In 
Constantino's division, Illyricum Occidentale was a diocese of the 
Prefectura of Italy, and included Dalmatia, Koricum, Pannonia, and 
other provinces, while Illyricum Orientale embraced Illyris Grseca and 
a large number of provinces out of Illyricum proper. 

Islands. — Off the coast of Illyris Romana lie from IST. to S. : — The 
Absyrtides, Cherso, Osero, and others, said to have been named after 
Absyrtus, brother of Medea ; and the Libumides, the chief of which 
are Lissa, Grossa, Brattia, Brazza, Pharus, Lesina, Corcyra iSTigra, 
Curzola, Melita, Melada, and Issa, Lissa, on which Dionysius the elder 
planted a colony in B.C. 387 ; the attacks on it by Agron and 
Teuta brought on the first Illyrian War in B.C. 229. Its inhabitants 
were skilful sailors, and the Lembi Issaici" did the Romans good 
service in their war with Philip of Macedon. These islands (Issa 
excepted) fringe the coast in a parallel direction from N.W. to S.FJ.^ 
and are uniformly long and narrow : the channels between them are 
deep and give ships a secure passage between them off the coast of 
Illyris Grseca. The small island of Saso,^ Sassa, IST. of the Acroce- 
raunian promontory, was a station for pirates : the approach to it was 
deemed very dangerous. 

III. MCESIA. 

§ 9. Moesia^ was bounded on the W. by Ms. Scordns and the 
rivers Drinus and Savus, separating it from Ulyriciim and Pannouia : 
on the S. by Ms. Hasmus on the side of Thrace, and Orbelus and 
Scordus on the side of Macedonia ; on the E. by the Enxine Sea ; 
and on the N. by the Danube, separating it from Dacia. It cor- 
responds to the present Servia and Bulgaria. It was an irregular 
country, intersected by the various offsets of the lofty ranges wdiich 
surround it, viz. : HaBmus in the S.E., Orbelus and Scordus in the 
S.W. and W. The rivers are all tributaries of the great border 
stream of the Danubius, which in this country resumes its easterly 
course and retains it until it approaches the Euxine, when it turns 
northwards for a while, and then to the S.E. entering the sea by 
several channels,^ some of which enclosed the triangular isle of 
Peuce.^ Its chief tributaries are — the Savus, of which only a 

' cum tolas Hadria vires 

Movit, et in nubes abiere Ceraunia, cumque 
Spumoso Calaber perfunditur sequore Sason. Luc. ii. 625. 

Non hunulem Sasona vadis, non littora curvge 
Thessalise saxosa. Id. v. 650. 

Hadriaci fugite infaustas Sasonis arenas. Sil. Ital. vii. 480. 

^ The Greek form, of the name was 'MvcrCa, sometimes with the addition of r} kv 
EvpioTTTj, to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Asia. 

9 Multifidi Peucen unum caput adluit Istri. Lrc. iii. 202. 

1 Martial describes it as a Getic, Valerius Placcus as a Sarmatian isle : — 
I, liber, ad Geticam Peucen, Istrumque tacentem. — Mart. vii. 84. 
Insula Sarmaticse Peuce stat nomine Xymphee, 
Torvus ubi, et ripa semper metuendus utraque 

In freta per saevos Ister descendit Alanos. Val. Flag. viii. 217. 



678 



MCESIA. 



Book IV. 



small portion belongs to Moesia ; the Drinus, a feeder of tlie Saviis, 
rising in M. Scordiis ; and the Margus, Jlorava, which rises in 
Orhelus and joins the Danube AY. of Yiminaciimi. 

§ 10. The inhabitants were reputed to be a Thracian race, allied 
to the Mysians of Asia Minor. Among them were settled a Celtic 
tribe, named Scordisci, who entered under Brennus in B.C. 277. 
The Eomans subdued Moesia in B.C. 29 under the generalship of 
M. Licinius Crassus, and kept military possession of it as a frontier 
province. It was originally organized as a single province, but early 
in Trajan's reign was divided into two provinces, sepjarated from 
each other by the river Ciabrus, Moesia Superior to the W., and 
M. Inferior to the E. When Aurelian withdrew from Dacia, he 
formed a settlement in the heart of Moesia which was named after 
him Dacia Aureliani. The most important of the tribes were — 
the Moesi proper on the river Ciabrus ; the Triballi to the W. in the 
valley of the Margus ; the Peucini on the Isle of Peuce at the mouth 
of the Danube ; and the Crobyzi near the frontiers of Thrace.^ The 
towns of Moesia may be divided into three classes ; (1) the Greek 
commercial towns on the shores of the Euxine, which were colonies 
of Miletus, such as Istrox^olis, Tomi, Callatis, and Odessus ; (2) the 
Eoman fortresses along the course of the Danube, such as Singi- 
dunum, Eatiaria, and others, which became of great importance 
after the Eomans had withdrawn from Dacia ; and (3) the towns 
of the interior, which were comparatively few and little known. 
The names of many towns in the second class betoken a Celtic 
origin, e.g. Smgi-diinum, D ur o-storimi, and ~SoYio-dunum. The 
historical associations are very scanty. The Danubian towns were 
mostly destroyed by Attila and his Huns, and restored by Justinian. 
Moesia gave three emperors to Eome, Constantino the Great, 
Maximiau, and Justinian. 

(1.) Toicns along tlie course of tlie Danube from W. to E. — Singi- 
dunum, Belgrade, at the spot where the Savus falls into the Danube- 
Margiim, at the junction of the Margns, known as the scene of Diocle- 
tian's victory over Carinus ; Viminacium, somewhat E. of the Margus, 
either at Bam or KostoJacz, the head-quarters of the Legio YII. Claudia; 
Egeta, near Trajan's bridge over the Danube; Eatiaria, Arzar-Palanca, 
the head-quarters of a legion and the station of a fleet on the Danube; 
(Escus, Ore$:or(tz. near the mouth of the river of the same name ; 
Burostornm, celebrated as the birth-place of Aetins; and Noviodunum, 
Isaczi, a little above the point where the Danube divides : near it 
Yalens constructed a bridge over the river. 

(2.) In the Interior. — Naissus, Xissa, upon a tributary of the 
Margus^ the birth-place of Constantine the Great, and also known for 



2 In addition to these tribes a number of Goths settled in the country in 
A.D. 395, and were thenceforward named Moeso-Goths. They were converted to 
Christianity, and for their use Ulphilas made a translation of the Scriptures, parts 
of "which still exist. 



Chap. XXXII. 



DACIA. 



679 



a victory obtained by Claudius II., in a.d. 269. in its neighbourhood: 
Serdica, or Sardica, the later capital of Dacia Interior, situated in a 
fruitful plain at the spot where the sorux-es of the CEscus unite, and 
from the time of Aurelian surnamed Ulpia ; the Emperor ^Maximilian 
was born near there ; Scupi, Z^sch}:uh, a most important point as com- 
manding the passes into Illyi^icum : near it was Tauresium, the birth- 
place of Justinian; Marcianopolis, near Pravodi, founded by Trajan 
and named after his sister Marciana ; near it Claudius II. defeated the 
Goths in several battles. 

(3.) Or the Euxine jroYii X. to S. — IstropoHs, situated at the S. end 
of lake Halmyris and a place of considerable trade; Tomi, Tom i scar, 
some 40 miles to the S., the reputed spot where Medea cut up her 
brother's body,^ but still better known as the place to which Ovid 
was banished ; CaUatis, Collat, originally colonized by Miletus and 
afterwards replenished with settlers from Heraclea ; lastl}-, Cdessus, 
Varna, which appears to have presided over the Greek towns on this 
coast : its coins bear devices relating to the worship of Serapis, the 
god imported from the shores of Pontus to Alexandria by Pompey. 

IV. Dacia, with the Couxtky of the Jazyges Metaxast^, 

§ 11. Dacia under the Eomans was bounded on the S. by tlie 
Danube ; on the E. by the river Hierasus ; on the X. by M. Car- 
pates ; and on the W, by the river Tysia, separating it from the 
country of the Jazyges. It thus contains the Banof of Temesvo/r, 
Hungary E. of the Tlieiss, Transyhjania^ the BulxOiL-ino.^ the S. 
point of GaUicia, Moldavia W. of Xh^Prutli, and WaUacltia. The 
only range of mountains noticed by ancient writers is Carpates Mons' 
described by Ptolemy as an insulated range lying between the 
sources of the Tibiscus and the Tyras. It thus answers to tlie 
W, Carpathians. The rivers are all tributaries of the Danuhius; 
they are, as follows, from ^Y. to E. : the Tysia, or Tisianus, Theiss, 
with its tributaries the Gerasus, Koros, and the Marisus, JIarosch ; 
the Tibiscus or FatMssus, Tenies ; the Alutas, Aluta ; and the 
Hierasus, Sereth. 

§ 12. The inhabitants of Dacia belonged to the Thracian group of 
nations. Their original name was G-etae,^ which was subsequently 
changed to Daci, though the date and the causes of this change are 
quite unknown. The position of this people varied at different 
historical periods,^ but at the time they l"^ecame known to the 



^ This legend probably arose from a fancied derivation of the name from rsfxvoj 
" to cut." 

* The resemblance of the names Get£e and Goths has occasionally led to a mis- 
taken idea that the two races were identical. The names Geta, Daciis, and Darns, 
are the generic titles of slaves in the plays of Aristophanes and Terence. This 
originated in the nmnber of captives made by the Gauls when they invaded 
Eastern Europe, and sold as slaves to the Athenians. 

5 Herodotus and Thucydides describe them as living between the Ister and 
Mt. Haemus. When Philip invaded Scythia they had been displaced from these 



680 



DACIA. 



Book 1Y. 



Eomans,^ they occupied the district we have above described. The 
Eomans first entered the country, under Lentuhis in B.C. 10, but 
they did not subdue the country until Trajan's expeditions^ (a.d. 
101-105), when a large nuiuber of the inhabitants migrated to the 
banks of the Borysthenes, where they were known as T^a^agetsB. 
The country w^as now reduced to a province, and remained an in- 
tegral portion of the Eoman empire until the time of Aurelian 
(a.d. 270-275), when the Eoman settlers withdrew to the S. of 
the Danube and settled in Dacia Aureliani, leaving Dacia Proper to 
the Goths. ^ It remained for a long time a barrier against the bar- 
barian tribes of the north, but it was at length overrun by Attila 
and his Huns about a.d. 376. The conqueror of Dacia, Trajan, 
connected Dacia with Moesia by a magnificent bridge,^ and con- 
structed three important roads, connected with the Yia Trajana, 
which ran along the S. side of the Danube, partly cut in the 
rock and partly supported by wooden beams set up against the per- 
pendicular wall of rOck above the water of the river. ^ The first 



quarters by the Triballi, and liad been driven N. of the Ister. Here they were 
attacked by Alexander in b.c. 335, and by Lysimachus in e.g. 292. 

s The Daci "^ere regarded by the Komans as a formidable race : they served . 
under Antony as mercenaries at Actium, to which Horace alludes in the following 
passages : — 

Pasne occupatam seditionibus 
Delevit urbem Dacus et ^Ethiops;' 
Hie classe formidatus, ille 

Missilibus melior sagittis. Carm. iii. 6, 13. 

Frigidus a rostris manat per compita rumor ; 
Quicunque obvius est, me consulit : O bone (nam te 
Scire, deos quoniam propius contingis, oportet) ! 
Num quid de Dacis audisti ? Sat. ii. 6, 50. 

They were in consequence attacked by Lentulus about b.c. 25, to which the same 
poet refers in Carm. iii. 8, 18 : — 

Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen. 
^ In his first campaign Trajan passed through Pannonia, crossed the Theiss, and 
followed the course of the 2Iarosch into Transylvania : his first great battle was 
fought on the Crossfiehl near Tliorda, which still retains the name of Prat de 
Trajan (Pratum Trajani). In his second campaign he crossed the Danube below 
the Iron Gate, where his bridge was afterwards built, and, sending one part of 
his army along the Aluta, he himself followed the valley, which leads from Orsova 
hj Jlehadia (through the Iron Gate pass) to the capital, Sarmizegethusa, which 
the inhabitants set on fire. 

8 Though the Poman dominion lasted only about 170 years in Dacia, yet in 
no country has it left more unequivocal traces in the language of the people. 
The Wallachian is a Pvomance language, derived from the Latin, like the Italian, 
Spanish, and French. 

This bridge was situated at the point where the river makes a double bend 
near Severin. It was built by ApoUodorus, and consisted of twenty piers, 150 ft. 
high, 60 thick, and 170 distant from each other. It was destroyed by Hadrian 
about A.D. 120. All that now remains of it is a solid mass of masonry about 
20 ft. high on each bank, and the foundations of the piers, some of which are 
visible when the river is low. 

1 The sockets in which the beams were inserted to support this road are visible 
in many places. The road was in fact nothing but a wooden shelf. 



Chap. XXXII. 



SAEMATIA EUROP^A. 



681 



road ran between Yiminacium and Tibiscum ; tbe second between 
Pons Trajani and Parolissum, by the banks of the Temes (through 
the narrow gorge of the Iron Gate) into the valley of the Maroscli, 
and so on^uito Tmnsylvania ; and the third between Trajan's bridge 
by the valley of the Aluta to Apula, w^here it fell into the last- 
mentioned road. The so-called wall of Trajan, which ran through 
a great part of Dacia from the S.W. to N.E., and of which the re- 
mains may still be found, belongs to a later period. Of the towns 
w^e know but little, Sarmizegetliusa, the old Dacian capital and the 
chief garrison of the Eomans, stood about five Eoman miles of 
the Vulkan Pass at Varliely on the river Strel or Strey. It became 
a colony, and possessed an aqueduct and baths. 

The other important towns were : — Tibiscum or Tiviscum, Ka- 

varan, on the Tibiscus*, Tiema, on the Danube, at the mouth of a 
river of the same name ; Apola, Weissenhurg, a Roman colony on the 
Marisus; and Parolissum, a municipium more to the N., the position 
of which is not well ascertained. 

§ 13. The Jazyges Metanastse were a Sarmatian race, whose 
original settlements were on the Palus Masotis. Thence they 
wandered to the banks of the Lower Danube, and in a.d. 50 a 
portion of them transferred their residence to the country between 
the Theiss and the Danuhe, where they received the surname of 
Metanastge, i.e. " transplanted," to distinguish them from the rest of 
the race.^ They were a wild, nomad race, living in tents and 
waggons, and perpetually at war with the Romans. They called 
themselves Sarmata3 Limigantes, and were divided into tw^o classes, 
slaves and freemen. The towns in this district were founded by 
the slaves who preceded the Jazyges. AVe know nothing of them 
beyond their names. 

y. SaRMATIA EUROPyEA. 

§14. The extensive district which lies E. of the Vistula and 
N. of Dacia was comprised under the general name of Sarmatia; 
northwards it extended to the Baltic, and eastwards to the Tanais, 
which formed the boundary between Europe and Asia. It thus 
included parts of Poland and GalUcia, Lithuania, Estlionia, and 
Western Russia. The only portion of this enormous extent of 
country really known to the ancients was that which was adjacent 
to the coasts of the Euxine, answering to the Scy thia of Herodotus. 
Of the rest we have a description by Ptolemy, consisting of nu- 



2 This "was their position in Oyid's time : — 

Jazyges, et Colchi, Metereaque turba, Getaeque, 
Danubii mediis Yix prohibentar aquis. 



Trist. ii. 191. 
2 G 3 



682 



SAEMATIA EUEOP^A. 



Book IV. 



meroTis names of tribes and monntains, of wliicli the former are 
interesting to tlie ethnologist, while the latter are so ragnely de- 
scribed as to be beyond the reach of identification. AYe have already 
noticed the chief rivers that discharge themselves into the Enxine. 
in connexion with the geography of Herodotus. It only remains 
for ns to notice the most important tribes and towns knovm to the 
ancients. 

§ 15. The chief tribes were the Tauri in the Chersonesus Tanrica, 
Crimea, probably the remains of the Cimmerians, who were diiven 
out of the Chersonese by the Scythians. They were a mde, savage 
people, much addicted to piracy.^ The Roxolani, a Samatian race, 
who first appear in history abont 100 B.C., when they occupied the 
steppes between the Dnieper and the Don. They waged war with 
Mithridates, and were defeated by his general Diophantus. They 
were also defeated by the Eomans in Otho's reign. The Jazyges, 
whom we have lately referred to, and who once lived between the 
Dnieper and the Sea of Azov, The Bastarnae, a powerful tribe, 
generally supposed to be of Geman extraction, whose earliest set- 
tlements seem to have been in the highlands between the Tlieiss and 
MaroscTi, whence they pressed down the course of the Danube to 
its mouth, where a portion of them settled in the Isle of Pence 
under the name of Peucini. They are afterwards foimd between the 
Dniester and Dnieper. The Alani, a branch of the Asiatic race of 
the same name, a wandering horde that issued from the steppes 
between the Enxine and the Caspian. The Hamaxobii, on the 



3 The Taurians ^vorsMpped Diana, or, according to their own statement, 
Iphigenia : — 

2v 6' el—a? eX.Oelv TavpLKrj'; jj.' opov? x^o^o^j 
*Ey0' ''Aprefj-L?. crq cruyyovo<;, jSto/xov? ^x^t-, 
Aa/Secv r ayakfj-a Oeag, 6 (baaiv €v9(x8e 

'E? TOvcrSe vaov? ovpavov —screlv a~o. EUEIP. Iph. in Tciur. 85. 

"'H/\0es 0.770 'XKvOiri?, arro S' a.~ao riOfiia Tavpoov. 

CjiLLiif. Eymn. in Dian. 174. 
Ovid refers to their barbarous custom of immolating human victims in honour 
of Diana Tauropolis : — 

Est locus in Scythia, Tauros dixere priores, 

Qui Getica longe non ita distat humo. 
Hac ego sum terra (patrise nec poenitet) ortus. 

Consortem Phoebi gens colit ilia deam. 
Templa manent hodie vastis innixa columnis ; 

Perque quater denos itur in ilia gradus. 
Pama refert illic signum coeleste fuisse. 

Quoque minus dubites, stat basis orba dea ; 
Araque, quEe fuerat natura Candida saxi, 

Decolor affuso tmcta cruore rubet. Ex. Pont. iii. 2, 45. 

Isec procul a nobis locus est, ubi Tauiica dira 

Caede pharetratae pascitur ara deee. Trlst. iv. 4, 63. 

There -was a famous temple of this goddess near Chersonesus, Sehasfopol ; but its 
exact position is undecided. 



Chap. XXXII. 



TOWXS. 



683 



banks of the Wolga, also a nomad race, as their name (" livers in 
waggons ") implies. The Agathyrsi,*^ located in the time of Hero- 
dotus on the hanks of the Theiss, afterwards in the Pains Ma^otis, 
and again more to the N. ; and the Venedse, on the shores of the Sinns 
Yenedicns, Gulf of Biga, The only towns which we shall notice are 
the Greek colonies on the mainland and in the Tanric Chersonese. 

(1.) Towns on the 2Lcdnland. — Tyras was a ]\Iile5ian colony near the 
mouth of the river of the same name^ probably at Acl:ermann. Olbia, 
or Eorystlieiies, stood on the right bank of the Hypanis. about 25 
miles from its mouth; it was founded by Milesians in B.C. 655, and 
became a most important place of trade, and also produced some 
literary men of distinction : it ajDpears to have been destroyed by the 
Getae about B.C. 50, but was afterwards restored : its ruins are at 
Stornogil. Carcina stood at the entrance of the Crimea on a river 
which has been identified with the Kalanfcliah. 

(2.) ToiL'ns in the Tauric Chersonese. — Chersonesus was founded by 
the Dorians of Heraclea in Pontus, probably in the 5th century B.C., 
at the S.W. extremity of the peninsula. The original town stood close 
to C. Fanari : this was destroyed, and its successor occupied a portion 
of the site of the famous Sehasto'pol. A wall was constructed for the 
defence of this place from the head of the harbom^ to Symbolon, Bala- 
clava : the remains of the wall and town were considerable until the 
Russians erected Selastopol. Xear it was Eupatorium, generally iden- 
tified with the now famous In}:errnann. Theodosia, Caffa, a colony of 
the Milesians, stood on the S.E. coast, and was a place of considerable 
trade, particularly in corn: its native name was Ardabcla, "'town of 
the seven gods." Nympliaea was also a Milesian town with a harbour, 
the rains of which are at the S. point of the Lal^e of Tchouroache. 
Panticapaeum, Kertch, stood at the W. side of the Cimmerian Bosporus: 
the date of its foimdation is not certain, but it must have been about 
500 B.C.: it was the capital of the kings of Bosporus, and hence was 
itself occasionally called Bosporus. The old town occupied the emi- 
nence at the foot of which Kertc-i stands: numerous tumuli have been 
discovered about it, from which antiquities of ail sorts have been 
extracted. The kingdom of Bosporus existed under AT^rioiis dynasties 
from about B.C. 500 to about a.d. 350. The events of chief interest 
connected with it are its conquest by Mithridates the Great. King of 
Pontus, and its subsequent submission to the Romans^ who appointed 
Pharnaces king. 



^ They practised the art of tattooing : — 

Cretesqiie Dryopesque fremunt, pictique Agathyi'si. — .En, ix. 146. 




Coin of Panticapaeum. 



INDEX. 



( 685 ) 

INDEX. 



ABBEEYIATIONS. 



FI. = Flumen. 
Fret. = Fretum. 
I. = Insula or -ae. 



L. = Lacus. 
Ms. == Moiis. 
Mts. = Montes. 



Pr. = Promontorinm. 
S. = Sinus. 



A. 

Abacsenum, 604 
Abffi, 394 
Abana, Fl., i6j 
Abantes, 21 
Abarnus, Pr., 92 
Abasci, 229 
Abdera, 329 
Abella, 565 
Abellinum, 527 
Abia, 452 
Abii. 20 
Abilene, 163 
Abnoba, Ms., 662 
A!:)Occis, 286 
Aboniteicbos, 157 
Abrotonum, 297 
Absyrtldes, L, 677 
Abus, ^Estuarium, 649 
Abus, Ms., 74, 233 
Abydus (Mys.),96 
Abydus (.Egypt.), 277 
Abyla, Ms., jo8 
Acacesium, 476 
Academia, 416 
Acaraas, Pr,, 137 
Acampsis, FL, 158 
Acantbus ( J^lgypt.), 47 
Acanthus (Macedon.), 
345 

Acaraania, 375 ff. 
Accad, 12 
Acco, II 
Acerrae, 571 
Aces, Fl., 32 
Acesines, FL, 76 
Acesta, 601 
Achffii, 354, 441 
Acbaia, 440 ff. 
Acbam83, 417 
Acbelous, ?52, 376 
Acheron, FL, 370 
Acheriisia Palus, 3 70 
Achilleos Dromos, 35 
Achradina, 597 
Achzib, II 
Acincum, 673 
Acimpo, 616 



.a:GIROESSA. 

Aciris, FL, 580 
Acrje, 604 
Acrjephium, 404 
Acragas, 599 
Acritas, Pr., 352 
Acroceraunia, 363 
Acroria, 443 
Acropolis, 409 
Acrothoi, 346 
Acte, 338 

Actium, Pr., 371, 376 

I Adamas, FL, 250 
I Adana (Cilic), 136 
j Adana (Arab.), 174 
j Addua, FL, 496 
I Adiabene, 217 

Adonis, FL, 168 
! Adoreus, Ms., 150 
: Adramit£e, 173 
, Adraniyttenus, Sin.,92 
; Adramyttium, 99 
i Adria, 499, 518. 
' Adriaticum Mare, 316 
j Adrius, Ms., 318 
! Adula, Ms., 486 
I Adule, 288 

Adulicus, Sin., 284 

Adyrmachida?, 38, 290 

^a, 36 

JEssa, 17, 21 
! iEdepsus, 424 
j JCdui, 639 
i JEgse (^lys.) 100 
I JEgse (Cilic), 136 
; yEgffi (Euboe.), 424 

^Eg« (AcbaL), 441 
' .Eg£e vel Edessa, 346 

.EgEeum Mare, 69, 316 

iEgaleus, M., 406 

yEgates, L, 604 
: ..Egida, 492 

^gilippa, 379 
j ^Egina, I., 421 
I yEginetans, Voyages 

of the, 24 
; ./Eginium, 365 
i yEgiplanctus, 429 
! ^Egira, 441 
j ^giroessa, 94 



^Egitium, 385 
iEgium, 442 
^Fgospotamos, 327 
^Egosthen£e, 604 
^Egyptus, 261 ff. 
^lana, 174 
^lanltes. Sin., 69 
iElia Capitolina, 189 
Emilia Via, 501 
iEmona, 672 
..Fnaria, 571 
.Enus, FL, 668 
^nus, Pr., 338 
^nus, Ms., 380 
.^nus, 329 
JEolise, I., 605 
^oles, 354 
j ^olis, 94 
^Epy, 448 
iEqui, 533 
iEschylus, 22 
^sepns, FL, 93 
^sernia, 526 
.Esis, FL, 514 
^thalia, I., 512 
^Ethlces, 19 
^Ethiopia, 284 ff. 
^Ethiopians of Homer, 
18 

iEthiopici, Mts., 284 
^thiops, FL, 22 
^tna, Ms., 590 
.Etna, 604 
.Etolia, 382 ff. 
Africa, 253 ff, 
Africa, Circumnaviga- 
tion of, 24 
Africa Propria, 298 ff. 
Agatharchides, 49 
Agathemerus, 56 
Agathyrsi, 35, 682 
Agbatana, 37 
Agendicmu, 641 
Agora, 332 
Agriei, 383 

Agrianes, FL, 34, 327 
Agrigentum, 599 
Agrinlum, 385 
Agylla, 510. 



■ ALEXANDRIA. 

Agyrium, 604 

Ai, 188 

Air, 65 

Ajalon, 187 

Alabanda, 121 

Alabastrites, Ms., 264 

Ala?sa, 604 

Alalcomen^e, 403 

Alalia, 608 

Alani, 682 

Alata Castra, 650 

Alaunus, FL, 649 

Alazon, FL, 230 

Alazones, 35 

Alba Longa, 558 

Alba Pompeia, 503 

Albana, 230 

Albania, 230 

Albanicse Portie, 230 

Albanus, L., 532 

Albanus, Ms., 530 
i Albion, 647 
' Albis, FL, 662 

Albium Ingaunum,503 

Albium Intemelium, 
503 

Albius, Ms., 318 
Album, Pr., 168 
Alburnus, Ms., 580 
Alcyonium Mare, 463 
Alenianni, 665 
Aleria, 608 
Ale si a, 641 

Alexander of Ephesus, 
40 

Alexander the Great, 
Campaigns of, 40 

Alexandria, 268 

Alexandria(Arachos.), 
24J 

Alexandria Arion, 242 
Alexandria (BabyL), 
215 

Alexandria (Bactr.), 
245 

Alexandria ad Issum, 
136 

Alexandria Oxiana, 
246 



686 



INDEX. 



ALEXANDRIA. 

Alexandria Troas 98, 
Alexandria Ultima, 
246 

Algidus, Ms., 530 
Alinda, 122 
Aliphera, 476 
Allia, Fl., 520 
AUife, 526 
AUobroges, 634 
Alluvial deposit, 66 
Almo, Fl., 545 
Alonta, FL, 230 
Alope, 396 
Alopeconnesus, 332 
Alpenus, 396 
Alpes, Mts., 319, 485 
Alpes Camicge, 456 • 
Alpes PennmEe, 486 i 
Alpes Ehffiticas, 486 i 
Alpheus, Fl, 444, 471 i 
Alsadamus, Ms., 202 
Alsium, 512 \ 
Altlnum, 494 ' 
Aluntium, 604 i 
Amta, FL, 679 
Alyzia, 379 
Amalchium Mare, 27 
Amamdes Portte, 132 
Amanus, Ms., 132 
Amardus, 238 i 
Amari, L., 265 ; 
Amarynthus, 424 
Amasenus, FL, 532 
Amasia, 160 
Am as iris, 157 
Amathns, 138 
Amazones, 19 ; 
Ambastus, FL, 76 
Amber trade, 22, 43, 54 
Ambiani, 646 \ 
Ambracia, 372 1 
Ambracius, Sia., 35 j, | 
370 I 
Ambi*ysus, 394 i 
Ameria, 516 { 
Amida, 224 j 
Amisia, FL, 662 j 
Amisus, 159 I 
Amiternum, 520 
Ammonites, 183 
Ammonium, 279 
Amnias, Fl., 156 i 
Amordocia, 212 j 
Amorgos, 4*79 ' 
Amorites, 182 ' 
Ampe, 215 

Ampelus,Pr., 112,338, 
. 479 

Ampelnsia, Pr., 308 
Amphipagus, Pr., 374 
Amphipolis, 343 ' 
Amphissa, 386 | 
Amphitus, FL, 449 
Amphrysus, FL, 361 
Ampsaga, FL, 305 1 
Ampsancti Vallis, 527 ' 
Amyclss (Lacon.), 460 | 
Amyclse (Lat.), 557 j 



ANTIPATRIS. 

Amymone, FL, 463 
Anactorium, 378 
Anagnia, 557 
Anana, L., 147 
Ananes, 497 
Anapbe, L, 478 
Anapblystus, 420 
Anapus, FL, 598 
Anaraei, Mts., 74 
Anas, FL, 610 
Anathoth, 188 
Anaua, L., 147 
Anaxagoras, 25 
Anaximander, 25 
Anaximenes, 25 
Anaximenes of Lamp- 

sacus, 41 
Anazarbus, 136 
Anchialus, 333 
Ancon, 160 
Ancona, 517 
AncjTa (Gal.), 152 
Ancyra (Phryg.), 150 
Andania, 452 
Anderida, 655 
Anderitum, 633 
Andes, 498 
Andecavi, 641 
Androphagi, 35 
Andropolis, 270 
Andros, 1., 428 
Anemoria, 394 
Anemurium, Pr., 132 
Angli, 664 
Angrivarii, 664 
Angrus, FL, 32 
Anbydrus, Ms., 407 
Anlgrus, FL, 444 
Annibi, Mts., 74 
Anio, FL, 531 
Antteopolis, 278 
Antandrus, 99 
Antaradus, 170 
Antarctic Circle, 61 
Anthea, 451 
Antbedon, 404 
Antbemusia, 209 
Antbilla, 270 
Anticragus, Ms., 125 
Anticyra (Tbess.), 367 
Anticyra (Pboc), 39? 
Anticyra (Locr.), 386 
Antigonia, 475 
AntiUbanus, Ms., 162 
Antinoopolis, 274 
Antiocbia, 164 
Antiocbia (Pisid.), 145 
Antiocbia Callirrboes, 

209 

Antiocbia ad Mcean- 

drum, 121 
Antiocbia Margiana, 

244 

Antiocbia Mygdonica, 
209 

Antiocbus of Syra- 
cuse, 45 
Antipatris, 194 



j APULIA. 

I Antiphellus, 125 
; Antipodes, 51 

Antipolis, 637 
( Antirrbium, 352 

Antissa, 10 1 
i Anli-Tam'us, Ms., 72, 
i 86 

j Antium, 552 

! Antivest^ima, Pr., 649 

' Antoeci, 51 

Antona, 648 

Antonini Vallum, 656 

Antron, 366 
■ Anxamum, 528 

Anxur, 553 

Aornus (Bactr.), 248 
, Aornus (Ind.), 249 
. Aorsi, 252 

Aous, FL, 674 

Apamea (Babyl.), 215 

Apamea (Bitbyn.), 
155 _ 

Apamea Cibotu?, 148 
' Apamea (Mesop.), 209 
Apamea Hhagiana, 
242 _ 

, Apamea (Syr.), 165 
; Apamene, 163 
. Apenninus Ms., 319, 
' 486 

Aperantia, 385 

Apesas, Ms., 439 

Apbetfe, 367 

Apbidna, 419 
. Apbrodisias(Car.),i2i 
\ Apbrodisias (Thrac), 
' 332 

Apbrodisium, 307 

Apbroditopolis, 275 
, Apia, 4J1 

Apidanus, FL, 360 

Apis, 290 

Apodoti, 383 
; Apola, 681 
' Apollmis Pi*., 299, 308 

Apollodoi-us of Arte- 
mita, 49 
• Apollodorus of Athens, 
49 

ApoUonia (Assyr.), 
220 

ApoUonia (Cbalcid.'), 
345 

ApoUonia (Cyren.), 
292 

ApoUonia (lUyr.), 679 
ApoUonia (Thrac), 
3n 

ApoUinopolis Magna, 
277 

Apologi Yicus, 215 
Aponi Fons, 494 
Appia, Via, 560, 576 
Aprositus, I., 312 
Apsarus, FL, 158 
Apsus, FL, 673 
Apuam, 631 
, Apulia, 572 



j AEGAXTHOXTCS. 

■ Aquae Aurelise, 666 
Aqu£e Bormonis, 63 1 
Aquae Calida?, 6?i 

; Aquas Convenarum 
6?2 

Aquie Mattiacae, 666 
Aquas Sextia?, 636 
Aquse Sicc«, 631 
Aquae Soils, 655 
Aquae Sialiellge, 503 
AquEe Tarbelllcte, 6ji 
Aquensis Vicus, 631 
Aquileia, 493 
Aquiucura, 673 
Aquitani, 632 
Aquitania, 630 
Arabia, 171 ff 
Arabia Deserta, 173 

. Arabia Felix, 173 
Arabia Petraea, 174 
Arabici, Mts., 264 
Arabicus, Sin., 69 

, Arabis, FL, 24J 

j Aracbnffium, Ms., 461 
Arachosia, 24? 

: Aracbotus, FL, 243 
Aracbtbus, FL, 370 

] Aradus (Arab.), 174 
Aradus (Pboen.), 170 

i Araetbyria, 4J9 

! Aragus, FL, 229 
Aram, 10 

; Aram-Be tb-rebob, 11 
Aram-Damascus, 10 
Aram-Maachah, 10 
Aram-Xaharaim, 11 

: Arantinus, Ms., 438 
Arar, FL, 639 

; Ararat, Ms., 2 
Arauris, FL, 634 
Arausis, 637 
Araxes, FL, 32 

\ Araxes, Fl. (Armen.), 

i 77 

' Araxes, Fl. (Pers.), 
! 223 

' Araxus, Pr., 440 

' Arbela, 220 

i Arbiti, Mts., 243 

Arcadia, 469 ff 
; Area, 11 

Arcbelais, 142 
; Arcbelaus, 60 
i Arctic Circle, 61 
I Ardea, 557 

Ardericca, 37 
I Ardius, ^Is., 673 
' Arduenna Sylva, 629 

Arecomici, 634 

Areiopagus, 414 
' Arelate, 636 

Arene,448 
' Areopolis, 202 
> Arethusa, 596 

Avevacee, 624 

Argfeus, Ms., 86 

Argantbonius, Ms., 
i 152 



INDEX. 



687 



ARGARICUS. 

Argaricus, Sin., 250 
Argeunum, Pr,, 104 
Argentarius, Ms., 

Hisp., 610 
Argentarius, Ms., It., 

505 

Argentomagus ) , 
Argentoratum 3 
Argilus, 345 
Arginusfe, I., 102 
Argippai, 35, 252 
Argitbea, 372 
Argob, 202 
Argolicus, Sin., 352 
Argolis, 461 fif 
Argonauric expedi- 
tion, 16 
Argos, 465 

Argos Amphilochi- 

cum, ?77 
Argos Pelasgicum, 353 
Argyria, 160 
Aria, 242 
Aria, L., 24? 
Ariana. 241 
Aria, 242 
Aricia, 556 
Arimaspi, 35 
Arimathfea, 187 
Arimlnum, 515 
Ariminus, Fl., 514 
Aris, Fl., 449 
Arisba, loi 
Aristonautffi, 441 
Aristobulus, 41 
Aristotle, 44 
Arius, FL, 242 
Armene, 157 
Armenia, 222 ff 
Armenia Minor, 141 
Ar Moab, 202 
AiTTiorici, 639 
Arne, 366 
Anion, FL, 200 
Armis, FL, 488 
Aroanius, Ms., 470 
Aromata, Pr. 284 
Arosis, FL, 233 
Arpi, 574 
Arpinum, 559 
Arrabo, FL, 671 
Arrapacbitis, 217 
Arretium, 508 
Arrian, 5; 
Arsamosata., 224 
Arsene, T.., 223 
Arsia, FL, 492 
Arsinarium, Pr., 311 
Arsinoe (iEgypt.), 

272, 274 
Arsinoe (.Etbiop.), 288 
Arsinoe (.EtoL) 384 
Arsinoe (Cypr.), 138 
Arsinoe (Cyren,), 294 
Artabri, 623 
Artacoana vel Aria, 242 
Artamis, FL, 245 
Artaxata, 224 



Artemidorus, 49 
• Artemisium,Pr.(Car.), 

; 116 

I Artemisium, Pr. 

(Euboe.), 42^. 
. Artemisium, Ms., 461 
! Artemita(Assyr.), 220 
I Artemita (Armen.), 
1 224 

Artiscus, FL, 327 

Arvarni, 250 

Arverni, 630 

Arycandus, FL, 127 

Arzen, 224 

Asbystje, 39 

Ascalon, i86 

Ascania, L. (Bitbyn.), 

Ascania, L. CPbryg.), 

^■^"^ ^ 
Ascatancas, Ms., 74 

Asciburgium, 645 

Ascra, 403 

Asculum Apulum, 576 
Asciilum Picenum, 

518 
Asea, 476 
Asbdod, 186 
Asber, 198 
Asbtarotb, 203 
Asia, 67 ff 
Asia Minor, 83 ff 
Asine (ArgoL), 468 
Asine (Lacon.), 459 
Asine (Messen.), 451 
Asmirtei, Mts., 74 
Asopus, FL (Boeot.), 

398 

Asopus, FL (Sicyon.), 
437 

Aspendus, 130 
Aspbaltites, L., i8d 
Aspis, 303 
Assbur, 12 
Assus, 99 
Assyria, 216 ff 
Asta (Hisp.), 614 
Asta (Ligur,), 503 
Astaboras, FL, 284 
Astacenus, Sin., 153 
Astacus (Acarn.), 379 
As tacus (Bitbyn.), 155 
Astapa, 616 
Asteris, 1-, 381 
Asterium, 366 
Astigi, 615 
Astrseum, 346 
Astfira, 5 32 
Asturica, 624 
Astypalsea, L., 478 
Astj'palgea, Pr., 115 
Atabyris, Ms., 124 
Atarantes, 39 
Atarneus, ico 
Atax, FL, 634 
Atella, 571 
Aternum, 523 
Aternus, FL, 523 



AUTOLALA. 

Ateste, 495 

Atbamanes, 370 

AtbenEe, 409 ff 

Atbesis, FL, 488 

Atbos, Ms., 338 

Atbribis, 271 

Atlantes, 39 

Atlas Major, 255 

Atlas Minor, 308 

Atlantic Ocean, Re- 
ports about the, 44 

Atlas, 20 

Atr£e, 209 

Atrebatii, 651 

Atropatene, 238 

Attagus, FL, 634 

Attalia, 130 

Attica, 405 ff 

Atticitus. FL, 230 

Aturus, FL 631 

Aundena, 526 

Aufidus, FL, 489 

Aufona, FL, 648 

Augila, 295 

Augusta Emerita, 617 

Augusta Praetoria,499 

Augusta Eauracorum, 
644 

Augusta Suessionum, 
646 

Augusta Taurinorum, 
499 

Augusta Trevirorum, 
645 

Augusta Yagienno- 

rum, 503 
Augusta Vindelico- 

rum, 668 
Angus todiinum, 640 
Augustonemetum, 633 
Augustoritum, 633 
Aulerci, 639 
Aulerci Cenomani, 639 
Aulerci Eburovices, 

639 
Aulis, 403 
Anion, 179 
Anion, Ms., 579 
Auranitis (Babylon.), 

212 

Auranitis (Palest.), 
202 

Aurasius, Ms., 305 
Aurea Cbersonesus, 69 
Aureliani, 641 
AureliaVia, 503, 637 
Aureus, Ms., 608 
Aurinx, 616 
Aurunci, 533 
Ansa, 622 
Auscbisffi, 39 
Ausci, 6ji 
Auser, FL, 505 
Ausetani, 621 
Ausones, 53; 
Ausonia, 484 
Autini, 660 
Autolala, 312 



AutomSli, 38 
Autrigones, 632 
Auxacii, Mts., 74 
Auximum, 518 
Auxiime, 287 
Auzia, 309 
Avalites, Sin., 284 
Avaricum, 633 
Avenio, 637 
Aventicum, 644 
Aventlnus, Ms., 534 
Avernus, L., 490 
Avienus, 44 
Axius, FL, 338 
Axona, 639 
Azani, 150 
Azania, 285 
Azorus, 366 
Azotus, 186 

B. 

Babba, 310 
Babel, 12 
Babylon, 2L3 
Babf Ion (.Egypt.), 272 
Babylonia, 210 ff 
Bactra, 244 
Bactria, 244 
Bactrian trade, 43 
Bactrus, FL, 245 
Badubennas Lncus, 662 
Bfecolicus, Ms,, 291 
Basterrge, 635 
BiBtica, 613 ff 
Ba?tii, Mts., 243 
Bffitis, FL, 613 
Bgeturia, 613 
Bagistanus, Ms., 240 
Bagous, Ms., 242 
Bagradas, FL, 299 
Baiae (Campan.), 566 
Baige (Cilic), 136 
Baleares vel Gymne- 

sia, I., 626 
Balissus, FL, 208 
Balyra, FL, 449 
Bambyce, 166 
Banasa, 310 
Barbana, Fl , 673 
Barbaria, 285 
Barbarium, Pr., 611 
Barca, 293 
Barcino, 621 
Bargus, FL, 660 
Bargylia, 122 
Bargylus, Ms., 162 
Baris, Ms., 3 
Barium, 576 
Barnus, Ms., 337 
Barygaza, 251 
Barygazenus, Sin., 250 
Bashan, 202 
Bastarnee, 682 
Bastetani, 619 
Bastuli, 613 
Batanffia, 202 
Batavi, 643 



688 



INDEX. 



BATAYORU:\I. 

Batavorum, I., 64 j 
Batliys Portns, 404 
BatiiEe, 209 
Bauli, 570 
Bautisus, Fl., 76 
Bazium, Pr., 284 
Bebii, :\rts., 518 
Bebryces, 89 
Becliires, 159 
Bedriacum, 499 
Beeroth, 188 
Beersheba, 184 
Begorra, 344 
Be gonitis, L,, 339 
Belbina, 460 
Belbina, I., 422 
Belemina, 460 
Belgas, 651 
Belgica, 64T 
Belisama, ^Est., 649 
Bellas, FL, 208 
BeLlovaci, 644 
Belo, 614 
Bembina, 440 
Benacus, L., 490 
Beneventum, 526 
Benjamin, 187 
Berecj-ntbee, 89 
Berenice, 278 
Berenice (Cyren.), 294 
Berenice Epideires, 
288 

Berenice Pancbrysns, 
288 

Bergomiim, 498 
Bermiiis, Ms., 337 
Beroea (Maced.), 346 
Bercea (Syr.), 165 
Beroea (Tbrac), 333 
Berotbai, 10 
Berytus, 170 
Bessi, 328 
Betbany, 188 
Betbel, 188 
Betbesda, 192 
Betb-boron, 187 
Betblebem, 185 
Betbsaida, 197 
Betbsban, 196 
Betb-sbemesb, 266 
Bettigo, Ms., 250 
Bezetba, 190 
Bibracte, 640 
Bilbilis, 625 
Billajus, FL, 153 
Bingium, 645 
Bisaltia, 340 
Bistones, 328 
Bistonis, L., 327 
Bitbyni, 153 
Bitbynia, 152 ff. 
Bitbynium,- 155 
Bituriges, 631 
Bituriges Cubi, 632 
Blanda, 583 
Blatum BiUgium, 659 
Blaundus, 159 
Blenunyes, 285 



I BRITANNIA. 

Blncium, 152 
Boagi'ins, FL, 395 
Boas, FL, 87 ; 
Bodencus, FL, 488 j 
Boderia, ^Est., 659 | 
Boebe, 367 \ 
Boebeis, L., 361 I 
Bceotia, 396 if. i 
Boii (GalL Cis ), 497 ; 
Boii (Germ.), 665 
j Boiodurum, 670 ' 
i Boium, 387 i 
I Bolbe, 339' 
! Bolbitme, 272 
, Bolerium, Pr,, 649 
: Bomi, Mts., 382 : 
: Bomienses, 383 j 
I Bonna, 645 
! Bononia (GalL), 646 
I Bononia (Itab), 500 
Borcovicus, 656 
Boreum, Pr. (Cyren.), 
291 

Boreum, Pr. (Hibeni.), • 

660 I 
] Borsippa, 213 | 
Borystbenes, 683 | 
Borystbenes, FL, 32 j 
I Bosa, 608 I 
i Bosporus, 683 j 
Bosporus Cimmerius, ! 

j Bosporus Tbracius, 70 ; 
Bostra, 204 , 
Bostrenus, FL, 1&9 
Bottisea, 341 ; 
Bovianum, 526 
Bozrab (Arab.), 19 
Bozrab (Peraj.), 204 
Bracara Augusta, 624 
Bracbodes, Pr., 299 
Bradanus, FL, 574 
Brancbidfe, 119 
BrannoTices or Bran- i 

novii, 639 ! 
Brattia, I., 677 j 
Brauron, 419 } 
Bregetium, 673 
Bremenium, 659 ! 
Brentbe, 471 | 
Breuci, 89 j 
Brig-antes (Brit.), 651 | 
Brigantes (Hibem ), \ 

660 ; 
Brigantinus, L., 668 
Brigantium (GalL), j 

637 

I Brigantium (Hisp.), ' 
I 624 

i Brigantium (Vindel.), 

i 668 

; Briges, 89 

I Brilessus, Ms., 406 

: Britain, Discovery of, i 

I 44 ' 

1 Britannia, 647 I 

I Britannia Barbara, 658 1 

I Britannia Prima, 651 | 



C^SARODUXUM. 

Britannia Secunda, 651 
Britannicas, I., 647 ff. 
Britannicum Mare, 
317 

Brixellum, 501 
Brixia, 498 
Brongus, Fl., 32 
Bructeri, 664 
Brundusium, 577 
Bruttii, 584 
Bryges, 89 
Bryseie, 460 
Buana, 224 
Bubassius, Sin., 115 
Bubastus, 271 
Buca, 528 
Bucepbala, 249 
Budini, 35 
Budorum, Pr., 421 
Bulla Kegia, 306 
Bumadus, FL, 227 
Bupbras, Ms., 449 
Buportbmus, JNls., 461 
Buprasium, 447 
Bura, 441 
Burdigala, 632 
Burgundiones, 663 
Burrium, 656 
Busiris, 270 
Butbrotum, 371 
Buto, L., 272 
Buxentum, 582 
Byblus, 170 
Bylazora, 347 
Byzacium, 302 
Byzantes, 299 
Byzantium, 331 

c. 

Cabalia, 35, 145 
Cabillonum, 640 
Cabira, 160 
Cabolitje, 243 
CabHra, 249 
Cadmeia, 401 
Cadmus, 26 
Cadmus, ^Ms., 115 
Cadurci, 63 1 
Cadytis, 37 
CiEcina, FL, 506 
Cfeciibus Ager, 557 
Ca;drius, FL, 607 
Cailius, Ms., 534 
Casnee, 227 
Csenopolis, 459 
Cfere, 510 

Ca?sar, Commentaries 

of, 52 
Cffisaraugusta, 620 
Csesarea (Cappadoc), 

142 _ 

Cfesarea (Cilic), 136 
Cassarea, I., 641 
Cgesarea (Mauret.), 309 
C£esarea(Pal£est.), 194 
Ca^sarea Pbilippi, 198 
Cassarodunum, 641 



I CANTABEI. 

i Ceesaromagus, 656 

i Ceesia Sylva, 662 

j Caicus, FL, 92 

' Caieta, 553 

! Calabria,' 576 ff. 

1 Calacte, 604 

; CalaguiTis Fibularis, 

! 622 

Calagurris Xassica, 
I 622 

' Calab, 12 

', Calatise, 526 

I Calauria, I., 468 

I Calbis, 116 

■ Caledonia, 658 
Calentum, 616 

■ Cales, 15 J 

' Caleti, 644 
; CalingaB, 250 

Callaici, 623 

Callatis, 679 

Calleva, 655 » 

Cailidromus, Ms., 359 

Calliena, 251 
: Callienses, 383 
' Calligicum, Pr., 250 
I Callipolis (Calabr.), 579 
; CaUipolis (Cicil.), 603 
: Callipobs (Tbrac), 3JI 
! Callipidee, 35 
\ Callipus, FL, 617 
i Callirboe, 416 
} Callistbenes, 41 
I Gallium, 385 
; Calneb, 12 
i Calor, FL, 525 

Calpe, 611 

Calycadnus, FL, 134 
CalVdon, 384 
Calymna, I., 123 
Calynda, 122 
Camalodiinimi, 653 
Camarina, 598 
Camboricum. 656 
Cambunii, Mts., 356 
Cambyses, FL, 230 
Camerinum, 516 
Camirus, 125 
Campania, 562 ff. 
Campi Laborini, 564 
i Campi PblegTfei, 563 
Campodiinum, 668 
Campus Esquilinus, 
546 

Campus Martins, 547 
1 Cana, 198 
I Canaria, L, 312 
1 Canastreum, Pr., 338 
j Candavia, Ms. 673 
I Candidum, Pr., 299 
I Cane, Pr., 92 
j Cane, 100 

I Canganorimi, Pr., 649 
i Cangi, 651 

Cannas, 576 

Can opus, 269 

Cantaber,Oceanus, 307 

Cantabri, 623 



IXDEX. 



689 



Can thy, Sin., 250 
Caritii, 650 
Cantium, Pr., 648 
Caniisium, 575 
Capena, ,12 
Capena Porta, 54 
Capeniaiim, 198 
Capbareus, Pr., 422 
Caphas, Ms., 310 
Caphya?, 477 
Capiiolinus, Ms., 534 
Cappadocia, 140 
Cappadox, Fl., 141 
Capraria, 1., 312 
Capre^e, I., 572 
Capnis, Fl., 217 
Capsa, 303 
Capua, 569 
Caraceni, 525 
Caractoiiium, 655 
Caralis, 607 
Carambis, Pr., 156 
Caran tonus, FL, 631 
Carcathiocerta, 224 
Carchemish, 11 
Carcina, 683 
Carciintis, 35 
Cardamylas, 459 
Cardia, 330 
Cardticlii, 223 
Careni, 659 
Caria, 114 ff. 
Carians, ^Maritime 

power of, 16 
Caris, Fl., 631 
Caristi, 623 
CaiTnalas, FL, 141 
Carmana, 241 
Carmania, 241 
Carmande, 225 
Carmel, 185 
Carmelum, Pr., i63 
Carmelus, Ms., 185 
Carmo, 616 
Carnasium, 452 
Carneates, 438 
Camic£e Alpes, 486 
Carni, 493 
Carnonacse, 659 
Carnuntum, 672 
Carnus, L, 379 
Carnutes, 6^9 
Carpates, ]Ms., 320 
Carpathium Mare, 125 
Carpathas, I., 125 
Carpesii, 624 
CarpetanL 624 
Carpis, Fl., 32 
Carrha?, 209 
Carta, 244 
Carteia, 614 
Cartenna, 309 
Cartli£ea, 426 
Carthago, 300 
Carthago Xova, 619 
Carura, 243 
Carusa, 157 
Carvancas, Ms., 671 



Cary^e, 459 • 

Caryanda, 122 

Carystus, 424 

Casilinum, 571 

Casiotis, 16? 

Casmente, 604 

Caspatyrus, 38 

Caspl£e Portie, 238 

Caspian Sea, early no- 
tices of, 31,43,46, 55 

Ca spina, 250 

Caspiria, L., 312 

Caspirffii, 250 

Caspium Mare, 70 

Caspius, Ms., 74 

Cassandria, 344 

Cassia, Via, 512 

Cassiope, 373 

Cassiterides, I., 35, 649 
i Castalia Fons, 390 
: Castellani, 621 
! Castellum, 646 
i CasthanEea, 367 
! Castra Minervje, 579 

Castra Yetera, 645 

Castrum Novum 
(Etrur.), 511 

Castrum is' ovum 
i (Picen.), 518 
; Castillo, 625 
I Castulonensis Saltus, 

; 610 

I Casuentus, FL, 580 
I Casus, I., 125 

Catabathmus 3Iagnus, : 
! 290 

Catabathmus Parvus, 
290 

I Catacecaumene, 104 
Catalauni, 644 
Catana, 595 
Cataonia, 141 

1 Catarrhactes, FL, 130 ; 

I Catharon, Pr., 311 ; 

I Catti, 664 

I Cattigara, 251 

j Catuellani, 651 

I Catyeuchlani, 651 : 

i Canci, 660 ' 

i Caucasiee Port^, 229 
Caucasus, Ms., 72,228 • 
Caucones, 353 
Caudlni, 525 
Caudium, 526 
Caulon, 586 I 
Camiii, 116 I 
Caunus, 121 j 
Causennas, 655 : 
Cavares, 634 ^ 
Cayster, FL, 105 | 
Caystri Campus, 150 
Ceberma, IMs., 628 ' 
Cecropia, 410 \ 
CelajuiB, 148 ' 

I Celeia, 670 j 

I Celenderis, 135 ! 

j Celetrum, 346 

'. Celonte, 220 j 



CHALTBOX. 

Celsa, 622 
Celtiberi, 611, 624 
Celtica, 6io 
Celtici, 613, 617 
Celticum, Pi-., 611 
Celydnus, FL, 370 
Cemenelium, 503 
Cenjeum, Pr., 422 
Cenchrete (Arg.J, 468 
Cenchre^ (Corinth.), 
4.' 5 

Cenimagni, 657 
Cenomani (Gall.), 639 
Cenomani (ItaL), 497 
Centrites, 227 
Centumcell£e, 511 
Centuripa, 602 
Ceos, I., 425 
Cephalse, Pr., 295 
Ccphalenia, L, 380 
Cephaloedium, 603 
Cephissus, FL (Attic), 
408 

Cephissus, FL (Boeot.), 

352, 383, 398 
Cephissis, L., 398 
Ceramicus, Sin., 115 
Caramon Agora, 150 
Cerasus, 160 
Ceraunii, Mts. 

(Alban.), 230 
Ceraunii, ^Mts., 

(Gra:c.), 369 : 
Cerbalus, FL, 574 | 
Cercasorum, 270 | 
Cercetium, ]\[s., 357 I 
Cercina, I., 298 I 
Cercine, Ms., 337 
Cercinitis, I., 298 
Cercimtis, L., 339 
Cerfennia, 522 
Cerinthus, 425 
Cerne, I., 312 
Cerones, 659 
Cerretani, 621 
Cersus, FL, 132 
Cerynia, 442 
Cestria, 372 
Cestrus, FL, 130 
Cetius, Ms., 670 
Chabala, 230 
Chaberis, FL, 250 
Cbaboras, FL, 208 
Chadisius, FL, 159 
Cheeronea, 400 
Chala, 220 
Chalcedon, 155 
Chalcia, I., 123 
Chalcidice, 337 
Chalcis (.FtoL), 385 
Chalcis (Luboe.), 423 
Chalcis, Ms., 382 
Chalcis (Syr.), 165 
Chaldfea, 21 1 
Chaldasi, 211 ' 
Chains, FL, 225" 
Chalybes, 159 
Cliaiybon, 165 



Chalybonitis, 163 
Chaon, Ms., 463 
Chaones, 370 
Chaonia, 370 
Charadria^, 346 
Charadrus, FL, 463,469 
Charax Spasmu, 21 5 
Charidemi, Pr., 611 
ChaiTJB, 209 
Charybdis, 594 
Chatramotita3, 173 
Chatti, 664 
Chauci, 663 
Chelidonia^, I., 126 
Chelidonium, Pr., 126 
Chelonatas, Pr., 444 
Chelonides, I., 311 
Chelonites, Sin., 444 
Chemmis, 278 
Chersonesus Aurea, 69 
Chersonesus Cimbrica, 
663 

Chersonesus Magna, 

290, 291 
Chersonesus Taurica, 

683 

Chersonesus Thracica, 
326 

Cherusci, 665" 
Chlmajra, Ms., 126 
Cbimerium, Pr., 372 
Chinalaph, FL, 308 
China, commerce with, 
43 

Chinnereth, L., 180 
Chios, I., Ill 
Choaspes,Fl.(Susian.), 

Choaspes, Fl. (Paro- 

pam.), 242 
Choche, 214 
Choes, FL, 242 
Chonse, 149 
Chones, 585 
Chorasmii, 246 
Chora z in, 197 
Chorzene, 224 
Chretes, FL, 311 
Chry^a, ico 
Chrysas, FL, 592 
Chrysopolis, 155 
Chrysorrhoas, FL, 163 
Chun, 10 
Ciaca, 142 
Ciabras, FL, 678 
Cibalaj, 672 
Cibotus, 148 
Cibyra, 145 
Cicones, 328 
Cierium, 366 
Cilbiani Campi, 105 
Cilicia, 130 
Cilicias Port^e, 132 
Cilicium Mare, 69 
Cimbi'i, 663 
Cimbrica, 663 
Cimbrorum, Pr., 662 
Ciminius, Ms., 505 



690 



INDEX. 



CmMERIANS. 

Cimmerians, 21 
Cimmerii, 681 
Cimolis, 157 
Cimolos, 1., 4-8 
Cinaiiis, 1., 479 
Cingiilum, 518 
Cinvps, FL, 296 
Circffium, Pr., 487 
Circeii, 552 
Circesiiim, 209 
Cirna, Ms., 299 
Cirphis, Ms., 588 
Cirrha, 399 
Cirta, 306 
Cissia, 236 

Cithferon, Ms., 351, 

Citium, ij8 
Cius, 154 
Cladeus, FL, 446 
Clampetia, 587 
Clanis, FL, 505 
Claniiis, FL, 564 
Claremia, 666 
Clarus, no 
Classis, 500 
Clastidium, 501 
Clatema,'" 501 
Claiida, I., 482 
Claudiopolis, 155 
Clazomeiia?, 108 
Cleides, I., 137 
Cleitaixhus, 41 
Cleitor, 476 
Cleona?, 394 
Climates, 61 
Climax, Ms., 125 
Clitumnns, FL, 514 
Ciota, .Fst., 659 
Clunia, 624 
Cliisinus, L., 506 
Clusimu, 509 
Clypea, 303 
Cnemldes, Pr., 395 
Cnemis, Ms., 351,395 
Cnidus, 120 
Cnossus, 481 
Coche, 214 
Cocl^iTS, FL, 370 
Codamis, Sin., 317 
Ccele Syria, 162 
Cceliu?, Ms., 534 
Coenophrurium, 333 
Colania, 659 
Colchicus, Sin., 250 
Colchis, 228 
Collops Masnus, 306 
Coloe, L., 285 
Colonia, 653 
Colonia Agi-ippina, 645 
Colonia Equestrls, 644 
Colonus, 416 
Colophon, 109 
Colossai, 148 
Colubraria, I., 626 
Comana Aurea, 142 
Comana Pontica, 160 
Comaria. 250 



Comaria, Pr,, 250 
Comedarum, Mts., 74 
Commagene, 163 
Compsa, 527 
Cominn, 498 
ConcanL 623 
Confluentes, 642 
Conii, 617 
Con ope, 384 
ConoTiiim, 656 
Continental divisions, 

26, 29, 46 
Consentia, 588 
Constantlna, 306 
Constantinopolis, 331 
Contadesdus, FL, 34 
Contest ani, 619 
Contoporia, 439 
Constantia(Cypr.), 1 38 
Constantia (Mesop.), 

209 

Contra Pselcis. 287 
Contrebia, 625 
Con va His, I., 312 
Convence, 631 
Copte, 404 
Copais, L., 398 
Cophen, FL, 242 
Coplte, 582 
Coprates, FL, 235 
Coptos, 278 
Cora, 559 

Coracesium, Pr., 135 
Coralis, L., 87 
Coralla, I"!'., 158 
Corassiffi, I., 123 
Corax, Ms., 382 
Coraxici, Mts., 230 
Corbetis, 152 
Corcyra, I., 373 
Corcyra Xigra, I., 677 
Cordiiba, 615 
Corfinium, 524 
Corinium, 654 
Corinthia, 4J2 
Corinthiacus, Sin., 352 
Corinthus, 43 3 
Corioli, 558 
Coriondi, 660 
Coritani, 651 
Cornavii, 651, 659 
Cornus, 6o3 
Corone, 451 
Coronea, 401 
Cor onus, jIs., 238 
Corsi, 608 
Corsica, 608 
Corstopitum, 655 
Corrona, 508 
Corn, Pr., 611 
Cory, Pr., 250 
Corycinm Antrum 

(Cilic), 132 
Corvcium Antrum 

(belph.) 39^ 
Coryctis, Ms., 104 
Corfcus, Pr. (Cilic), 

132 



, Corycus, Pr. (Cret.), 

i ^ 479 

Coryphasium, Pr., 450 

Corys, FL, 32 

Cos", !., 122 
I Cosa, 509 

Cosetani, 619 

Cossfea, 235 
: Cosyra, 6c6 
; Cothon, 301 
' CottiEe Alpes, 486 

■ Cottiara, 250 
Cottiaris, FL, 76 

; Cotyora, 160 

Cragus, Ms., 125 
I Cranii, 380 

\ Cranon, 363 ! 

Crater, 564 ! 
; Crates, 62 

Crathis, FL (Achai.), 
I 440 

Crathis, FL (Lucan.), 
' 580 

Crathis, Ms., 470 

Cremaste, loo 

Cremera, FL, 506 

Cremna, 145 

Cremona, 498 

Cremonis Jugum, 486 

Crena?, 378 

Crenides, 342 

Creta, I., 479 

Cretans, Maritime 
power of, t6 

Creticum Mare, 316 

Cretopolis, 145 

Creusis, 403 

Crissa, 393 

Crissfeus, Sin., 386 

Crithote, 376 

Cilu Metopon, Pr., 479 

Crobyzi, 678 

Crocodilopolis, 274 

Crocylium, 385 

Crommj'on, 436 

Crommyon, Pr , 137 
; Cronius, Ms., 446 

Croton, 585 ' 
I Crustumerium, 560 

Ctesias, 40 
i Ctesiphon, 220 

Ctimene, 367 
; Cuarius, FL, 360 
, Cuda, FL, 618 

Cnma3, 565 
' Cumanus, Sin., 487 

Cunaxa, 214 

■ Cuneus, 611 

Cupra ^Laritima, 518 
Cures, 521 
Curetes, 383 
Curias, Pi-., 137 
Cush, 7 

Cutatisium, 239 
CutiliaB, 521 
Cyamosorus, FL, 592 
Cvaneffi, I., 336 
CVathus, FL, 383 



Cybistra, 142 
Cyclades, 425 
Cycloborus, FL, 408 
Cydnus, FL, 134 
Cydonia, 480 
Cvllene, 447 
Cyllene, Ms., 470 
Cyllenes, Sin., 444 
CN'me, 99 
Cyn^tha, 476 
Cynetes, 34 
Cynopolis, 275 
Cynosarges, 417 
Cynoscephalte, 364 
Cynossema, 115 
Cynossema, Pr., 332 
Cynosiira, Pr., 407 
Cyuuria, 469 
Cjmthus, Ms., 427 
Cynus, 396 
Cyparissia, 452 
Cyparlssinm, Pr.,450 
Cyparissius, Sin., 444 
C^-prus, L, 136 
Cyraunis, L, 39 
Cyrenaica, 290 
Cyrene, 292 
Cyreschata, 246 
CjTetige, 366 
Cyrnus, I., 608 
Cyropolis, 246 
Cyrrhestice, 163 
Cyrns, FL, 223 
Cythera, I., 461 
Cythnos, I., 426 
Cytinium, 387 
Cy torus, Ms., 156 
Cyzicus, I., 95 



Dachinabades, 250 
Daci, 679 
Dacia, 679 

Dacia Aureliani, 678 
T^fedala, 125 
Daimachus, 42 
Daix, FL, 77 
Dalmatffi, 675 
Dalmatia, 6 "5 
Damascus, 165 
Damassi, Mts,, 74 
Damastes, 26 
Damnii, 659 
Damnonii, 651 
Damnonium, Pr., 649 
Dan, 198 
Dan (Tribe), 186 
DcUiaUi, 152 
Danasrris, FL, 321 
Danubius, FL, 320 
Dantim, 656 
Daphnus, 396 
Daradax, FL, 225 
L>aradas, VI., 311 
Dardnnis, Pr., 92 
Dardanus, 96 
Dargidus, FL, 245 



IXDEX. 



691 



DAHGOMAXES. 

Dargomanes, Fl., 245 
Darini, 660 
Dascusa, 142 
Dascyliiim, 155 
Daulis, J 94 
Daunii, 574 
Decantie, 659 
Decapolis, 201 
Decelea, 419 
DecLimates Agri, 665 
Dedan, 8 
Deire, 288 
Deliiun, 40? 
Delos, I., 427 
Delphi, J89 
Delphinium, in 
Delta, 266 
Demet£e, 657 
Demetrias, 365 
Demetrius of Scepsis, 

^"^"^ . 
Democntus, 25 

Derbe, 144 

Derrhis, ^38 

Dertona. 503 

Dertosa, 620 

Deucaledonius Ocea- 

nus, 658 
Deva, 654 
Develtus, 333 
Dexippus, 4? 
Diablintes, 639 
Diaaium, Pr., 611 
Dicaea, 332 
Dicaearchia, 566 
Dicajarchiis, 46 
Dicaeopolis, 601 
Dicte, Ms., 479 
Dictjnngeum, Pr,, 479 
Digentia, FL, 520 
Didyme, 605 
Dinaretum, Pr., 137 
Dindymus, Ms., 147, 

150 

Diocaesarea, I98 
Diolcus, 4^ 
Dionysius of Miletus, 
26 

Dionysius Periegetes, 
67 

Dioscorias, 229 
Dioscoridis Insulge,i74 
Diospolis, 186 
Dium (Euboe.), 424 
Dium (Maced.), 345 
Divodurura, 645 
Divona, 633 
Doanas, Fl., 76 
Doberus, 346 
Dobuni, 657 
Dodanim, 4 
DodecaschcBUUS, 285 
Dodona, 371 
Doliche, 366 
Dolopia, 362 
Dor, II 
Dores, 354 
Dorias, Fl., 76 



EDOXIS. 

Doris, 386 
Doriscns, 332 
Dorilfeum, 148 
Dosaron, Fl., 250 
Dothan, 194 
Dracon, Ms., 104 
Drangiana, 243 
Drapsaca, 24? 
Dravus, FL, 670 
Drepane, 155 
Drepanum, 601 
Drepanum, Pr. 

(Achai.), 440 
Drepsa, 245 
Drilo, FL, 67? 
Drinns, FL, 671 
Druentia, FL, 634 
Drymaea, 394 
Drvnjemetum, 151 
Dubis, Fl. 639 
Dubris, 655 
Dulichium, 379 
Dumna, 666 
Dunum, 661 
Dunum, Sin., 649 
Dura, 209 
Duranius, FL, 631 
Duria, Fl , 496 
Durius, FL, 610 
Durnovaria, 655 
Durobrivaj, 655 
Durocatalaunum, 644 
Durocornovium, 654 
Dnrocortorum, 644 
Durolipons, 655 
Durostorum, 678 
Durotriges, 651 
Durovemura, 655 
Dyardanes, FL, 76 
Dyme, 442 
DyiThachium, 675 
Dysoron, Ms., 337 

E. 

Earth, Formation, Po- 
sition, Size, and 
Form of the, 59, 60 

Earthquakes, 66 

Ebal, Ms., 194 

Eblana, 660 

Eblani, doo 

Ebora, 617 

Eboracura, 654 

Ebrodunum, 637 

Ebiides, I., 658 

Eburoues, 639 

Eburo vices, 659 

Ebiisus, I., 626 

Ecbatana, 239 

Echinades, I., 379 

Echinus, 367 

Eden, 2 

Edessa (^Nlaced,), 346 
Edessa (Mesopot.),209 
Edetani, 619 
Edom, 8 
Edonis, 340 



. EPIPHANIA. 

Edrei, 203 

Egesta, 601 
' Eguatia, 576 
: Egnatia, Via, 347 
I Eion, 345 

Ekron, 186 
' Elaea, 99 
\ Elfeum, Ms., 449 

Elsus (.EtoL), 384 

Elaeus (Thrac), 332 
* Elatea, 394 
j Elath, 9 

Elatus, Ms., 381 

Elaver, FL, 631 

Elea, 582 

Eleatics, 25 

Eleaticus, Sin., 92 

Elegia, 224 

Elephantine, I., 278 

Eleusis, 418 
I Eleuther^e, 419 
I Eleutherocilices, 134 
1 Eleutherus, FL, 168 
i Elimiotis, 341 
I Elis, 443 ff. 
I Elis, Town, 445 
: Elishah, 4 
i Ellasar, 12 
i Elusa, 632 

Elusates, 631 

Elynifei, 236 

Elymais, 235 

Elymi, 592 
I Elysium, 18 

Emathia, 340 

Emesa, 165 
: Emmaus, 187 
I Emodi, Mts., 71 
I Empedocles, 60 
; Emporite, 621 
! Endor, 197 
I Engedi, 185 
I Engyum, 604 
I Enipeus, FL, 359 
i Enna, 603 

Enoch, 2 
! Enope, 459 

Enrogel, 190 

Entella, 604 
\ Eordasa, 341 

Epictetus, 148 

Epei, 19 

Epeum, 448 

Ephesus, 109 

Ephorus, 45 

Ephraim, Ms., 193 

Ephyra (EL), 447 

Ephfi-a (Epir.), 373 

Epicurus, 60 

Epidamnus, 675 

Epidaurus (ArgoL), 

• 467 

Epidaurus (Illyi'.),67i 
Epidaurus Limera, 459 
Epidii, 659 
Epidiura, Pr., 659 
Epiphania (Cilic), 136 
Epiphania (Syr.), 165 



j EYEXrS. 

' Epipolai, 597 
I Epirus, 368 fF. 
i Epitalium, 448 
i Eporedia, 499 
I Equator, 61 
[ Equus Tuticus, 427 
' Eratosthenes, 46, 61 
: Erasinus, FL, 463 

Erdini, 660 

Erech, 12 

Erechtheum, 413 
I Erembi, 19 
; Eressus, 10 1 

Eretria (Euboe. ), 424 
; Eretria (ThessaL), 364 

Eretum, 521 

Ericusa, 60? 

Eridanus, FL, 488 

Eridanus, FL, 22, 32 

Erigon, FL, 408 

Erymanthus, FL 
(Arcad.), 471 
i Erymanthus, Fl. 
i (Drang.), 243 
I Erymanthus, Ms., 470 

Erineus, 387 

Erilium, 366 

Erytheia, 21 

Erytbree (Boeot.), 403 
i Erythrse (Locr.), 386 
I Eryihr^e (Ion.), 108 
: Erythraeum Mare, 69 
[ Eryx, 600 
j Eryx, j\rs., 591 
I Esdraelon, 196 
I Esquilinus, Ms., 534 
i Eteocetum, 655 
I Eteonus, 40? 
' Etesian vrinds, 66 
I Etham, 185 

Ethiopia, 7 

Etruria, 504 

Etrusci, 506 

Euboea, I., 422 

Eudoxus of Cnidus, 45 

Euganei, 493, 669 

Euhemerus, 42 

Eulffius, FL, 235 

Eumenia, 150 

Euonymus, I., 605 

Eupalium, 3^6 

Eupatorium, 683 

Euphrates, FL, 75 

Euripus, 422 

Euromus, 122 

Europa, 313 ff. 

Europus, ?46 
I Eurotas, FL, 455 
I Eurymedon, FL, 130 
I Eurymense, 367 
I Eurytanes, 383 
I Euthymenes, 45 

Eutresis, 403 

Euxinus Pontus, 69 
I Evas, Ms., 455 
' Evaspla, FL, 242 
I Evenus, FL (.EtoL), 
j 382 



692 



INDEX. 



ETE^TS. 

Evenus.FL (Mys.),93 
Ezion-Geber, 9 

F. 

Fgesulse, 508 
Falacrinum, 521 
Falerii, 510 
Falisci, 510 
Fanum Fortimte, 515 
Faustinopolis, 142 
Faveuiia, 501 
Felsina, 500 
Ferentinum (Etrur.), 
512 

Ferentinum (Lat.), 
559 

FeroniEe Lucus, 512 
Fescenninm, 512 
Ficnlea, 560 
Fidence, 560 
Firmmn, 518 
Fiscelliis, :\Is., 523 
Flaminia Via, 516, 561 
Flanaticus, Sin., 674 
Flavia Cffisariensis, 
651 

Flevo, L., 622 
Flevum Ostium, 642 
Florentia, 508 
Formife, 
Formic, Fl., 495 
FortunattP, I., 312 
Forum Cornelii. 501 
Forum Julii (Gall.), 
636 

Forum Julii (Tenet.), 
494 

Fossa Drusiana, 842 
Fossa Trajana, 551 
Franci, 665 
Fregellas, 559 
Fregenas, 512 
Frentani, 527 
Frento, Fl. 574 
Frigidus, Fl., 403 
Frisii, 663 
Frusino, 559 
Fuclnus, L., 521 
Fmidi, 557 

Furcil.la2 CaudintT, 326 

Gabali, 6ji 
Gabii, 560 

Gabrantuicorum, Sin,, 

649 
Gad, 200 
Gadara, 201 
Gadeni, 659 
Gades, 614 
Gadira, 614 
Gaditanum Fret., 611 
Gfesus, FL, 116 
Gfetrdi, 311 
Galadrte, 346 
Galatee, 151 



Galcitia, 150 ff. 

Galesus, FL, 578 

Galilaea, 194 ff. 

GallcGci, 62 J 

Gallesius, Ms., 104 

Galli, 629 
: Gallia, 627 ff. 

Gallia Braccata, 628 
: Gallia Cisalpma, 495 
j Gallia Cispadana, 495 
: Gallia Comata, 628 
i Gallia Transalpina, 
628 

I Gallia Transpadana, 
i 495 

! Gallia Ulterior, 628 

i Gallicum Fret., 317 

j GalHcus, FL, 6i3 

! Gallogra?cia, 150 

{ Gangam(Hibern.),66D 

' Gangani (Ind.), 250 

^ Gangarida?, 250 
Gansxe, 251 
Ganges, FL, -6 
Gangeticus, Sin., 69 

! Gangitas, Fl., 343 
Gangra. 157 
Gannaria, Pr., 311 
Garama, 312 
Garamantes, 311 
Garganus. Ish., 573 
Gargara, IMs., 99 
Garrhuenus, FL, 649 
Garumna, FL, 629, 6ji 
Gatb, 186 
Gaugamela, 220 
Gaulomtis, 202 
Gaurus, 3Is., 563 

: Gauzaca, 24? 

i Gaza (Med.), 239 
Gaza (PalKSt.), 186 
Gazaca, 239 
Gaziura, 160 

I Geba, 188 
Gedi'osia. 243 
Gela, 598 
Gela, FL, 599 

: Geloni, 35 

' Geminus, 51 

'. Genabum, 641 
Genauni, 669 

: Gennesaretli, L., 180 
Genua. 503 
Genii-us, FL, 673 
Gera?stus, 425 
Gerfestus, Pr., 423 
Geranea, 3Is., 429, 433 
Gerasa, 201 
Gerasus, FL, 679 
Gerenia, 459 
Gergesa, 201 
Gergovia, 633 
Gerizim, Ms., 194 

; Genua, 152 

: Germani, 662 

j Gemiania, 65i ff. 

I GermanicumMare,3i7 

j Geiiiianii, 37 



HALIACilOy. 

Geronthrfe, 460 
Gerrlia, 174 
Gerrhus, FL, 32 
Geranda, 622 
Gesoriacum, 646 
Geta?, 679 
Gibeah, 188 
Gibeon, i83 
Giblites, ii 
Gigonis, Pr., 338 
Gihon, FL. 2 
Gilboa, Ms., 196 
Gilead, Ms., 178 
Gilgal, 187 
Giligammc-e, 39, 290 
Gindanes, 39, 296 
Gir, FL, 3TI 
Girgasbites, 182 
Girgiri, Ms., 310 
Gle\'um, 656 
Globes, Invention of, 
62 

Glyppia, 459 
Gnatia, 576 
Gnossus, 481 
Gobannium, 656 
Gogarene, 223 
Golgi, 138 
Gomphi, 363 
Gonni, 363 

Gordya?i, Mts., 74, 223 
Gordyene, 224 
Gortyna, 481 
Goshen, 7 
Gozan, FL, 11 
Grasci, 349 
Grtecia, 348 ff. 
Graias Alpes, 486 
Grampius, Ms., 659 
Granicus, FL, 93 
Gravisca^, 511 
Greeks, Colonies of 

the, 24 
Grion, Ms., 11 5 
Grumentum, 583 
Gryniura, 100 
Gugemi, 643 
Gurasus, FL, 242 
Gyaros, I., 428 
Gyuiuesia3, 1,, 625 
Gymnias, 22^ 
Gyndes, FL,*32, 212 
Gyrton, 363 
Gythium, 458 
Gyzantes, 299 



H. 

Habor, 11. 
Hades, 18, 21 
Hadria, 499, 518 
Hadrianopulls, 33 3 
Hadrumetum, 303 
Ha?mus, Ms., 318, 325 
Haa'arenes, 9 
Halesa, 604 
Haiiacmon, FL, 339 



HERACLEA. 

., Haliartus, 4CI 

Halicarnassus, 119 

Halicyfe, 604 

Halizones, 19 
• Halonuesus, I., 363 
j Halus, 364 
: Halvcus, FL, 592 
: Halys, FL, 87 

Hamath, 10 

■ Hamaxobii, 682 
: Hamaxitus, 100 

Hanes, 7 
, Hanno, 45 
'. Haran, 11 
I Harmozica, 229 
I Harmuza, 241 
' HaqDasus, FL, 116 
' Harpinna, 448 

Hazor, 9 

Hebrews, Geogvapihi- 
cal knowledge of 
, the, I ff 

HebroD, 185 
! Hebrus, FL, 327 
! Hebrides, L, 659 

Hecatasus of Miletus, 
; 26 

i Hecatompylos, 242 
i Helbon, 10 
! Helena, I., 422 

■ Helice, 442 

'■ Helicon, Ms., 351, 397 
; Heliopolis (-Egypt.) 
272 

! Heliopolis (Syr.), 165 

Helisson, Fl.,"^47i 
j Hellanicus, 26 

■ Hellas, 348 

I Hellenes, 35? 
Hellenopolis, 155 
Hellespontus, 69 
Hellomenum, 380 

■ Hellopia, 22 

I Helmantica, 61 3 
i Helorum, 603 
: Helorus, FL, 603 
i Helos. 459 

Htrloies, 456 

Helvecona?, 663 

Helvetii, 642 . 
; Hena, 12 

Heneti, 19, 157 

Henna, 60 j 

Hephajstia, 335 

Hepho?5tia5, I., 605 

■ Heptanomis, 272 
I Her^ea, 475 

[ Hera?um, 465 
i Herssum, Pr,, 433 
j Hera?i, I\ris., 590 
: Heraclea, 581 
Heraclea ad Latmum, 
122 

; Heraclea Lvncestis, 

■ 346 

■ Heraclea Minoa, 600 
Heraclea Perinihus, 

331 



INDEX. 



693 



HEKACLEA. 

Heraclea Poutica, 155 
Heraclea Sintica, ^45 
Heraclea Trachinea, 
365 

Heracleopolis Magna, 

Heracienm, 158 
Heraclides of Pontus, 

4i.46 
Heraolims, 25 
Herbita, 604 
Herculaneum, 571 
Herculis Arena?, 291 
Herculis Columuee, 

316 

Herculis, Pr., jo8 
Herculis, Pr. (Ital.), 
487 

Herculis, Pr. (Mau- 

ret.;, 508 
Herculis Silva, 662 
Hercynia Sylva, 320 
Herdnnia, 576 
Hermjeus, Sin., 105 
Hermantica, 61 3 
Hemiiniiis, I\Is., 610 
Hermione, 463 
Hermiones, 662 
Hermon, Ms., 178 
Hermonthis, 277 
Hei-mopulis Magna, 

274 

Hermopolis Parva, 270 
Hermuudiiri, 665 
Hermns, Fl., 105 
Hernici, 533 
Herod ion, 185 
Herodorus, 46 
Herodotus, a6 ff, 61 
Heroopolis, 272 
Heroopolites, Sin., 69 
Hesiod, 21 
Heshbon, 201 
Hesperia, 484, 610 
Hesperides, 294 
Hesperides, Garden of 

the, 21 
Hesperion Ceras, 311 
Hestiaiotis, 361 
Hibemia, 66 d 
Hiddekel, 2, 76 
Hiera, I., 604 
Hiera, Sycaminus, 285 
Hierapolis (Phryg.), 

149 

Hierapolis (Syr ), 164 
Hierasiis, FL, 679 
Hieromax, FL, 200 
Hieron, Pr., 158 
Hieronyniiis of Cardia, 
41 

Hierosolyma, 189 
Hilleviones, 663 
Himera, FL, 592 
Himera, 602 
Himilco, 44 
Hippalus, 43 
Hipparchus, 48 



lAPTDES. 

Hippemolgi, 20 
Hippi, Pr., 305 
Hippici, 3It5., 230 
Hippo Diarrhytus, 304 
Hippo Regius, 306 
Hippocrates of Cos, 26 
Hippocrene, 397 
HippocHra, 250 
Hippolaus, Pr., 35 
Hipponiates, Sin., 487 
Hipponiiim, 587 
Hirpinl, 525 
Hispalis, 615 
Hispania, 609 ff. 
Hispelliim, 516 
Histonimn, 528 
Histria, 491 
Hittite*, 'i32 
Hivites, 182 
Homer, 15 ff. 
Homole, 367 
Hor, Ms., 173 
Hyampea, 389 
Hvampolis, 394 
Hybla, 596 
Hybla ]}.lajor, 602 
Hj'daspes, FL, 76 
Hydraotes, FL, 76 
Hydrea, I,, 468 
Hvdrus, Hvdruntum, 
578 

Hylsethus, FL, 386 
Hvle, 404 
Hylica, 398 
Hymettus, ^Ms., 406 
Hypacyris, FL, 32 
Hyp^aia, 448 
Hypanis, FL, 76 
Hypata, 367 
Hypaton, Ms., 397 
Hyperesia, 441 
Hyperborean.s. 21, 66 
Hyperborei, Mts., 74 
Hvpliantium, Ms., 398 
Hypbasis, FL, 76 
Hypius, FL, 153 
Hypsas, FL, 592 
Hyrcania, 244 
Hyrcaniiim Mare, 70 
Hyrgis, FL, 32 
Hyria, 579 
Hyria, L., 383 
Hynnine, 447 
Hysiaj (ArgoL), 468 
Hysia? (Bceot.), 403 



I, J. 

Jabbok, FL, 200 
Jabesb-Gilead, 201 
Jacca, 622 
Jaccetani, 621 
ladera, 675 
lalysus, 125 
Jamna, 626 
Janiculns, Ms., .534 
lapydes, 675 



IXPEROI 3IAEE. 

; lapygia, 577 

[ lapygium, Pr., 487 
•Jardanus, FL, 479 
Jasonium, Pr., 158 
Jasonlus, Ms., 238 
lassius. Sin., 115 
lassus, 119 

, Javan, 4 

. Javan (Arab.), 8 

; Jaxartes, FL, 77 

' lazvges Me tanas tte, 

I 681 

t Iberia, 229, 610 
i Iberus, FL, 610 
I Icarium Mare, 69 
I Icarus, I., 113 
' Icaunus, FL, 639 

Iceui, 651 

Icbnas, 209 

Ichniisa, 6c6 

Icbthyophagi, 38, 285 

Ichtbys, Pr., 444 

Iconium, 143 

Icosium, 309 
. Ictis, I., 658 

Idci, Ms. (Cret.), 479 

Ida, Ms. (-Wys.), 91 

Idomene, 376 

Idubeda, Ms., 610 

Iduraania, FL, 649 

Jebus, 189 

lena .Est., 659 

Jericho, 187 

lerne, 659 

Jemus, FL, 660 

Jerusalem, 189 

Jesreel, 196 

Igilgili, 309 

Iguvium, 516 

Ilercaones, 619 

Ilerda, 622 

Ilergetes, 62 

Ilipa, 616 

Ilipula, Ms., 6ro 
' Ilissus, FL, 408, 409 

Ilium, 96 
■ Illiberis (Gall.), 634 

lUiberis, Hispan.), 616 

Illicitanus, Sin., 611 

lUiturgis, 615 

Illvria, lUyricum, 673 

lUyrii, 674 
: lUyris Barbara, 673 

lUyris Grsca, 673 

Ilva, I., 512 
. Imaus, Ms., 74 
! Imbros, I., 334 
! Imeus, ]\Is., 522 

Inarchus, FL, 462 
. Inarime, 571 

India, 37, 40, 42, 250 
: pQilicus Oceanus, 69 

Indigetes, 619 

Indoscvtbas, 250 

Indus, Yl, 76 

Indus, FL (Car.), 116 

Inessa, 604 

Inferum Mare, 315 



I JULIA LIBYCA. 

I Ing^vones, 663 

i Ingauni, 502 

'■ Insani, Mts., 607 

Insubres, 497 
i Intemelii, 502 
j Interamna, 516, 519 

Internum ]Mare, 69 

Interocria, 521 

Intibili, 616 

lo, Wanderings of, 22 

lol, 309 

lolcus, 365 

Jomanes," FL, 76 

lomnium, Pr,,'3o 

lones, 354 
Ionia, 104 
Ionium !Mare, 315 
Joppa, 186 
Jordan, FL, 1-9 
los, I., 478 
Jovavus, FL, 670 
Jo vis, Ms., 299 
Ipsus, 148 
Ira, 449, 452 
Irasa, 39 
Irenopolis, 333 
Iris, FL, 158 
Is, 209 

Isaca, FL, 649 
Isamnium, Pr., 660 
Isara, FL, 634, 639 
Isaura, T44 
Isauria, 143 
Isca Damnoniorum, 
656 

Isca Silurum, 654 

Ischalis, 656 

Isionda, 146 

Ismarus, 3^2 

Ismarus, Ms., 326 

Ismenus, FL, 401 

Ispadana, 233 

Issa, 677 

Issacbar, 195 

Issedones, 252 

Issicus, Sin., 134 

Issus, 136 

IstEevones, 663 

Ister, FL, 320 

Istone, 373 

Istria, 491 

Italia, 483 ff. 

Italica, 615 

Itanus, 480 

Ithaca, 1., 380 

Ithome, 366 

Ithome, Ms., 451 

Ithoria. 384 

Itineraries, 58 

I tins Portus, 646 

It onus, 366 

Itrma, .Est,, 649 

Itura^a, 302 

Judah, 185 

Juda?a, 18 j 

Julia Gampestris, 310 
I Julia Cons tan lii, 310 
; Julia Libyca, 622 



694 



INDEX. 



JULIJE ALPES. 

Julige Alpes, 486 
Julias, 197 
Juliobona, 626 
Juliomagus, 641 
Juliopolis, 135 
Julium Camicum, 494 
Jmionia, L, 312 
Junonis, Pr., 611 
Jura, Ms., 628 
Juvavum, 670 
Juverna, 660 
lyrcee, 35 

K. 

Kedar, 9 

Kedesh-Xaphtbali, 198 
Kedron, Fl., 189 
Kenath, 20 j 
Kerioth, 203 
Kirjatb-jearim, 188 
Kir-Moab, 202 
Kisbon, Fl. 196 

L. 

Labeatis, L., 674 
Labicum, 558 
Labranda, 121 
Labutas, Ms., 241 
LacedEemon, 456 
Laceria, 366 
Lacbisb, 185 
Lacinium, Pr., 487 
Lacmoii, Ms., 350 
Laconia, 45? ff. 
Lacomcus, Sin., 352 
Lactarius, Ms., 563 
Ladon, Fl., 444 
Leeffitani, 619 
Lsestrygonia, 21 
L£e\i, 497 
Lakes, 64 
Laletani, 619 
Lambese, 306 
Lamia, 365 
Lampe, 481 
Lampea, IMs., 470 
Lampetia, 587 
Lampsacus, 95 
Lamus, Fl., 131 
Land, Terms relating 

to, 62 
Langobardi, 664 
Lanuvium, 558 
Laodicea Combusta, 

Laodicea ad Lycum, 
149 

Laodicea ad Mare, 164 
Laodicene, 163 
Lapetbus, 138 
Lapbystium, Ms., 397 
Lapitbas, FL, 443 
Lappa, 481 
Laranda, 144 
Larice, 250 
Larinum, 574 



I LEUCE. 

Larissa, 353 
Larissa Cremaste, 365 
Larissa (Mys.), 100 
Larissa (Tbessal.), 363 
Laiissus, FL, 440 
Larius, L., 489 
Larymna, 402 
Las, 459 
Lasgea, 482 
Lasion, 47 
Latbon, FL, 291 
Latlna Via, 560 
Latlni, 533 
Latitude, 61 
Latium, 529 ff. 
Latmicus, Sin., 115 
} Latmus, Ms., 115 
i Latopolis, 277 
I Laurentum, 556 

Lauriacum, 67o 
• Laurium, Ms., 407 

Lalis, 58 j 

Laiis, FL, 580 

Laus Pompeii, 499 
; Lautulffi, 556 

Laverus, 661 
1 Lavinium, 556 
[ Laisb, 229 
i Lebadea, 401 

Lebanon, Ms., 162 

Lebedus, 108 

Leben, 480 

Lebintbus, L, 479 

Lecba^um, 435 

Lectum, Pr., 92 

Legio VII. Gemina, 
i 624 

Leibetlnium, Ms., 397 

Lelandrus, 479 

Lelannonius, Sin., 659 
; Lemauis Portus, 655 
i Lemanus, L., 629 
j Lemnos, I., 334 
' Lemovices, 632 
1 Lengtb, Measures of, 
I 62 

1 Leontes, FL, 168 
{ Leontini, 595 
j Leontopolis, 271 
i Lepontii, 669 
I Lepreum, 447 
■ Leptis Magna, 297 
j Leptis Parva, 303 

Lema, 463 
I Leros, I., 123 

Lesbos, I., loi 
; Letopolis, 270 
' Letrini, 447 
' Leucadia, 379 

Leuca?, no 
: Letbajus, FL (Car.), 
I 116 

I Letbaius, Fl. (Cret.), 
479 

Letba^us, FL (Tbes- 
sal.), 359 
Leucate, Pr., 380 
Leuce Come, 176 



LUCRETILIS. 

Leuci, 643 
Leuci, Mts., 479 
Leucippus, 25 
Leucymna, Pr., 374 
Leucopetra, Pr., 487 
Leucosyi'i, 141 
Leucotbeum, Pr., 130 
Leuctra, 403 
, Leuctrum, 459 
\ Libanus, Ms., 162 
, Libicii, 497 
i Liboius, FL, 660. 
Libnab, 185 
Liburni, 674 
' Libuniia, 675 

Liburnides Insula3,677 
; Libya, 254 
I Libya Interior, 310 
' Libya Palus, 311 
Libyci, Mts., 264 
' Libycum Mare, 254 
Libypboenices, 299 
Libyssa, 155 
Lide, Ms., 115 
Liger, FL, 629, 631 
Liguria, 502 
Ligusticus, Sin., 486 
Ligyes, or Salyes, 34 
: Lilaea, 389 
Lilj-bfeum, 600 
Lilybieum, Pr., 592 
Limnte, 452 
Limnsii, 378 
Limonum, 633 
Limyra, 128 
Limyrica, 250 
Limyrus, FL, 127 
Linclum, 654 
Lindus, 125 
Lingones (Gall.). 639 
Lingones (ItaL), 497 
lipara, I., 605 
Liparete, 1., 605 
Liquentia, 493 
; Liris, FL, 489 
: Lissa, I., 677 
Lissus, 675 
Liternum, 570 
Litbrus, Ms., 158 

Li^l^ 54 
{ Lixus, 310 
Lixus, FL, 308 
Locri Epicnemidii, 39.5 
Locri Epizepbyrii, 586 
Locri Opuntii, 395 
Locri Ozolfe, 385 
Locris, 385, 395 
Logograpbers, 25 
Londinium, 653 
Longitude, 61 
Loiyma, 122 
Lotopbagi, 19, 296 
Lotopbagltis, 298 
Luca, 507 
Lucania, 580 ff. 
Lucenses, 623 
Luceria, 575 
Lucre tilis, Ms., 519 



MACYlv lA . 

Lucrinus, L., 564 

Lucus Angiria?, 522 

Lucns Augusti, 624 

Luentinnm, 656 

Lugdunensis, 638 

Lugdiinum, 640 

Lugdunum Batavo 
rum, 646 

Lugdiinum Convena' 
rum, 632 

Lugi, 659 

Luguvallum, 654 

Luna, 507 
\ Lun^e, Pr., 486 

Lunas Montes, 284 

Lunte Portus, 507 

Luppia, FL, 662 

Lusitania, 616 ff. 

Lutetia, 641 

Lycabettus, Mt., 4 10 
, Lycjeus, Ms., 470 
I Lycaonia, 143 
; Lycastus, FL, 159 

Lycbnidus, 676 

Lycbnitis, 223 

Lycbnitis, L. (Ar- 
men.), 223 

Lycbnitis L. (Illyr.), 

674 
Lycia, 125 ff. 
\ Lycopolis, 277 
i Lycia, 125 
j Lyctus, 482 
i Lycus, Fl. (Assyr.), 
i 217 

I Lycus, Fl. (Pbryg.), 

I Lycus, Fl.(Pont.), 158 
[ Lydda, 186 

Lydia, 104 

Lydias, FL, 339 

Lygii, 665 

Lyncestis, 341 

Lyrceum, 471 
' Lyrnessus, ico 
, Lvsimacbia (^EtoL), 

I "384 
Lysimacbia (Tbrac), 

331 
Lystra, 144 

M. 

\ Maarsares, 211 
i MacEe, 39, 297 

]Macaria, 449 
' ;Macedones, 340 
I Macedonia, 336 ff. 
I Macestus, FL, 92 
i INIacblyes, 299 
' Macbpelab, 185 

Macistus, 446 
; Macolicum, 661 
i Macoraba, 174 
I Macris, I., 422 

Macrobii, 38, 285 
I Macrones, 159 
; Macynia, 385 



INDEX. 



695 



Madai, 5 
Madytus, 3 32 
Ma?ander, PI., 116 
Mtenalus, Ms., 471 
Mteones, 106 
Mteotis Palus, 70 
Ma^solia, 251 
Maesoliis, FL, 250 
Magaba, Ms., 150 
Magdala, 198 
Magdolum, 272 
Magna, 287 
Magna Grecia, 580 
Magnesia, 362 
Magnesia ad IMsean- 

drum, 117 
Magnesia ad Sipylum, 

109 

Magnum, Pr., (Hisp.), 
611 

Magnum, Pr. (Ind,), 
250 

Magnus, Sin., 69 
Mago, 626 
Maiianaim, 201 
Malaca, 615 
Malanga, 250 
Maljei Colon, 250 
Malao, 288 
Malea, Pr., 454 
Maleventum, 526 
Maliacus, Sin., 352 
Malis, 362 
Mallaea, 366 
Mallus, 136 
Mampsarus, Ms., 299 
Mamertina Civltas, 

Mamre, 185 
Manapia, 661 
Manapii, 660 
Manasseh, 193, 200 
Mancunium, 655 
Mandalse, 251 
Mandrus, Ms., 310 
Manduria, 579 
Manes, 395 
Mantinea, 473 
Mantua, 497 
Maon, 185 
Maps, 62 
Maracanda, 246 
M .raphii, 37 
Marathon, 418 
Marcianopolis, 679 
Marcomanni, 665 
Mardi, 248 
Marea, 272 
Mareotis, 265 
Margana, 448 
Margiana, 244 
iVLargum, 678 
Margus, 678 
jNIariaba, 174 
Mariana, 6o3 
Mariandyni, 35 
Marianus, Ms., 610 
MarinuB, 51 



MEGALOPOLIS. 

j\raridimum, 656 
Maris, FL, 32 
Marisus, FL, 679 
Maritbi, Mts., 173 
Maririmse Alpes, 485 
Marium, 138 
Maraiarica, 289 
Maronea, 329 
Marpessa, Ms., 426 
Marrucmi, 523 
Marruvium, 522 
Marsi, 521 
MarsyabEe, 175 
jMarsyas, FL, 147 
Martiana, L., 238 
Marunda?, 251 
Marus, FL, 662 
Masada, 185 
Mascas, Fl., 22? 
Masdoranus, Ms., 241 
Masitholus, FL, 311 
Masius, Ms., 223 
Maspii, ^7 
Massaesyli, 306 
Massageta?, 35, 244 
Massalia, 636 
Massicytus, Ms., 125 
Massienus, Sin., 611 
Massilia, 6j6 
Massyli, 306 
Mastusia, Pr., 326 
Matala, Pr., 479 
Matieni, 36 
jMatinus, Ms., 573 
Matium, 666 
]\[atrinus, FL, 517 
Matrona, FL, 639 
Matrona, Ms., 486 
Mattiaci, 665 
Mattium, 666 
Mauretania, 307 if. 
Mauretania Ciesari- 

ensis, 307 
Mauretania Tingitana, 

307 

Maurusii, or Mauri, 
308 

]\rauri, 306, 308 
Maxima Cassariensis, 
651 

Maxyes, 299 
Mazaca, 142 
Medeon, 379 
Medi, 238 
Media, 237 ff. 
Media Magna, 238 
Mediomatrici, 643 
Mediolanum (GalL), 

635 _ 
Mediolanum (ItaL), 

498 
iVIedma, 587 
]\[edoacus, FL, 492 
Meduana, FL, 639 
Medus, FL, 23 3 
Megasthenes, 42 
Megabari, 285 
Megalopolis, 474 



METROPOLIS. 

I Megara, 429 
Megara Hyblaea, 595 

* Megaris, 428 

I Megarsus, Pr., 134 

1 Megasthenes, 42 
Megiddo, 197 
Megiste, 128 
Melanchlfeni, 35 
Melanog^etiili, 311 
Mela, Pomponius, 54 
Melajna, Pr., 153 
Melas, 327 

Melas, FL (Cappa- 

doc), 141 
Melas, FL (PamphyL), 

130 

Melas, Sin., 327 
i Meliboea, 365 
I Melita, 606 

Melita, I., 377 
I IMelita, 1. (lUyr.), 677 
' Melittea, 365 

Melitene, 142 
' Melos, I., 478 

Memphis, 273 

i\Iena?num, 604 

Menapii, 643 
' Mendes, 270 

]\Ienelai Portus, 290 

Menelaus, 272 

Meninx, I., 298 

Menippus, 49 

Menuthias, 1., 312 

Mercurii, Pr., 299 

Mereta?, 659 

Meroe, 287 

Mtrom, 180 

ilesembria, 332 

Mesene, 211 

Mesha, 9 

INIeshech, 4 

Mesnia, 587 

iVIesogis, Ms., 104 

^Mesopotamia, 207 ff. 

Mespila, 227 

Messa, 459 

jMessana, 593 

Messapia, 577 

Messapiou, Mt., 397 

Messene, 451 

IMessenia, 449 fF. 

Messeniacus, Sin., 352 
' iVIestleta, 229 

Metagonium, Pr., 308 

Metapontura, 581 
: Metaris, .^:st., 649 
; Metaiirus, FL, 514 

Metellinnm, 617 

]Methana, 468 

jMethone (Macedon.), 
M5 

Methone (Messen.), 
451 

Metbydrium, 475 
Methymna, loi 
Metropolis (A car- 
nan.), 378-379 
Metropolis (Lyd.), no 



MUNYCHIA. 

Metropolis (Phryg.), 
149 

Metropolis (ThessaL), 
364, 366 

Metulura, 674 

Mevania, 514 

Michmasb, 188 

Mictis, 1., 658 

Midaiuni, 149 

Midianites, 9 

Miletus, 118 

Milyas, 127 

Milyas, 127, 145 

Mimas, Ms., 104 

Mineei, 175 

Mmcius, FL, 496 

Minerva, Pr., 487 

Minio, FL, 506 

Minius, FL, 618 

Minoa, I., 430 

Minoa, Pr., 459 

Minthe, 445 

Minturnse, 554 

Minyge, 19 

Minyeins, FL, 444 

Misenum, 566 

Mi^enura, Pr., 563 

Mitylene, loi 

Mizpeh, 188 

Mizraim, 6 

Mnaseas, 49 

Moab, 202 

Mocisus, 142 

Modin, 185 

Modiira, 250 

Moenus, FL, 662 

Moeris, L., 264 

Moesi, 678 

Moesia, 677 

Moguntiacum, 645 

Molochath, FL, 308 

Molossis, 370 

Molycria, 385 

Momemphis, 272 

Mona, L, 658 

Monapia, 1., 658 

Monarina, I., 658 

Monoeci Portus, 503 
j Moph, 7 

Mopsucrene, 136 
I ]Mopsuestia, 136 

Morgantia, 604 

Morgetes, 585 

Moriah, Ms., 190 

]Moridiinum, 656 

Morini, 644 

Mortuum Mare, 180 

Mosa,FL, 642, 641 note 

Mosaic genealogy, 4 

Moschi, 5 

Moscbici, Mts., 229 
:\rosella, FL, 641 
]\Losynus, Fl., 116 
Motya, 60J 
Mountains, 63 
Mulucha, FL, 308 
IMimda, 615 
Munychia, 411 



696 



INDEX. 



Murius, Fl., 671 . 
Mursa, 672 
Mutlna, 5C0 
Muza, 174 
Muziris, 251 
Mycale, 105 
Mycalessus, 404 
Mycena?, 463 
Llyconos, I., 428 
]\[yenus, Ms., 382 
Mygdonia, 340 
Mygdcmia (Macedon.), 
340 

jMygdonia (Mesopot.), 
208 

Mrgdonins, Fl., 208 
Mvk-e (SiciL), 184 
Mylas (Thess.), 366 
Mylassa, 121 
Myndiis, 122 
My OS Hormos, 278 
Myi-a, 128 
Myrcinus, 345 
Myriandrus, 136 
Myiina, 335 
My lie a, 155 
Myrmidones, 421 
Myrtilis, 617 
Mvrtimtmm, 447 
]\[ysia. 91 ff. 
Mysia 3Iajor, 94 
Mysia ]Minor, 94 
Mytilene, loi 
My us, 118 



N. 

Nabaia?i, 17? 
Nagnara, 660 
Nagnatfe, 660 
Naharvalormn Sylva, 

662 
Nain, 107 
Naissus, 678 
Namadus, Fl,, 250 
Namnetes, 639 
Nanagiiiia, 250 
Naparis, FL, 32 
Napata, 287 
Naphthali, 198 
Nar, FL, 513 
Naraggera, 307 
Narbo, 635 
Narbonensis, 633 S"* 
Narnia, 515 
ISTaro. FL, 673 
Narona, 675 
Narthacium, 366 
Naryx, 396 
Nasamones, 294 
Natiso, FL, 493 
Naucratis, 270 
Isaup actus, 386 
Nauplia, 465 
Nava, FL, 641 
ISTaxos, 594 
Naxos, I., 427 



Xaxuana, 224 
Xazareth, 198 
Xazianzus, 143 
Neapolis (Afric), 303 
Xeapolis (ItaL), 567 
?iJ"eapolis (Maced.), 343 
Neapolis (Pera?.), 204 
xveapolis (Saroar.), 194 
Xeapolis (Sardin.), 607 
Xeapolis (Syracus.), 
597 

Xeapolis (Syi'tlc), 297 

Xearchus, 41 

Xebaloth, 9 

Xebrodes, Mts., 590 

Xecho, 24 

Xeda, FL, 444 

Xeium, Pr., 381 

Xelkynda, 251 

Xemausus, 635 

Xemea, 440 

Xemea, irl., 440 

Xemetes, 643 
I Xemorensis, L., 532 
I Xeoca^earea, 160 
I Xeon, 394 
i Xepete, 512 
j Xeptunius, Ms., 590 
' Xerigos, 666 
I Xeritus, Ms., 381 
! Xerium, Pr., 611 
j Xerulum, 583 

Xervii, 643 

Xestus, FL, 327 

Xeuri, 35 

Xia, FL, 311 

Xictea, 333 

Xicfea (Bitbyn.), 154 

Xicfea (Irjd.), 249 

Xicffia (Ligur.), 502 

Xica?a (Locr.), 396 

Xica?a (Paropam.), 243 

Xicander of Colophon, 
49 

Xicasia, I., 479 
Xicepborium, 209 
Xicer, FL, 662 
Xicomedia, 155 
Xicopolis, 333 
XicoiDolis, (.EgyiDt.), 
269 

Xicopolis (Cappadoc), 
142 

Xicopolis (Epir.), 371 
Xicopolis (Paleest.), 

186 
Nidum, 656 
Xiger, FL, 311 
Xigrit£e, 311 
Xigritis Palus, 311 
Xilupolis, 275 
:Nilus, FL, 255 
Xineveb, 12, 218 
Xinus, 218 
Xipbates, Ms., 74 
Xisfea, 430 
Xislbis, 209 
Xisyrus, L, 123 



Xitiobiiges, 631 
Xi trite, L., 265 
Xivaria, L, 312 
Xo, 7 

Xo-ammoB, 7 
Xob, 188 
Xod, 2 
Xola, 570 
Xomii, ]Mts., 449 
Xomentum, 560 
Xonacris, 476 
Xopb, 7 

Xora (Cappadoc), 142 
Xora (Sardin.), 608 
Xorba Caesarea, 618 
Xoreia, 670 
Xoricas Alpes, 670 
Xoriciim, 669 
Xorossus, Ms., 74 
Xoti Cornu, Pr., 284 
Xotium, Pr. (Afr.), 311 
Xotium, Pr. (Hibem,), 
660 

Xovantarum, Pr., 659 
Xovaria, 499 
Xovantes-£e, 659 
Xoviodimum, 678 
Xoviomagns, 645 
Xovius, FL, 659 
Xiiba, L., 311 
Xnb£e, 285 

Xuceria Alfaterna, 570 
Xumantia, 625 
Xumicius, FL, 532 
Xumidia, 305 
Xiimidicus, Sin., 305 
Xiimistro, 583 
Xursia, 521 
Nympb?ea, 683 
Xympba?nm, Pr., 338 
Xysa (Cappadoc), 143 
Xysa (Car.), 122 

0. 

OaiTis, FL, 32 
Oases, 257 
Oasis Magna, 279 
Oasis Parva, 279 
Oaxes, FL, 479 
Oboca, FL, 660 
Ocean, Stream of, 17, 

21, 28 
Ocellum, Pr., 649 
Ochus, Fl., 232 
Ocra, Ms., 670 
Ocriculum, 516 
Ocrinnm, Pr., 649 
Octapitarnm, Pr., 649 
Odessus, 679 
Odiys£e, 328 
Oea, 297, 422 
(Eantbe, 386 
(Ebalia, 578 
(Ecbalia, 452 
Qiliieon, 386 
Qilniada?, 378 
GEnoe, 436, 468 



(Bi 



ORCAS. 

(Enotria, 484 
(Enus, FL, 456 
Qilnuss^e, I., 113 
(Escus, FL, 678 
O^^svnie, 345 
(Eta, Ms., 357 
(Eta^i, 362 
(Etylus, 459 
Ogygia, 17 

Olbia (Pamphyl.), i3( 

Olbia (Sardin.), 607 

Olbia (Sarmat.), 683 

Olcbacites, Sin., 305 

Olearus, I., 478 

Olenus, 384, 442 

Olgassys, Ms, 156 

Olisipo, 617 

Olives, Mount of, 18^ 

Olizon, 367 

Ollius, FL, 496 

OUootbon, 366 

Olmite, 433 
i Oloosson, 366 
I Olopbrxus, 345 
i 01p8e, 378 
I Olurus, 441 
: Olynipia, 445 
' Olympus, M 
tbyn.), 152 
j Olrmpus, ]\Is. (Cypr.) 

i 137 
i Olympus, Ms. (Galat.) 
\ 150 
■; Olympus, Ms. (La- 
con.), 45, 
; Olrmpus, Ms. (Lvc) 

I \26 

I Olympus, Ms. (Lyd.) 

; 104 

Olympus Ms. (Mys.) 
i 91 

j Olympus, Ms, 
! sal.), 355 
I Olympus, 147 
! Olyntbus, 344 
I Omana, 243 
; Ombi. 278 
i Ombrici, 34 
I On, 7 

i Oncbesmus, 372 

\ Oncbestus, 403 

I Onesicritus, 41 

I Onoba, iEst., 614 

! Onugnatbos, 455 

I Opbel, 190 

i Opbionenses, 383 

I Opbir, 9 

i Opbiusa, L, 626 

' Opblimus, ^Is., 158 

: Opbrab, 188 

I Opica, 484 

: Opis, 220 

I Opitergium, 495 

Opus, 396 

Orasa, 243 
I Orbelus, Ms., 337 
1 Orcades, I., 659 
' Orcas, Pr., 659 



(Tbes 



INDEX. 



697 



ORCHOE. 

Orchoe, 214 
Orchomenus (Arcad.), 
475 

Orchomenus (Bxot.), 
400 

Ordessus, Fl., 31 
Ordovices, 651 
Orestis, 341 
Oretani, 624 
Oreus, 424 
Orgus, FL, 496 
Oricus, 676 
Oringis, 616 
Oritse, 243 
Orminium, Ms., 152 
Ornea?, 46s 
Oroatis, FL, 233 
Orobiie., 424 
Orontes, FL, 162 
Orontes, Ms., 238 
Oropus, 418 
Orospeda, Ms., 610 
Orsinus, FL, 116 
Orthe, 366 
Ortona, 528 
Ortospana, 24 j 
Ortygia, 596 
Ortvgia, I., 427 
Osca, 622 
OscL 493 
Osismii, 640 
Osrhoene, 208 
Ossa, Ms., 356 
Ostia, 551 
Ostiensis, Via, 560 
Otadlni, 659 
Othrys, Ms., 557 
OvUaba, 670 
Oxiana, Paliis, 7 f 
Oxii, Mts., 74 
Oxus. FL, 77 
Oxyryncbus, 274 
Ozene, 251 



P. 

Pacbynus, Pr., 592 
Pactoliis, FL, 105 
Pactyas, Ms., 105 
Pactye, 333 
Pactyica, 36, 38 
Padan-Aram, 11 
Padffii, 38 
Padus, FL, 488 
Paeania, 420 
Pgeanium, 384 
Paeonia, 341 
Paislanus, Sin , 487 
Psestum, 582 
Pag«, 430 
Pagaste, 367 
Pagasasus, Sin., 352 
Paltepapbiis, 138 
Palferus, 379 
Pala?simundUTn, 251 
Palasste, 372 
Palsestma, 176 ff. 

A>v'C. €EOG. 



PATR2E. 

Palatinus, Ms., 534 
Pale, 380 

Palicorura Lac, 592 
Palimbotbra, 251 
Paliniiri, Pr., 487 
Paliiirus, 290 
Pallacopas, 211 
Pallantia, 624 
Pallantium, 476 
Pallas, L.; 296 
Pallene, 338 
Pallene (Attic), 419 
Palma, 626 
Palmaria, I., 561 
Palmyra, 165 
Palmyrene, 163 
Pambotis, L., 370 
Pamisus, FL, 449 
Pampbylia, 129 ff. 
Pampbylius, Sin., 130 
PanacbaicLis, Ms., 440 
Pan^etolinm, Ms., 382 
Pandataria, L, 561 
Pandionis Reguum, 
250 

Pandosia (Gra^c), 373 
Pandosia (ItaL), 588 
Panga?us, Ms., 337 
Pannonia, 671 If. 
Pannonicfe Alpes, 671 
Panopeus, 393 
Panopolis, 278 
Panormus, 601 
Panticapa?um, 683 
Panticapes, FL, 32 
Papblagonia, 156 ff. 
Papbos, 138 
Papremis, 271 
Paracboatbras, Ms., 72 
Parajtonium, 290 
Parapotamii, 394 
Parembole, 287 
Parentium, 492 
Parisii, 651 
Parium, ico 
Parma, 500 
Parnassus, Ms., 387 
Parnes, Ms., 406 
Parnon, Ms., 454 
Paropamisadae, 242 
Paroparaisus, 72 
Paros, I,, 426 
Parrbasia, 472 
Partbenope, 567 
Partbenium, Ms., 471 
Partbenius, FL, 153 
Partbia, 241 
Paryadres, Ms., 158 
Paryeti, Mts. 243 
Pasargadee, 233 
Pasitigris, FL, 235 
Passaron, 372 
Patara, 128 
Patavium, 494 
Patbros, 6 
Patbissus, FL, 679 
Patmos, 1., 123 
Patrte, 442 



PHACUSA. 

Patrocles, 42 

Piitrocli, I., 422 

Pattala, 251 

Pattalene, 250 

Pausanias, 55 

Pax Julia, 617 

Paxi, I., 374 

Pedalium, Pr., 116 

Pedasa, 122 
; Pedasus, 451 
! Pediaeus, FL, 137 

Pedum, 559 

Peg^e, 430 
' Peiresi*, 366 

Peirene, Fons, 434 

Pelasgi, 353 
; Pelasgiotis, 361 

Pelendones, 624 

Peligni, 523 

Pelion, Ms., 356 

Pella(Macedon.), 346 

Peila (Palcest.), 201 

Pellana, 459 

Pellene, 441 

Pellinnajum, 363 

Peloponnesus, 431 
; Pelorus, Pr,, 591 

Pelso, L., 671 

Pelt*, 150 
; Pelusium, 271 
i Peneus, FL (EL), 444 
: Peneus, FL ( TbessaL), 
359 

Pennin£e Alpes, 486 

Pentapolis, 290 

Pentelicus, Ms., 406 

Pentri, 525 
] Peparetbus, I,, 363 
i Per«a, 199 fr. 

Versea. Rbodiorum, 1 16 

Percotes, FL, 9? 

Perga, 130 

Pergamum, or Pcrcra- 
mus, 99 

Fergus, L., 592 

Perimulicus, Sin., 69 

Perintbus, 331 

Periceci, 51 
, Peripli, 58 

Perizzites, 182 
1 Perrbsebia, 361 
' Persabora, 214 

Persepolis, 233 

Persici, Mts., 241 

Persicus, Sin., 69 

Persis, 232 

Perusia, 509 

Pessinus, 151 

Petelia or Petilia, 587 

Petovio, 672 

Petra (Arab.), 174 

Petra (Macedon.), 346 

Petr£ea, 174 

Petrocorii, 631 

Pence, I., 678 

Peucini, 678 

Pbacium, 366 

Pbaciisa, I., 479 



PHPJXA. 

Pbaeaces, 20 
Pbjeno, 204 
Pbagres, 345 
Pbalacrum, Pr., 374 
Pbalara, 367 
Pbalasarna,. 480 
Pbalernm, 41 1 
Pbanffi, Pr., 11 1 
Phanagoria, 230 
Pbara, 380 
Pbara? (AcbaL), 442 
Pharas (Lacon.), 46c 
Pbaraj (Messen.), 451 
Pharnacia, 159 
Pbarnacotis, FL, 243 
Pharos, 268 
Pbarpar, FL, 10 
Pharsalus, 364 
Phasania, 311 
Pbaselis, 128 
Phasis, 160 
Pbasis, FL, 87 
I'bazemon, 160 
Phea, 448 
Phellias, FL, 456 
Pbellus, 128 
Pheneus, 477 
Phera?, 363 
Pherecydes, 26 
Pbigalia, 

Phifadelpbia (Lyd.), 
1 10 

= Philadelpbia(Pala?st.), 

! 201 

I Phil£e, 278 

Pbiljenorum Arce, 291 
' Pbileas, 45 

Philia, Pi\, 326 

Pbilippi, 342 

Philippopuiis (Pa- 
laest.), 204 

Philippopuiis (Tbrac), 

3n 

I Pbilistia, 186 
j Pbilomelium, 148 
; Pblius, 438 
; Pbocasa, 107 

PbocEeans, Early Voy- 
ages of, 24 

Pbocenses, 388 

Pbocicum, 394 

Pbocis, 387 

Pbcenice, 371 

I'hoenlces, 168 

Pboenicia, 167 

Phoenicians, Colonies 
of the, 16 

Phoenicium 31 are, 69 

Pboenicium, 3is., 398 

Pboenicus, Ms., 126 

Phoeniciisa, I., 605 

Phoenix, FL, 360 

Pbolegandros, I., 478 
! Pboloe, ]Ms.. 470 

Phorbautia, 604 

Pborcys, 381 

Phraaia, 239 

Pbrixa, 448 

2 H 



698 



INDEX. 



Phiygia, 146 ff. 
Phiygia Minor, 94 
Phrygii, 89 
PhtMotis, 362 
Phuth, Fl., 308 
Pbycus, Pr., 291 
Phylace, 366 
Phyle, 419 
Phyllus, 365 
Physcus (Car.), 122 
Physcus, Fl., 21'^ 
Physcus (Macedon.). 

346 
Phytia, 379 
Pibesetb, 7 
Picentia, 571 
Picenum, 517 
Picti, 658 
Pictoiies, 632 
Pieria, Ms., 162 
Pieria (Macedon.), 341 
Pieria (Syr.\ 16 j 
Pinara, 128 
Pindns, J87 
Pindus, FL, 387 
Pindus, Ms., 357 
Pinna, 523 
Pir^um, 4?6 
Pirfeus (Athen.), 411 
Piraeus (Corinth.), 4j5 
Pirns, Fi., 440 
Pisa, 445 
Pisas, 507 
Pisatis, 44? 
Pisaurum, 516 
Pisanrus, Fl., 514 
Pisidia, 144 ff. 
Pison, FL, 2 
Pisoraca, FL, 618 
Pistoria, 512 
Pitane, 100 
Pithecusa, I., 571 
Pithom, 7 
Pityus, 230 
Pityusse, I., 625 
Placentia, 500 
Planaria, I., 312 
Plataea,_402 
Platamodes, Pr., 450 
Platanistus, 448 
Platea, I., 294 
Plato, 44 
Plavis, FL, 493 
Pleistus, FL, 388 
Plemmyrium, Pr., 596 
Pleuron, 383 
Pliny, 54 
Plitbana, 251 
Plotinopolis, 353 
Pluitalia, I., 312 
Pluvialia, I., 312 
Plynns, 290 
Pnyx, 409, 414 
Poediculi, 574 
Pola, 492 
Polemon, 49 
Polemoniacus Pontus, 
i6d 



PROSCHIOr. 

Polemonium, 159 
Follentia (Balear.), 
626 

Pollentia (ItaL), 503 
Polj'bius, 48 
Polybistor, 49 
Polyrrhenia, 481 
Polytimetus, FL, 245 
Pompeii, 567 
Pompeiopolis, 157 
Pompelo, 621 
Pomptinje PaMdes, 
553 

Pons Milvius, 550 
Pontes, 656 
Pontia, I., 561 
Pontus, 157 ff. 
Pontus Euxinus, 69 
Popilia Via, 583, 588 
Populonium, 511 
Populonium, Pr,, 487 
Porata, FL, 32 
Porphyrltes. Ms,, 264 
Porthmus, 424 
Portuensis Via, 560 
Portus Augusti, 551 
Portus Julius, 564 
Portus Lunge, 507 
Posidium, Pr. (Bi- 

thyn,), 153 
Posidium, Pr. (Gar.), 

115 

Posidium, Pr. (Chios,), 
III 

Posidium, Pr. (ItaL), 
487 

Posidium, Pr. (Mace- 
i don.), 338 
: Posidonia, 582 
\ Posidonius, 49 
i Potami, 157 

Potentia (Lucan.), 583 
I Potentia (Picen.), 518 
! Potida^a, 344 
1 Potidania, 385 
: Praaspa, 239 

Practius, FL, 93 
I Prteneste, 555 
I Prjenestina Via, 561 
' Prjesus, 482 
; Prastutii, 517 
, Prasise, 420 
i Prasias, L., 339 
i Prasum, Pr., 284 
I Premnis, 287 
; Priapus, 99 
i Priene, 117 
' Primis, 287 
: Privernum, 559 
! Probalinthus, 419 
' Prochy ta, I., 571 
1 Proconnesus, I., loi 
j Proerna, 366 
I Proni, 380 
I Prophthasia, 243 
j Propontis, 70 
I Propylffia, 412 
\ Proschium, 384 



Prote, I., 452 
Provincia Romana, 
6?o 

Prusa ad Olympura, 
154 

Psacum, Pr., 479 
Psamathus, 459 
Pseboa, L., 285 
Pselcis, 287 
Psilis, FL, 153 
Psophis, 476 
Psylli, 39 
Psyra, I., 113 
Psyttalia, I., 421 
Pteleum, 364 
Ptolemais (Cyren.), 
29? 

Ptolemais (Phoenic), 
170 

Ptolemais Theron,288 
Ptolemy, Claudius, 55 
Ptoon, Ms., ?97 
Ptychia, I., 374 
PulchiTim, Pr., 299 
Pura, 243 

Purpurarige Insulte, 

312 
Puteoli, 566 
Pydna, 345 
Pygela, no 
Pygmfei, 19 
Pylene, 384 
Pylus (FA.), 447 
Pylus (Messen.), 450 
Pylus (TriphyL), 448 
Pyramus, Fl.", 87 
Pyreni^i, Mts., 319, 

610 
Pyrene, 31 
Pyrenes, Pr., 610 
Pyrgi, 511 
Pyrgus, 448 
Pyrrha, loi 
Pythagoras, 25 
Pytbeas, 44 
Pythium, 366 
Pytbo, 19 
Pyxus, 582 



Quadi, 665 
Quirinalis, Ms., 534 



Raamah, 8 
Raamses, 7 
Rabbath-Ammon, 201 
Rabbath-Moab, 202 
Rahab, 6 
Ramah, 188 
Ramotb-Gilead, 201 
Rasenna, 506 
Ratie, 656 
Ratiaria, 678 



Rhatostathybius, t\., 

649 
Rauraci, 64? 
Ravenna, 499 
Reate, 519 
Regillus, L., 532 
Reginum, 668 
Regium Lepldi, 501 
Regni, 650 
Regulbium, 655 
Remi, 642 

Rerigonius, Sin., 659 

Resen, 12 

Reuben, 200 

Rezeph, 12 

Rha, FL, 77 

Rhjeba, 661 

Rh^tia, 668 

Rhaetica3 Alpes, 668 

Rhagae, 219 

Rhambacia, 243 

Rhamnus. 418 

Rbaptum,' Pr., 28, 384 

Rhebas, FL, 153 

Rbegium, 586 

Rhegma, 174 

Rhenus, Fl. (Ger- 
man.), 321 

Rhenus, FL (ItaL), 
497 

Rhenea, I., 428 
Rhetico, Ms., 662 
Rhium, Pr., 440 
Rhodauus, FL, 633 
Rhodius, FL, 93 
Rhodope, Ms., 326 
Rhodus, I., 123 
Rhoeteum, 92, 98 
Rhymnici, ^Its., 74 
Rhyndacus, FL, 92 

; Rhypes, 442 

I Riblah, 10 
Riduna, I., 641 
Rimmon, 188 
Rivers, 63 
Robogdii, 660 
Robogdium, Pr., 660 
Roma, 534 If. 

; Romans, Information 

I derived from the, 
51 

Rome, First notice of, 
26 

Romulea, 527 

Rotomagus, 641 
I Roxolani, 682 

Rubico, FL, 497 
■ Rubricatus, FL (Nu- 
mid.), 305 

Rubricatus, Fl. (His- 
pan.), 618 

Rubrum Mare, 69 
i Rugii, 663 
: Rusadir, 310 
I Rusadir, Pr., 308 
i Ruscicade, 306 
; Ruscino, 634 
i Ruse Ike, 511 



IXDEX. 



699 



Ruteni, 63 1 
Riitupife, 655 
Rjssadimn, Pr., 311 



Saba, 174 
SabiS?i, 17? 
Sabarae, 288 
Sabaricus, Sin., 69 
Sabatinus, L., 490 
Sablni, 519 
Sabotba, 174 
Sabrata, 297 
Sabrina, Fi., 648 
Sacie, 252 
Sacer, FL, 607 
Sacer, M., S3 r 
Sacrum, Pr. (Hibem.), 
660 

Sacram, Pr. (Hispan.), 
611 

Sacrum, Pr. (Lvc), 

126 
Sajtabis, 619 
Sagalassus, 145 
Sagapola, Ms., 310 
Sagrus, Fl., 525 
S-aguntum, 620 
Sais, 210 
Sala, FL, 308 
Salacia, 617 
Salamis, 138 
Salamis, L, 421 
Salapia, 576 
Salaria Via, 521, 561 
Salassi, 497 
Salban, 224 
Salcha, 203 
Salem, 189 
Salentmi, 577 
Salentinum, Pr., 487 
Salemum, 569 
Salganeus, 404 
Salice, I., 251 
Sallust, 54 
Salluvii, 624 
Salmantica, 618 
Samians, Yovages of 

the, 24 
Salmone, 479 
Salmydessns, 332 
Salona, 675 
Salodiinim, 644 
Salves, 6?4 
Samara, FL, 642 
Samaria, 192 
Samaria, Town, 194 
Samarobriva, 626 
Same, 380 
Samicum, 448 
Samnium, 524 
Samonium, Pr., 479 
Samosata, 166 
Samothracia, L, 336 
Samulocense, 666 
Sangarius, FL, 87 



Samai, 159 
Santones, 632 
Saphar, 9 
Saraceni, 173 
Sarangte, 24J 
Savapidis, I., 174 
Sardemisus, Ms., 144 
Sardica, 679 
Sardinia. 1., 6d6 
Sardis, 109 
Sardo, 606 
Sardo^ies, 6^4 
Sardoum Mare, 315 
Sarepta, 11 
Sargasso-sea, 44 
■ Sariphi, Mts., 72 
Sarmatia Asiatiea, 230 
Sarmatia Europsea, 
681 

Sarmaticum INIare, 3 1 7 
Sarmizegetliusa, 68o 
Samius, FL, 244 
Samia, I., 641 
Sarnus, FL, 564 
Saronlcus, Sin., 552 
Sarpedon, Pr., 132 
Sarpedonium, Pr., 326 
Sarsma, 516 
Sarus, FL, 87 
Saso, I., 677 
Saspires, 37 
Satala, 142 
Sataspes, 25 
Saticiila, 526 
Satnioeis, FL, 95 
Saturni, Pr., 61 r 
Satumia, 511 
Savo, FL, 56 J 
Savus, FL, 670 
Saxones, 663 
Scalabis, 618 
Scaldis, FL, 642 
Scamander, FL, 73, 93 
Scandea, 460 
Scandia, 666 
Scandila, 368 
Scandinavia, 666 
Scardona, 674 
Scardus, Ms., 318 
Scarphe (Boeot.), 403 
Scarphe (Locr.), 396 
Scenit«, 1-3 
Scepsis, 99 
Scheria, 20 
Schiste Hodos, 394 
Schceniisa, L, 479 
Schoenus (Boeot.), 404 
Schoenus (Corinth.), 
436 

Schoenus, Sin., 115 
Sciathus, L, j68 
Scilkis, 448 
Sciradium, Pr., 421 
Sciritis, 455 
Scironia Saxa, 429 
Scius, FL, 32 
; ScoUis, Ms., 443 
Scolos, 403 



SEQUAXA. 

Scombraria, L, 619 
Scopas, FL, 151 
Scope, ]^.r5., 4-3 
Scopi, 679 
Scordus, Ms., 337 
ScoU, 653 
Scottisa, 364 
Sciiltenna, 497 
Scupi, 346 
Scyiacium, 585 
Scviax of Carvanda, 
63 

Scylax, Periplus of, 
45 

Scyllceum, Pr.(ArgoL). 
461 

Scvll^um, Pr. (Ital.\ 
487 

Scydises, Ms., 72 
Scylla, 594 
ScyUeticus, Sin., 487 
Scvmnus of Chios, 47 
Scyros, I., 368 
Scythia, 252 
Scythopolis, 197 
Sea, 64 
Sebaste, 194 
Sebastia, 160 
Sebethus, FL, 564 
Sebennytus, 271 
Sebinus, L., 490 
Svdetaiii, 619 
Segesta, 601 
Segobrlga, 625 
Segodiinum, 633 
Segontium, 655 
Segusiani, 639 
Segusio, 499 
Selah, 9 

Seleucia (Assyr.), 214 
Seleucia (Cilic.)," i ? 5 
Seleucia Pieria, 164 
Seleucia Sidera, 145 
Seleucis, 163 
Selge, 145 
Selgovse, 659 
Selinus (Cilic), 135 
Selinus (SiciL), 620 
Sellasia, 459 
Selleis, FL, 444 
Selli, 19 
Selymbria, 331 
Semanthini, Mis., -4 
Sembrit«, 285 
Semnones, 663 
Semnunum Sylva, 662 
Sena, FL, 514 
Sena Gallica, 516 
Sena Julia, 508 
Senones (Gall.), 639 
Senones (ItaL), 497 
Sentinum, 516' 
Senus, FL, 66o 
Sephar, 9 
Sepharvaim, 12 
Sepias, 352 
Sepphoris, 198 
Sequana, FL, 629 



Sequani, 643 
Seres, 251 
Serica, 251 
Seriphos, I., 426 
Serrium, Pr., 326 
Serus, FL, 76 
Sesamus, Fl , 156 
Sesites, FL, 496 
Sestus, 3 30 
Setantii, 651 
Seteia, .Est., 649 
Setia, 553 
Severus, Ms., 519 
Sharon, 179 
Sheba, 3 
Sliechem, 194 
Shephela, 179 
Shiloh, 194 
Shinar, 12 
Slberis, FL, 151 
Sicambri, 664 
Sicani, 592 
Sicca Veneria, 307 
Sicilia, 589 ff. 
Sicinos, I., 478 
Sicoris, FL, 618 
Siciili, 592 
Sictllum Mare, 315 
Sicyon, 437 
Side, 130 
Sideni, 663 
SidicTni, 569 
Sidon, II, 169 
Siga. 3^9 
Sigeum, roo 
Sigeum, Pr., 92 
Signia, 558 
Sigymite, 34 
Sihor, 7 
Sila, Ms., 584 
Silarus, FL, 489 
Silenia?, 421 
Silis, FL, 493 
Siliira, I., 658 
Silures, 651 
Simeon, 184 
Simois, FL, 93 
Simyra, lo 
Sin,' 7 
Sina?, 251 
Sinai, Ms., 173 
Singara, 209 
Singaras, 315., 207 
Singidunum, 678 
Singiticus, Sin., 338 
Singiilis, FL, 613 
Sinna, 10 
Sinonia, L, 561 
Sinope, 157 
Sintica, 340 
Sin ties, 20 
Sinuessa, 554 
Siphnos, L, 426 
Sipontum. 575 
Sipylus, Ms., 104 
Sirbonis, L., 265 
Siris, Fl., 580 
Siris (ItaL), 581 

2 H 2 



700 



INDEX. 



Siris (Macedon.), 545 
Siritis, 580 
Sirmiam, 672 
Sisapon, 615 
Siscia, 672 
Sitace, 227 
Sithonia, 338 
Sitifis, 309 
Sitones, 666 
Sittace, 220 
Sittaceiie, 217 
Smaragdus, Ms,, 264 
Smyrna, 107 
Sodom, 180 
Sogdiana, 245 
Sogdii, Mts., 74 
Soli, 138 
Solicmimn, 666 
Sollium, J 79 
Soloentia, Pr., 311 
Solois, Pr., 308 
Solorius, Ms., 610 
Solus, 603 
Solygeia, 456 
Solymi, 127 
Soiitius, Fl., 49j 
Sonus, FL, 76 
Sophene, 224 
Sora, 55 8 
Soracte, Ms., 505 
Sorbiodimum, 655 
Sozopolis, 332 
Sparta, 456 
Spauta, L., 238 
Speos Arteinidos, 273 
Spercheus, FL, 361 
Spbacteria, I., 450 
Sphettus, 420 
Spinte, 656 
Spoletium, 515 
Sporades, I., 477 
Springs, 63 
StabiEe, 571 
Stagira, 34? 
Stentorls, L., 327 
Stenyclaras, 452 
Stephane, 157 
Stephanus Byzanti- 

nus, 59 
Stiria, 419 
Stiris, 394 
Stobi, 346 

Stoborrum, Pr., 305 
Storas, FL, 532 
Strabo, 49, 64 
Stratonicea, 121 
Stratus, 378 
Stron^yle, I., 605 
Stropbades, I., 452 
Stryme, 332 
Strymon, FL, 339 
Strymonicus, Sin., 337 
Stuccia, FL, 649 
Stura, FL, 496 
Sturius, FL, 649 
Stymbara, 346 
Stymphalus, 475 
Stymphalus, FL, 472 



T^ZALORUJf. 

Styra, 424 
Styx, FL, 476 
Suastus, FL, 242 
Subur, FL, 311 
SuccEea, 204 
Sucro, FL, 618 
Sucronensis, Sin., 6ri 
Sudeti, 320 
Suebus, FL, 663 
Suestus, FL, 242 
Suessa Pometia, 558 
Suevi, 663 

Sue vicum -Mare, 317 

Suffetiila, 303 

Suiones, 666 

Sulci, 607 

Sulgas, FL, 634 

Sulmo, 523 

Sunium, 420 

Sunium, Pr., 407 

Superaqueum, 523 

Superum Mare, 315 

Surrentum, 569 

Susa, 2?6 

Susiana, 234 if. 

Sutbul, 307 
1 Sutrium, 512 
I Sybaris, 581 

Sybaris, FL, 580 

Sybota, 372 

Syene, 278 

Syllium, 130 

Symajtbus, FL, 592 

Symbolon Portus, 683 

Syme, 12 j 

Symplegades, I., 336 

Synnada, 148 

Synnaus, 1 50 

Synoeci, 51 

Syraciisge, 596 

Syrastrene, 250 
i Syrgis, FL, 32 
' Syria, 161 ff. 

Syrias, Pr., 156 

Syros, I., 428 

Syrtica Regio, 295 

Syrtis Major, 254 

Syrtis Minor, 254 

Sytbas, FL, 437 



T. 

Tabor, Ms., 196 
Tabraca, 307 
Tabula Peutinoeriana, 
58 

Taburnus, Ms., 563 
Tacape, 298 
Tacbompso, 287 
Tacitus. 54 
Tader, FL, 618 
Tadmor, 10 
Tasnarum, 455 
Tsenarurc^, Pr., 445 
T^zali, 659 
Tctzalorum, Pr., 659 



Tagae, 242 
Tagara, 251 
Tagaste, 307 
Tagus, FL, 6 10 
Tabpanhes, 7 
Taletum, 454 
Talmis, 287 
Tamarus, FL, 649 
Tamassus, 139 
Tamesis, FL, 648 
Tamiathis, 272 
Tanager, FL, 580 
Tanagra, 402 
Tanais, FL, 230, 314 
Tanarus, FL, 502 
Tanis, 270 
Tanus, FL, 469 
Tapbii, 20 

Tapbiassus, Ms., 382 
Tapbis, 287 
Tapbus, I., 379 
Taposiris, 290 
Taprobane, tivst notice 

of, 41 
Taprobane, L, 251 
Tarbelli, 631 
Tarentinus, Sin., 487 
Tarentum, 578 
Tarnis, FL, 631 
Tarquinii, 509 
Tarracina, 553 
Tarraco, 620 
Tarraconensis, 618 ff. 
Tarsbisb, 610 
Tarsus, 135 
Tartarus, 17 
Tartessis, 610 
Tartessus, 613 
Taruenna, 626 
Tarvedum, Pr., 659 
Tarvisium, 495 
Tatta, L., 87 
Taucbira, 293 
Taunus, Ms., 662 
Tauri, 68r 

Taurica Cbersonesus, 

35, 681 
Taunni, 497, 502 
Taurisci, 670 
1 Tauromenium, 595 
Tauriinum, 672 
Taurus, Ms., 86, 131 
Tava, .Est., 659 
Tavia, 152 
Taxila, 249 
Taygetus, Ms., 454 
Teanum Sidic'inum, 
569 

Tearus, FL, 34 
Teate, 523 
Tectosages, 634 
Tegea, 474 
Tegyri, 404 
Telamon, 511 
Telcbines, 124 
Teleboas, FL, 227 
ieleboides, I., 379 
Telepte, 303 



theemoptl.t:. 

Telis, FL, 634 
Telmessus, 128 
Telo Martins, 636 
Telos, I., 123 
Temesa (C^-pr.), 2 

Temesa (ItaL), 587 
Temnos, 100 
Tempe, 360 
Temperature, 66 
Tempsa, 587 
Tencteri, 643, 664 
Tenea, 436 
Tenedos, L, loi 
Tentvra, 277 
Teos,"' L, 108 
Teredon, 215 
Tergeste, 493 
Tergestinus, Sin., 488 
Terina, 587 
Termessus, 145 
Termilte, 127 
Termus, FL, 607 
Tetrapolis, 419 
Tetrapolis Dorica, 38" 
Tetrica, Ms., 519 
Teucbira, 294 
Teumessus, 404 
Teumessus, Ms., 398 
Teurnia, 670 
Teutiirania, 94 
Teutbrone, 459 
TeutoburgiensisSvlv 
662 

Teutones, 663 
Tbala, 303 
Tbalamffi, 459 
Tbales, 25 
Tbambes, Ms., 305 
Tbapsacus, 166 
Tbapsus, 303 
Tharras, 608 
Tbasos, L, 335 
Thaumaci, 366 
Tbebie (Boeot.), 401 
Theb^e (Fgvpt.). 276 
Tbeb£e (Phtbiotid.), 

Tbebais, 275 
Tbebe, 19 
Tbecbes, Ms., 227 
Theganussa, I., 452 
Tbelassar, 12 
Tbelpusa, 476 
Tbemiscyra, 160 
Tbenas, 303 
Tbeodosia, 683 
Theodosiopolis, 224 
Tbeon Ocbema, 311 
Tceopompus, 45 
Tbera, I., 478 
Therapn£e, 458 
Therasia, I., 478 
Tberma, 344 
Therrafe, 602 
Thermaicus, Sin., ?r 
Tbermodon, FL, i5>^. 
Thermopyla?, 358 



INDEX. 



701 



THERMUM. 

Thermiim, 38^ 

Thespia?, 402 
Thesprotia, 370 
Thessali, j6i 
Thessalia, 355 ff- 
Thessali Otis, 362 
Thessaloiiica, 344 
Tbeu-prosopon, Pr., 
168 

Theveste, 307 
T hinge, 251 
Tliirmida, 307 
This, 277 
Tiiisbe, 403 
Thmuis, 270 
Tiioncus, 420 
Thornax, 455 
Thospitis, L., 223 
Thracia, 324 ff. 
Thracius Bosporus, 

Thriasius Campus, 407 
Thronium, 395 
Tbryoessa 448 
Thule, Discoveiy of, 
44 

Tbule, I., 659 
Thuria, 451 
Thurii, 582 
Thyamis, FL, 370 
Thj'atira, no 
TLymbres, FL, 147 
Thymbrius, FL, 93 
Th^^miaterium, 310 
Thymnias, Sin., 115 
Thynl, 15 j 
Thynias, Pr., 326 
Tbyrea, 469 
Tbyreum, 378 
Thyrsus, FL, 607 
Tbj'sdrus, 303 
Tbyssaget*, 35 
Tiarantus, FL, 32 
Tiasa, FL, 456 
Tibareni, 159 
Tiberias, 107 
Tiberias Mare, 180 
Tiberis, FL, 307, 488 
Tibiscum, 681 
Tibiscus, FL, 679 
Fibula, 608 
Tibur, 554 
Ticlnum, 499 
Ti( luus, FL, 496 
Tides, 65 
Tierna, 681 
Tifata, :N[s., 564 
Tifernus, FL, 525 
Tifernus, 31s,, 523 
Tlgranocerta, 224 
Tigris, FL, -75 
Tigurmus Pagus, 643 
Tilavemptus, FL, 495 
Tilpbossium, Ms., 397 
Timaius, 46 
Timavus, FL, 493 
Timostbencs, 46 
Tingis, 3 10 

AXC. GEOG. 



TROGLODYTE. 

Tinia,_FL, 514 

Tiparenus, I., 468 

Tipbsab, 10 

Tiryns, 466 

Tirzab, 194 

Titaiie, 437 

Titaresius, FL, 360 

Titborea, 394 

Ties, 128 

Tmolus, Ms., 104 

Tobius, FL, 649 

Toesobis, FL, 649 

Tolenus, FL, 519 

Toletum, 625 

Tolistoboii, 151 

Tolosa, 635 

Tomarus, Ms,, 371 

Tomeus, Ms., 449 

Tomi, 679 
I Tonzus, FL, 327 
! Tornadotus, FL, 217 

■ Toronalcus, Sin., 338 
: Tracbis, 365 

i Tracbonitis, 202 
Tragurium, 675 
Trajana Via, 576 
Trajanopolis, 333 
Tralles, 121 

■ Trapezus, 159 
Trasimenus, L., 506 
Trebia, FL, 486 
Trerus, FL, 532 

'[ Tretum, Pr., 305 
^ Tretus, 439 
Treviri, 643 
Tril)actra, 246 
Triballi, 34, 678 
Tribocci, 643" 
Tricaranon, Ms., 438 
Tricca, 362 
Tricbonis, L., 382 
Tricorytbus, 419 
Tricrana, I., 468 
Tridentini, 669 
Tridentum, 669 
Trieron, Pr., 295 
Trileucura, Pr., 611 
' Trinicria, 589 
I Trinius, ¥[., 525 
i Trinobantes, 651 
Triopium, Pr., 115 
Tripbylia, 443 
Tripolis, 169 
Tripolitana, 297 
Triquetra, 589 
Trisauton, FL, 649 
Tritjea, 395, 442 
Triton, FL, 296 
Triton, L., 291 
Tritouitis, L., 296 
Trivicum, 527 
Troas, 94 
Troas, Town, 98 
i Trocimi, 151 
I Troezen, 467 
I Trogilium, Pr., 105 
i Trogitis, L., 87 
Troglodyta?, 39, 285 



TAGA. 

Troicus, Ms., 264 
Troja, 96 
Tropics, 61 
Truentum, 519 
Truentus, FL, 517 
Tugesis, JE-ii., 659 
Tubantes, 665 
Tubusuptus, 309 
Tuder, 514 
Tuerobis, FL, 649 
Tugeni, 64 3 
Tulhim, 644 
Tunes, J04 
Tuola, FL, 608 
Turdetani, 613, 617 
Turduli. 613, 617 
Tiu-ia, FL, 618 
Turris Lapidea, 80 
Turris Libyssonis, 608 
Turrus, FL, 495 
Tusca, FL, 305 
Tusci, 506 
Tuscillum, 556 
Tyana, 142 
Tylus. I., 174 
Tyniphe, Ms., 350 
Tympbrestus, Ms., J51 
Tyndaris, Pr., 604 
Tyndis, FL, 250 
Typajus, Ms., 446 
Tyras, FL, 321 
Tyre, 11 

Tyrrbenia, 34, 484 
Tyrrbenum Mare, 315 
Tyrus, 169 
Tysia, FL, 679 



U. 

Ubii, 643 
Ubus, FL, 305 
Ufens, FL, 532 
Ulysses, AVanderings 

of, 21 
Umbria, 513 
Uml)ro, FL, 506 
Unelli, 640 
Ur, II 

Urbs Salvia, 518 
Urlanum, 516 
Uriconium, 654 
Uria, 579 
Urso, 610 
Usargala, Ms., 310 
Usipetes, 643, 664 
Ussadium, Pr., 308 
Utica, 304 
Uzal, 8 



V. 

Yacca, 304 
Vacca?i, 624 
Yacua, FL, 617 
Yada Sabbata, 503 
Yadimonis Lacus, 505 
Yaga, 304 



yiNDOBOXA. 

Yagienni, 502 

Yabalis, FL, 642 

Yalentia, 620 

Yaleria Yia, 522 

Yalium Ptomanum, 
656 

Yandali, 663 

Yandura, 659 

Yangiones, 64 j 

Yarar, .Est., 659 

Yardiili, 622 

Yariui, 663 

Yarus, FL, 483 

Ya sates, 631 
i Yascones, 621 
: Yasconum Saltus, 610 
j Yaticanus, ]Ms., 534 
! Yectis, L, 658 

Yedra, FL, 649 

Yeii, 510 

Yeldideiia, 668 

Yelia, 582 

Yelinus, FL, 519 

Yelitr^e, 558 

Yellebori, 660 

Yelpi, Mts., 291 
: Yeneda?, 682 

Yenedicus Sin., 317 

Yeneris, Pr., 6io 

Yenetaj Alpes, 486 

Yeneti, 639 

Yenetia, 492 

Yenetica?, 1., 641 

Yenicontes, 659 

Yennicnii, 660 

Yenonaj, 655 

Yenta Belgarum, 655 

Yenta Icenorum, 654 

Yenta Siliirum, 654 

Yenusia,.575 

Yera, 239 

Yerbanus, L., 489 
I Yerbigenus Pagus, 642 
I Yercellffi, 499 

Yerona, 494 

Yerubiuni, Pr., 659 

Yerulamium, 653 

Yesontio, 644 

Yestini, 522 

Yesiilus, Ms., 486 

Yesunna, 632 

Yesuvius, Ms,, 563 

Yettones, 617 

Yetuloniura, 511 

Yiadus, FL, 662 

Yibo, 537 

Yibonensis, Sin., 487 
Yicetia, 495 
Yictoria, 659 
Yienna, 657 
Yiminacium, 678 
Yiniinalis, 3Is., 534 
Yindelicia, 667 
Yujdius, Ms. (His- 

pan.), 610 
Yindius, Ms., (Ind.), 

250 

Yindobona, 672 

2 I 



702 



INDEX. 



VINDONISSA, 

Yindonissa, 644 
ViriLiiiim, 670 
Vistula, Fi., 321 
Yisurgis, Fl., 662 
Vogesus, INIs., 629 
Yocontii, 634 
Volaterra?, 508 
Yolca?, 624 
Yolcanic agency, 66 
Yolci, 511 

Yolceiiim, or Yolcen- 

tum, 583 
Yolsas, Sin., 659 
Yolsci, 53 J 
Yolsinii, 509 
Yolubilis, iio 
Yulcania?, L, 605 
Yultur, Ms., 574 
Yulturnum, 570 
Yulturnus, Fl., 489 



w. 

Y^ater, 6j 
Ylnds, 65 

X. 

Xantbns, 26 
Xantliiis, FL (Lye), 
127 

Xanthus, Fl. (Mys.), 
9J 

Xantbns, Town, 128 
Xenuphanes, 25, 60 
Xenopbon, 39 
Xenopbon of Lampsa- 

ciis, 46 
Xion, Yl., 311 
Xois, 271 
Xyuite, 367 



Zabatn^, Fl., 217 

Zacynibus, I., 581 

Zadracarta, 244 

Zagrns, Ms., 7; 

Zalecus, Fl., 156 
1 Zama, J04 
. ZaraetbuSj Ms., 17J 
j Zancle, 59? 
: Zaranga^, 24? 
j Zarax^Ms., 4,4 
I Zarias]iis, 245 

Zariaspa, Fl., 245 
I Zaueces, 299 
I Zebulou. 197 

Zeitba, Pr., 295 

Zela, 160 

Zepliyrium, Pr. (Car.), 
115 



Zepbyrium, Pr. (Ci- 

lic), 132 
Zi pbyrium, ]'r. (Cy- 

ren.), 291 
Zepbyrium, Pr. (Pont.), 

Zepbvrium, Pr. (I tab), 

487 
Zerbis, 217 
Zeugitana Regio, 303 
Zeugma, 166 
Zilia, 310 
Zingis, Pr., 284 
Zion, 190 
Zoan, 7 
Zoar. 202 
Zobab, 10 
Zones, 6r 
Zoster, Pr., 407 
Zucbis, 298 



EERATA. 



Page 


Line 


For 


Bead 


24 


25 


" 700" 


650. 


41 


16 


*' Onescritus " 


Ouesicritus. 


1<Q 


22 


" Aceiines " 


Acesines. 


105 


4 


"Trogylium" 


Trogilium. 


147 


. . 19 & 21 


" A.nana" 


Anaua. 


150 


11 


" Synaus " 


Synnaus. 


250 


34 


" Corura " 


Carura. 


284 


28 


" Zingus " 


Zingis. 


287 


49 .. 


Al ter Primis dele tbe 


comma. 


352 


36 


"Aciitas" 


Acritas. 


353 


38 


much " 


sucb. 


384 


24 


"in" 


on. 


487 


31 


"Gargani"' 


Gargani. 


496 


26 


"Sesites" 


Sessites. 


517 


]0 


" Trnentius " 


Truen tus. 



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